Accepted Manuscript

The Relationships between Teachers’ Emotional Labor and Their Burnout and
Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review

Hongbiao Yin, Shenghua Huang, Gaowei Chen

PII: S1747-938X(18)30245-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100283
Article Number: 100283
Reference: EDUREV 100283

To appear in: Educational Research Review

Received Date: 14 May 2018

Revised Date: 5 June 2019
Accepted Date: 10 June 2019

Please cite this article as: Yin, H., Huang, S., Chen, G., The Relationships between Teachers’ Emotional
Labor and Their Burnout and Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review, Educational Research Review,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.100283.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

The Relationships between Teachers’ Emotional Labor and Their Burnout and

Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review

Hongbiao Yin a, Shenghua Huang a*, Gaowei Chen b

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a Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Faculty of Education, Chinese

University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China

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Email: yinhb@cuhk.edu.hk (Hongbiao Yin)

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huang@link.cuhk.edu.hk (Shenghua Huang)

b Division of Learning, Development and Diversity, University of Hong Kong, Hong

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Kong SAR, China
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Email: gwchen@hku.hk
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Corresponding author:
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Shenghua Huang
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R606, CKB Bldg,

Department of Curriculum and Instruction,

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Faculty of Education,

Chinese University of Hong Kong,

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Sha Tin, N.T., Hong Kong SAR, China

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Tel: +852 3943 1213

Email: huang@link.cuhk.edu.hk
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The Relationships between Teachers’ Emotional Labor and Their Burnout and

Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review

Abstract

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Teaching is an emotional endeavor. Unlike mass service employees, teachers enjoy

considerable autonomy in their teaching and maintain relatively stable relationships with students,

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parents, and colleagues. This study is a meta-analytic review of the associations between teachers’

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emotional labor strategies (i.e., surface acting, deep acting, and the expression of naturally felt

emotions) and other relevant constructs. The meta-analysis is based on 85 empirical articles and 86

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independent samples, with the experiences of 33,248 teachers represented in the articles reviewed.
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The meta-correlations are generally in the expected direction. Surface acting is positively related to

the individual and interpersonal components of burnout and negatively related to teaching
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satisfaction. Deep acting is not significantly related to the individual or interpersonal components of
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burnout, but positively related to teaching satisfaction and the efficacy component of burnout. The
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expression of naturally felt emotions is negatively related to teachers’ burnout and reduced teaching

satisfaction. The moderation analysis of relevant correlates also provides some insights about the
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research development.

Key words: emotional labor, teacher, burnout, satisfaction, meta-analysis

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1 Introduction

Nowadays, teachers assume increasing responsibilities for not only students’ academic

results, but also their mental health and social emotional learning (Corcoran, Cheung, Kim, and Xie,

2018; Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss, 2005). Therefore, teachers are highly expected to fulfill not only

the tasks of teaching but also those of caring (O’Connor, 2008; Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006).
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Over the past two decades, the emotional aspects of teaching have received wide attention in

educational research. As suggested by Authors (2012), teachers’ emotional job demands—in their

interactions with students, parents and colleagues—require them to make great effort to ensure

proper emotional expressions in the workplace (Schutz & Lanehart, 2002; Bakker & Demerouti,

2007). Teachers’ emotional labor is thus important in itself. For teachers, it sometimes takes a great

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amount of effort to manage undesired emotions during teaching, while at the same time, caring for

students has been found to make teaching rewarding and exciting (Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006).

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Hochschild (1983) first defined emotional labor as “the management of feeling to create a

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publicly observable facial and bodily display” and suggested that “emotional labor is sold for a

wage and therefore has exchange value’’ (Hochschild, 1983, p.7). Brotheridge and Grandey’s (2002)

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suggested that there are two perspectives of emotional labor, namely, a job-focused approach which
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concerns more about work demands regarding emotion expression and an employee-focused

approach which focuses more on the regulation of feelings and emotional expression. Therefore,
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emotional labor can be examined both at the work or organizational level and the individual level.

In contrast, emotion regulation is a broadly used term which focuses on the regulation of feelings
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and emotional expressions by individuals. At the individual level, the core of emotional labor is
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individuals’ emotion regulation (Grandey, 2000). It is important to acknowledge the exchange value
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of emotional labor and the display rules or work demands of various occupations. Meanwhile,

emotional labor at the individual level should be analyzed as specific types of emotion regulation,
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where effortful emotional labor strategies (ELSs) such as surface acting and deep acting are used to
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regulate feelings and emotional expressions (Grandey, 2000). Specifically, surface acting involves

faking unfelt emotions or hiding inner feelings, while deep acting involves modifying or changing

the truly felt emotions into more desirable ones via reappraisal or attention deployment (Hochschild,

1983). Nevertheless, some researchers proposed a third type of ELSs, the expression of naturally

felt emotions (Brotheridge & Lee, 2002; Diefendorff, Croyle, & Gosserand, 2005; Diefendorff &

Gosserand, 2003). The expression of naturally felt emotion is characterized as automatic emotion

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regulation, which denotes the way individuals spontaneously display the emotions required by the

organization (Zapf, 2002).

While there are numerous occupations that involve interpersonal interactions and thus

require employees to perform some form of emotional labor, the amount and nature of emotional

job demands that employees face vary across occupations. For example, Holman (2003) identified

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two types of service interactions: mass service and high commitment service. Mass service

interactions are characterized by standardized service during short-term, one-off encounters

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between customers and employees with a low added value. High commitment service interactions,

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by contrast, are characterized by long-term, customized service with a high added value, during

which relatively stable relationships are established between customers and employees. Unlike mass

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service employees, teachers enjoy considerable autonomy in their teaching and build relatively
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stable relationships with students, parents, and colleagues. Emotional labor in an academic context

could be defined as “service with authority” (Tunguz, 2016). With a relatively higher power
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position, teachers have more autonomy to express naturally felt emotions than traditional service

employees (Authors, 2019; Hargreaves, 2000).

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While the relationships between organizational and individual antecedents (e.g., emotional
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job demands) and teachers’ well-being outcomes (e.g., burnout and teaching satisfaction) are
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generally mediated by the ELSs they adopt, the magnitudes and even directions of the relationships

between ELSs and their antecedent and consequential constructs varied across studies. For example,
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while most studies indicated that emotional job demands are stressful and related to emotional
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exhaustion and job dissatisfaction (Näring, Briët, & Brouwers, 2006), other studies found positive

relationship between emotional job demand and teacher efficacy, highlighting the bright or

rewarding sides of emotional job demands (Authors, 2017).

With numerous and sometimes inconsistent results of teachers’ emotional labor, meta-

analytic reviews of these relationships are needed to synthesize findings and provide more robust

evidence. Previous meta-analytic reviews of emotional labor have suffered from a limited number

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of quantitative studies or from a lack of distinction among the effects on different occupations (e.g.,

Bono & Vey, 2005; Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). The theoretical frameworks for these quantitative

summaries are also vague and general. Considering the unique characteristics of teachers’

emotional labor and the availability of broad empirical results based on teacher samples, we

conduct a meta-analysis to estimate associations between teachers’ ELSs and their antecedents and

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consequences.

2 Literature Review

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2.1 The job demands-control-support model and Grandey’s integrative model of

emotional labor

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Workplace strain and well-being are often explained via the job demands-control-support
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(JDCS) model proposed by Karasek and Theorell (1990). According to Karasek and Theorell

(1990), job demands, job control/autonomy, and social support are important job characteristics and
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should be taken into account when studying employee strain and well-being. Job demands are the
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task requirements in the work setting, such as time pressures and emotional demands; job control
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refers to the decision latitudes granted to and relevant work skills possessed by employees; and

social support describes the material and psychological resources that workers receive from their
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coworkers and supervisors. High job demands combined with limited job control are stressful and

negatively predictive of employee well-being, while low job demands and high job control are also
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detrimental to employees’ personal development and organizational performance (Karasek, 1979).

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Job control also describes how well workers can regulate their work independently, and social

support can be perceived as an external compensation to limited job control (Heckhausen, Wrosch,

& Schulz, 2010). Thus, a combination of high job demands, low job control, and a lack of social

support results in the least desirable outcomes in terms of worker well-being (Bakker & Demerouti,

2007; Karasek & Theorell, 1990).

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Nevertheless, the JDCS model is not well equipped to capture the dynamics of emotional

labor. For this, other theoretical models are needed. Grandey’s (2000) integrative model of

emotional labor summarizes existing research in the field. Inspired by Gross’s (1998) emotion

regulation theory, Grandey (2000) defines emotional labor as an emotion regulation process, during

which surface acting (i.e., to modify expressions) and deep acting (i.e., to modify feelings) can be

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adopted. Grandey’s (2000) framework contributes to the understanding of emotional labor and its

relevant constructs. First, the initiation of emotional labor is closely related to situational cues, such

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as general interaction expectations and real-time emotion events; second, effortful emotional labor

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may result in long-term consequences, in terms of both individual (e.g., burnout or job satisfaction)

and organizational (e.g., performance or work-avoidance behavior) well-being; and finally,

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individual characteristics (e.g., gender, affectivity, emotional expressivity, and emotional
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intelligence) and organizational factors (i.e., autonomy and supervisor and coworker supports) may

affect the use of emotional labor strategies.

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By revisiting Grandey’s conceptual framework in light of Karasek and Theorell’s (1990)

JDCS model, one can conclude that along with individual factors, job demands (situational cues),
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job control (autonomy), and social support (supervisor and coworker supports) work together to
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affect the use of emotional labor strategies and its consequences. Based on the available literature,
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the present meta-analytic review follows Grandey’s (2000) framework to clarify associations

between teachers’ emotional labor, its potential organizational and individual antecedents, and its
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consequences for teacher well-being (see Figure 1).

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Insert Figure 1 here

2.2 Teachers’ Emotional Labor Strategies

Among the three emotional labor strategies, surface acting (or suppression) and deep acting

(or reappraisal) are thus both related to conscious emotional efforts, even if they are different in

terms of timing. The expression of naturally felt emotions, the third type of emotional labor

strategies, by contrast, is a less effortful strategy but is also widely investigated (Brotheridge & Lee,
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2002; Diefendorff et al., 2005). In educational contexts, it is common for a teacher to spontaneously

display care and love towards their students. It is also acceptable for teachers to naturally express

their anger or sadness in order to fulfill their teaching goals (Authors, 2013). As a teacher said, “I

directly told them I felt so bad. Let your students know your feeling. It is very important. They can

understand you … It is useful, indeed” (Author, 2016, p. 15).

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A number of validated versions of ELS scales have been adopted across the literature (e.g.

Author, 2012; Cukur, 2009; Diefendorff et al., 2005), but most are based on or related to

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Brotheridge and Lee’s (2003) emotional labor scale (Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). Regardless of

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how such strategies are conceptualized, it is apparent that they relate to their antecedents

(organizational and individual) and outcomes (teachers’ well-being) differently. The expression of

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naturally felt emotions is seen as the most desirable, while deep acting is still more adaptive than
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surface acting in terms of outcomes (Authors, 2016a, 2017). The following sections include a

review of studies of teachers’ emotional labor; its organizational and individual antecedents,
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including EI, job demands, autonomy, and social support; and the outcome indicators of burnout

and teaching satisfaction.

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2.3 The antecedents

2.3.1 Emotional intelligence (EI)

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Emotional intelligence (EI) has been defined as “the subset of social intelligence that
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involves the ability to monitor one’s own and other’s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among
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them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions” (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p.

189). Individuals with high EI are proficient in encoding and decoding emotions and are better able

to monitor, regulate, and utilize their own emotions and those of others (Authors, 2013; Grandey,

2000; Joseph & Newman, 2010; Wong & Law, 2002). Studies have provided evidence for

associations between teacher EI and job-related stress and burnout (Authors, 2013). For example,

teachers with higher EI reported higher teaching satisfaction and less burnout, which means that

they experienced less emotional exhaustion, had lower levels of depersonalization, and a greater
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sense of personal accomplishment (Ju, Lan, Li, Feng, & You, 2015; Platsidou, 2010; Sarraf,

Talepasand, Rahimianboogar, Mohammadifar, & Najafi, 2017).

Among various measures of EI, the Wong and Law (2002) EI Scale (WLEIS) and Bar-On’s

(2000) Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-I) are the most widely adopted for research on teaching

and teachers. The WLEIS conceptualizes EI as a set of abilities (ability model) that can be broken

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down into four components: (a) the appraisal and expression of emotion in the self; (b) appraisal

and recognition of emotion in others; (c) regulation of emotions in the self; and (d) the use of

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emotion to facilitate performance (Wong & Law, 2002, p. 246). Because the four facets of WLEIS

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are closely related to each another, as revealed in some previous studies (e.g., Author, 2015;

Authors, 2013; Wong & Law, 2002), the present study also integrates the four facets of WLEIS and

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calculates an overall EI score for the sake of parsimony. By contrast, the single-dimension EQ-I
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defines EI as a combination of non-cognitive traits and abilities (mixed model), which enable

individuals to cope with external demands and stressors more successfully (Bar-On, 1997; Joseph &
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Newman, 2010). However, the EQ-I based on mixed model has been criticized for a lack of

scientific rigor (Joseph & Newman, 2010).

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Teacher EI reflects teachers’ abilities to understand emotions in others and in themselves,

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and to regulate their emotions according to situational cues (Authors, 2013; Grandey, 2000). Studies
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have generally treated EI as a moderator that can affect the relationship between emotional job

demands and employees emotional labor (Authors, 2013; Karim & Weisz, 2011). In the context of
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teaching and teacher research, most researchers have found positive relationships between EI and
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deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions, and negative relationships between EI and

surface acting (Authors, 2013; Karim & Weisz, 2011; Lee & Chelladurai, 2016; Sarraf et al., 2017),

but there is also evidence that suggests otherwise. For example, two studies found no significant

relationships between EI and surface acting (Authors, 2013; Karim & Weisz, 2011). Lee and

Chelladurai (2016) found only limited evidence for any correlation between EI sub-dimensions and

both surface acting and deep acting.

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2.3.2 Job demands

For teachers, emotional job demands include the frequency, intensity, variety, and display

rules for interacting with students, parents, and colleagues, and therefore qualify as a core emotional

requirement in teaching (Authors, 2012; Brotheridge & Lee, 2002). By contrast, other aspects of

teaching, such as heavy workload, time pressure, and classroom management tasks, are cognitive or

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physical demands. With limited mental resources, different types of job demands and their

corresponding self-regulatory processes become entangled in a competition for mental resources

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(Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). For example, student misbehavior (negative events) not only

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increases the difficulty of classroom management but also imposes emotional challenges on

teachers (Chang, 2013). By using deep acting or reappraisal strategies, teachers may cognitively

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reappraise student misbehaviors, focus their attention on the bright sides of teacher-student
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interactions, and maintain a relatively positive status. However, when teachers engage in surface

acting or adopt suppression strategies, they may hide their negative emotions and fake positive ones
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(Authors, 2012).

Emotional job demands are situational cues that require teachers to perform emotional labor
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in whatever form, while other types of demands may not involve emotional elements but compete
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for available mental resources, weakening teachers’ ability to efficiently regulate their emotions
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(Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011). Empirically, researchers have generally found emotional job demands

to be positively related to deep acting (or reappraisal) and surface acting (or suppression) (Authors,
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2016a, 2017). However, the evidence for general job demands is limited. Studies have shown
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stronger positive associations between ELSs and emotional job demands compared with general job

demands. Emotional job demands are also less related to the expression of naturally felt emotions

(Authors, 2017). Näring et al. (2006) detected only positive relationships between quantitative job

demands and surface acting, not deep acting, indicating that a heavy workload could interfere with

the adoption of more adaptive strategies.

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2.3.3 Job autonomy

As previously mentioned, high job control/autonomy is relates to greater decision latitudes

and work-related skills. A lack of such autonomy may be caused by extremely strict external

regulations or a lack of corresponding skills and knowledge (Karasek, 1979). Job autonomy is also

an important distinction between mass service and high commitment service occupations (Holman,

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2003). Although different schools may have different administrative policies and leadership styles,

teachers generally have greater authority in their workplace interactions, enjoy considerable job

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autonomy, and maintain relatively stable relationships with students, parents, and colleagues.

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A number of studies have explored relationships between teachers’ job autonomy and well-

being, using burnout dimensions and teaching satisfaction as indicators. Consistent with Karasek

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and Theorell’s (1990) assertions, job autonomy is generally found to be positively related to
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teaching satisfaction but negatively associated with the three dimensions of burnout, that is,

emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment (Brouwers, Tomic,

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& Boluijt, 2011; Cukur, 2009; Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeli, 2006; Näring et al., 2006). According

to our review, the only exception is found in a study conducted among a group of U.K. teachers.
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Using a sample of 166 U.K. secondary school teachers, Griva and Joekes (2003) found job control
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to be related to neither emotional exhaustion nor depersonalization, but they did find a positive
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relationship between job autonomy and a sense of personal accomplishment.

According to Grandey (2000), job control and autonomy are related to emotional labor:
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limited autonomy is a constraint while enough autonomy can facilitate successful emotional
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performances. Higher decision latitudes enable employees to choose suitable strategies, while

strong external restrictions leave employees no choice but to violate display rules or to use

maladaptive strategies. However, compared with the extensive empirical studies of the effects of

autonomy on teacher well-being, only two have investigated the role of autonomy on teachers’

ELSs. Furthermore, contrary to Grandey’s (2000) suggestions, the results of these studies generally

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indicate a lack of significant relationships between job autonomy and ELSs (Cukur, 2009; Näring et

al., 2006).

2.3.4 Social support

Social support has been explored extensively in the workplace well-being literature. Support

received from coworkers and supervisors is widely recognized as a favorable environmental factor,

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predictive of better job performance, less job strain, and fewer health symptoms (Grandey, 2000;

Hakanen et al., 2006; Karasek & Theorell, 1990). Similar to job autonomy, research has shown

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social support to be positively related to teaching satisfaction and negatively related to emotional

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exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (Hakanen et al., 2006;

Kinman, Wray & Strange, 2011; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2011). However, there has also been mixed

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evidence on this subject. One study of a group of U.K. secondary school teachers showed
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significant and positive relationships between principal support and emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization (Brackett, Palomera, Mojsa-Kaja, Reyes, & Salovey, 2010). Other studies have
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likewise suggested that in certain situations, social support combined with one’s wish to express
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gratitude and reciprocation may impose extra demands on the person, thus negatively predicting
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well-being (Authors, 2016b).

Social support is also thought to be closely related to emotional labor. Social support is
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meant to provide an encouraging, cheerful environment and a basis for collaborative efforts: the

former reduces the gap between inner feelings and desirable emotional expressions, while the latter
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should reduce the personal effort needed to eliminate gaps between the two (Authors, 2016b;
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Grandey, 2000). Social support has generally been found to be negatively related to teachers’

surface acting. However, the results for deep acting are mixed, revealing negative, positive, and

non-significant relationships between deep acting and social support (Mittal & Chhabra, 2011;

Näring et al., 2006; Tuxford & Bradley, 2015). The only study of the relationship between social

support and the expression of naturally felt emotions found no significant results (Näring et al.,

2006).
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2.4 The consequences

The relationship between ELSs and teacher well-being has been the focus of much research

(Authors, 2016a, 2017; Näring, Vlerick, & Van de Ven, 2012; Zhang & Zhu, 2008). Studies have

taken burnout dimensions and teaching satisfaction as important indicators of well-being (Maslach

& Jackson, 1986). In the following sections, we discuss the distinctive characteristics of each

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indicator of well-being and review the extant empirical results.

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2.4.1 Burnout

The three widely explored burnout dimensions are emotional exhaustion, depersonalization,

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and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Each reflects the overall level of

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burnout from a specific aspect. The Maslach burnout inventory (MBI) is widely used to measure
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participants’ burnout (Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Although versions of the MBI have been adapted

for different occupations and study contexts, differences across the versions are not salient. Finally,
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although it is a common practice for researchers to use the overall score of a construct regardless of

its dimensions, scholars have cautioned against adopting this practice to calculate an overall burnout
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score as each dimension’s characteristics are distinct (Kim, 2016).

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Emotional exhaustion refers to feelings of fatigue after using up one’s emotional resources.

It is generally considered as the core dimension among the three and denotes the individual stress
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component of burnout (Kim, 2016; Maslach & Jackson, 1986). Employees may experience
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emotional exhaustion when faced with extensive energy depletion and limited sources of
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replenishment (Grandey, 2000; Kim, 2016). In general, emotional exhaustion is believed to be a

long-term result of emotion-intensive interpersonal interactions and further contributes to

employees’ energy conservation and disengagement from their work (Maslach & Jackson, 1986).

Depersonalization describes the interpersonal component of burnout and refers to employees’

extensively detached attitude toward others (Kim, 2016). Depersonalization emerges when

employees feel frustrated and want to protect themselves from any emotion-intensive interactions

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(Kim, 2016), and can thus be regarded as a means of coping with feelings of fatigue (Grandey,

2000).

Reduced personal accomplishment is the self-efficacy component of burnout and is related

to one’s negative evaluations of his or her competence and the value of the job (Grandey, 2000;

Kim, 2016). Different from emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, reduced personal

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accomplishment has sometimes been conceptualized or measured in a positive manner; a low score

on personal accomplishment indicates reduced personal accomplishment and high burnout. To

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maintain consistency across the studies in the present review, any positively defined personal

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accomplishment has been recoded as negative (reduced personal accomplishment).

Additionally, teacher efficacy, a widely explored construct in educational research, is

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closely related to personal accomplishment. Teacher efficacy is an important occupational well-
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being indicator and reflects a teacher’s positive attitude toward his or her own teaching skills and

competence and his/her self-confidence in fulfilling teaching-related tasks. A high score on teacher
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efficacy also indicates high self-reported teaching effectiveness (Authors, 2017; Tschannen-Moran

& Hoy, 2001). However, while teacher efficacy and personal accomplishment are similar constructs,
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teacher efficacy is typically measured by Tschannen-Moran and Hoy’s (2001) Ohio State Teacher
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Efficacy Scale (OSTES); personal accomplishment, by contrast, is most often measured by the MBI
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(Maslach & Jackson, 1986). The scope of personal accomplishment is broader than teacher efficacy,

but the OSTES involves more detailed measures of teaching. By recoding teacher efficacy into
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reduced teacher efficacy, this meta-analytic review synthesizes the results of both reduced personal
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accomplishment and reduced teacher efficacy (hereinafter referred to as reduced

accomplishment/efficacy) and explores whether conceptualizations or measures of these two

constructs moderate the relationships between ELSs and reduced accomplishment/efficacy.

2.4.2 Teaching satisfaction

Teaching satisfaction relates to one’s self-evaluation and conclusions about his or her job

and its related aspects and reflects teachers’ sense of fulfilment and gratification during teaching
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(Grandey, 2000; Landy, 1989). Unlike the dimensions of burnout, teaching satisfaction is a

comprehensive construct that describe a teacher’s feeling toward his or her job after considering

salary, promotion opportunities, and long-term career plans, in addition to workplace stressors and

supports. As such, the relationship between emotional labor and teaching satisfaction should be

considered in the wider occupational context (Kinman et al., 2011).

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Among the four indicators of teacher well-being, emotional exhaustion has been the most

widely explored outcome of emotional labor. Emotional exhaustion is thought to be a result of

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extensive surface acting, which is extremely demanding of emotional resources but offers only

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limited rewards (Authors, 2017; Näring et al., 2006; Zhang & Zhu, 2008). By contrast, the

expression of naturally felt emotions is the least likely to lead to emotional exhaustion. Researchers

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have even found negative relationships between the expression of naturally felt emotions and
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emotional exhaustion (Kim, 2016; Zhang & Zhu, 2008). The relationship between deep acting and

emotional exhaustion is more complex, as the deep acting process combines resource depletion,
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positive emotional experiences, and rewarding feedback (Authors, 2016). Researchers have found

only weak relationships (both negative and positive) between deep acting and emotional exhaustion
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(e.g., Chang, 2013; Cukur, 2009; Kim, 2016; Lee & Chelladurai, 2016).
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Depersonalization is an exacerbation of emotional exhaustion, where an individual feels so

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stressed that he or she is unable to cope with it on him/her own and tries to protect the self by

detaching from others (Grandey, 2000). Empirically, the relationships between emotional labor and
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depersonalization and between emotional labor and emotional exhaustion are quite similar (Kim,
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2016; Näring et al., 2006; Zhang & Zhu, 2008). However, the third dimension, reduced

accomplishment/efficacy, is distinct from the other two and reflects how individuals feel about their

own competence and the value of their work. Generally, surface acting is believed to be related to

negative self-evaluations, while deep acting relates to a sense of accomplishment and self-

realization (Authors, 2016a, 2016b). For teachers, researchers have found negative relationships

between reduced accomplishment/efficacy and both deep acting and the expression of naturally felt

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emotions. However, the relationship between reduced accomplishment/efficacy and surface acting

has yielded mixed findings (Fu, 2015; Tuxford & Bradley, 2015; Zhang & Zhu, 2008).

Results for teaching satisfaction are similar to that of reduced accomplishment/efficacy

(Author, 2015; Sarraf et al., 2017; Zhang & Zhu, 2008). The use of emotional labor strategies could

be positively related to teaching satisfaction, possibly because of the rewarding and positive

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feedback received from students and parents. However, it can also be negatively related to teaching

satisfaction because of the extra amount of effort required (Grandey, 2000; Isenbarger & Zembylas,

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2006).

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2.5 The moderators

The main goal of this study is to synthesize findings and investigate relationships between

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teachers’ ELSs and the relevant constructs (see Figure 1). Nevertheless, some important moderators
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are also identified and tested in this review.
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Typically, meta-analyses treat article-specific factors (e.g., publication year, publication

status, and measurement used) as moderators that may influence the results (Hunter & Schmidt,
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2004; Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). Because the emotional aspects of teaching have received increasing
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attention from scholars and practitioners, frontline teachers’ understanding of emotional labor and

its effects are also developing (Lipsey & Wilson, 2001). Thus, the findings may also be affected by
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changes in the sociocultural environment over time. In addition, published literature may have a

bias toward statistically significant results compared to unpublished literature (Lipsey & Wilson,
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2001). Moreover, two constructs reviewed in current study have been measured using different

instruments within the literature. EI is typically measured by either the WLEIS or the EQ-I, and

reduced accomplishment/efficacy has been measured as a dimension of burnout (the MBI, Maslach

& Jackson, 1986) or as reduced teacher efficacy (the OSTES, Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001).

Therefore, the moderating effects of year of publication, publication status, and two sets of

measurements are tested in current study.

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The relationships between teachers’ ELSs and the relevant constructs discussed above are

also likely to be influenced by a host of participant-specific moderators, such as school grade level,

gender, age, and years of experience (Antoniou, Polychroni, & Vlachakis, 2006; Hargreaves, 2000;

You, Huang, Wang, & Bao, 2015). Generally, female and primary school teachers are thought to be

better at maintaining close and positive relationships with their students (Hargreaves, 2000). Female

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teachers also tend to suffer more from job strain and burnout (Antoniou et al., 2006). Similarly,

teaching efficacy and satisfaction generally increase with age and experience (Tschannen-Moran &

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Hoy, 2001). Since age and years of experience tend to be highly correlated, the moderating effects

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of school grade level, percentage of female teachers in the sample, average age of participants are

tested in current study.

3 Method
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3.1 Literature Search
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Several strategies have been used to identity relevant studies. First, an extensive search was
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conducted using psychological and educational databases (e.g., ProQuest, PsycArticles, PsycINFO,
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EBSCOhost, JSTOR, ERIC) and an academic search engine (Google Scholar). The search terms

included different combinations of teach*, education*, academ*, school, emotion*, emotional labor,
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emotion regulat*, surface acting, deep acting, natural*, automat*, reapprais*, suppress*, burnout,

emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment, satisf*, well-being, effic*,

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demand*, autonom*, control, latitude, support*, JDCS, Emotional intelligen*, and emotional
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quotient. Second, we searched the tables of contents of several key journals: Journal of Applied

Psychology, Psychology and Health, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Journal of Organizational

Health Psychology, Educational Psychology, Teaching and Teacher Education, and Journal of

School Psychology. We searched relevant studies published since 2000 because most quantitative

studies of emotional labor were published after 2000. Third, we skimmed through the references of

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several reviews and major studies to identify potential omissions (e.g., Alarcon, 2011; Hülsheger &

Schewe, 2011).

Intensive effort has been made to obtain both published and unpublished articles. The

unpublished articles are mainly master’s theses and doctoral dissertations retrieved from ProQuest

database. Both published and unpublished data are included to avoid publication bias or the “file

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draw problem” (i.e., published literature may have a bias toward statistically significant results)

(Lipsey & Wilson, 2001).

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3.2 Inclusion criteria

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The inclusion criteria for the meta-analytic review were as follows.

(a) The studies had to be quantitative studies written in English. Reviews, conceptual

U
articles, and other qualitative studies and studies written in any language other than English were
AN
excluded (e.g., Alarcon, 2011; Authors, 2012; Grandey, 2000; Hülsheger & Schewe, 2011).
M

(b) The studies had to have been conducted in a school setting and used pure samples of

school teachers. Studies conducted in non-academic contexts or that used mixed samples of teachers
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and employees in other occupations were excluded (e.g., Authors, 2016; Jia, 2013). Studies with a
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pure sample of school principals, school psychologists, or administrative staffs were also excluded

(e.g., Maxwell & Riley, 2017).

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(c) The studies had to be relevant and have reported at least one zero-order effect size

(correlation coefficient) between constructs of concern (e.g., demands-burnout dimensions, EI-

C
AC

ELSs, ELSs-teaching satisfaction). To ensure the comparability across studies, we excluded studies

conceptualizing emotional labor otherwise (for example, focusing on the frequency or intensity of

emotional labor rather than emotional labor strategies) or using overall burnout or emotional labor

scores (e.g., Becker, 2015; Jia, 2013). We also excluded irrelevant studies and research using newly

self-developed scales which were not validated by other studies (e.g., Tsai, Chang, & Hsieh, 2016).

Based on the article titles and abstracts, the literature search initially identified 1,958 records,

out of which 257 records were kept after further screening. We excluded 140 of these articles after
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assessing the full texts, and another 32 were excluded during data coding. The final meta-analysis

included 85 articles and 86 independent samples. A PRSIMA flow diagram of the meta-analysis

was presented in Figure 2, providing more details of the data retrieval.

Insert Figure 2 here

3.3 Coding of studies

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The features of each study and its sample(s) were documented, as were reported zero-order

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correlation coefficients (rx1x2) and the relevant information for the corresponding constructs (x1, x2).

Study features included authors, years of study, publication status, and article type/journal title.

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Sample features included teaching grade level(s), sample size (n), average age, average years of

experience, female percentage, and country/region. Relevant information included variable names

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and measurements, Cronbach’s α coefficients (αx1, αx2), means (M), and standards deviations (SD).
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The classification of constructs was based on specific definitions rather than variable names given
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in each study; variables with different names across studies could denote the same construct, and

variables with the same name could denote different constructs. Composite correlations were
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calculated for constructs with multiple ratings, dimensions, and measures in a single study (Hunter
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& Schmidt, 2004).

A total of 55 variable/dimension pairings were obtained by matching each two of the 11

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primary constructs (i.e., demands, autonomy, support, EI, surface acting, deep acting, the

expression of naturally felt emotions, emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced

C
AC

accomplishment/efficacy). Each piece of data was then reclassified into 55 categories of variable

pairings. The numbers of independent samples under each category varied from 1 to 32, with an

average of 12.65. Only one study (Näring et al., 2006) explored the correlation between social

support and the expression of naturally felt emotions, and only two studies (Cukur, 2009; Näring et

al., 2006) examined the relationships between job autonomy/control and ELSs. The results for these

four categories remain in the sample because experts believe two studies are adequate for the

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purposes of a meta-analysis (Valentine, Pigott, & Rothstein, 2010). However, the results should

nevertheless be interpreted with caution.

3.4 Meta-analytic procedure

In general, this meta-analytic review followed the methods prescribed by Hunter and

Schmidt (2004). The majority of analyses were conducted using Stata 14. The random effect model

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was adopted. Random effect model considered both sampling errors and true population variance

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across the studies under review and thus is stricter than the fixed effect model (Lipsey & Wilson,

2001).

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For each pairing of variables, Fishers’ Z transformation was first conducted to transform r

coefficients into Zr transformed correlation coefficients, and the corresponding inverse variance

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weights were equal to n-3. Then, the random-effects meta-analysis was used to estimate the mean
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effect sizes and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for Zr coefficients using inverse variance
M

weight. The results were back-transformed to obtain the mean effect sizes and a 95% confidence

intervals for r coefficients. By correcting for the artifacts (i.e., the measurement error; the combined
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artifact multiplier A=√ αx1*√ αx2), the corrected r coefficients (ρ), the corresponding standard
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deviations (SDρ), the percentages of variance explained by artifacts (%Vart), and 80% credibility

intervals (80% CV) were calculated. The number of independent samples (k) and cumulative
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sample size (N) are reported.

A series of moderation analyses were conducted to explore how moderators could affect
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associations between ELSs and other relevant constructs. Although there was no clear defined

cutoff point in terms of the minimum number of studies needed to make a moderation analysis

meaningful, it was also conducted only when the number of independent samples is greater than 8.

Furthermore, meta-analyses with categorical moderators were used to explore the moderating

effects of measurements, and meta-regressions were adopted to examine the roles of publication

status, year of publication, grade level, average age of participants, and percentage of female

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teachers in the sample. Years of experience were not included in the regression to avoid

multicollinearity. The dependent variable for each regression was the Zr coefficient.

Finally, comparisons between the current study and previous studies were made by using

Fisher’s Z transformation. The corrected r coefficients (ρ) were first transformed into Zr

transformed coefficients. d(Zr) was the difference between the Zr transformed coefficients in the

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current study and that of a previous study. Z-statistics were calculated based on d(Zr) and total

( − )
sample sizes: z =
(1 ( 1 .
− 3) + ( )

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− 3)

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4 Results

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Applying the above criteria resulted in a total of 85 articles and 86 independent samples.
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The years of study ranged from 2000 to 2017. The smallest sample consisted of 30, while the

largest sample had 3,866 participants. In total, 33,248 teachers were included in the samples of
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articles under review. Of the independent samples, 31 of 86 consisted of teachers from multiple

grade levels (mixed samples), 8 consisted of primary school teachers, 34 consisted of secondary
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school teachers, and 8 consisted of post-secondary school teachers. Five articles did not report their
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sample compositions in terms of teachers’ grade levels. Furthermore, 50 articles reported

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participants’ average years of experience, which ranged from 0 to 21.37 years; 51 articles reported

the average age of participants, which ranged from 25.43 to 48.8 years old; and 78 articles reported
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the percentage of female, which ranged from 15.8% to 100%. We conducted the meta-analysis
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based on the independent samples; any redundant information due to multiple publications was

excluded. The main meta-analyses were conducted using the full samples, while meta-analyses with

categorical moderators were only carried out among articles that provided detailed sample

compositions in terms of the categorical moderators (e.g., grade levels, age, and percentage of

female teachers).

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4.1 Meta-correlations between the antecedents, ELSs, and the consequences

The meta-correlations between the antecedents, ELSs, and the consequences are presented

in Table 1-4. The inverse variance weighted average correlation is significant in the predicted

direction, unless its 95% CI include 0. Furthermore, according to Cohen’s (1969) rules of thumb,

interpretations of effect size in the form of correlation coefficient should be small=.10, medium=.25,

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and large=.40.

Insert Table 1 here

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Table 1 presents the meta-correlations between the antecedents and ELSs. EI, the only

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individual characteristic included in the analysis, was found to be positively and significantly

related to both deep acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions (ρ =.38, .43). Of the three

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JDCS factors, emotional job demands were positively and significantly related to surface acting and
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deep acting (ρ =.32, .50); job autonomy was positively related to the expression of naturally felt

emotions but negatively to surface acting (ρ =.19, -.12); and there were no significant correlations
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detected between social support and ELSs.

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Insert Table 2 here

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Table 2 presents the meta-correlations between ELSs and the consequences. Each of the

three emotional labor strategies correlates differently with burnout dimensions and teaching
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satisfaction: the expression of naturally felt emotions was negatively related to all three dimensions

of burnout and positively related to teaching satisfaction (ρ =-.26, -.47, -.41, .34); surface acting was
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negatively related to teaching satisfaction and positively related to emotional exhaustion and
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depersonalization, but not to reduced accomplishment/efficacy (ρ = -.27, .32, .31; ρ =.11, 95% CI=

[-.03, .21]); and deep acting was significantly and positively related to teaching satisfaction and

negatively to reduced accomplishment/efficacy (ρ = .36, -.24).

Insert Table 3 here

Table 3 presents the meta-correlations between the antecedents and consequences. The

findings are quite consistent: job demands were significantly and positively related to all three
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dimensions of burnout and negatively related to teaching satisfaction; meanwhile, job autonomy,

social support, and EI were all significantly and negatively to teaching burnout dimensions and

positively related to teaching satisfaction.

Insert Table 4 here

Table 4 presents the meta-correlations of the antecedents, ELSs, and the consequences

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respectively. Among the four antecedents, job demands were significantly and negatively related to

job autonomy and social support (ρ =-.30, -.36), job autonomy and social support were also

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positively related to each other (ρ = .45), and EI was positively related to job autonomy and social

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support (ρ =.42, .36). Among the three ELSs, surface acting was found to be negatively related to

the expression of naturally felt emotions (ρ =-.28), while deep acting was positively related to both

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surface acting and the expression of naturally felt emotions (ρ = .24, .30). Finally, among the
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consequential constructs, each of the three dimensions of burnout was positively and significantly

related to the other two and negatively related to teaching satisfaction.

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4.2 The results of moderation analysis

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Because moderating effects on the correlations between ELS and other relevant construct
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were the focus of this study and some correlations had not been investigated in a sufficient number

of studies, a total of 14 meta-regressions (see Tables 5 and 6) and 5 meta-analyses with categorical
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moderators were conducted to explore moderating effects. Tables 5 and 6 report how publication

status, year of publication, grade level, age, and percentage of female teachers in a sample affected
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the correlations between ELSs and their consequences and between ELSs and some other constructs,

respectively. Table 7 presents the moderating effects of different measurements.

Insert Table 5 here

Insert Table 6 here

As Tables 5 and 6 show, most of the moderating effects are not significant, except for the

following. Year of publication was found to be a significant moderator of the correlation between

deep acting and teaching satisfaction (β =.24), indicating that stronger positive relationships
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between these have been detected in more recent years. Grade level may influence the correlation

between deep acting and reduced accomplishment/efficacy. Studies with a sample of secondary

school teachers or with mixed samples (e.g., both primary and secondary) reported more favorable

findings than those with a sample of only primary school teachers. The age of participants was a

significant moderator of the correlation between emotional exhaustion and both surface acting and

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deep acting; age slightly and unexpectedly strengthened the positive correlation between emotional

exhaustion and surface acting (β =.02). However, since the meta-correlation between emotional

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exhaustion and deep acting is not significant, the effect of age on the correlation between these is

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difficult to interpret. Finally, percentage of female teachers in the sample was found to moderate the

positive correlation between deep acting and teaching satisfaction (β =.81); the positive correlation

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was stronger in studies with more female samples. No significant moderating effect is found in
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Table 6. The results show that the between-study variances (τ2) are relatively small and the

predictors explained only part of the variation (high I2-res).

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Insert Table 7 here

Table 7 shows that different measurements of reduced accomplishment/efficacy moderated

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correlations between both surface acting and deep acting and reduced accomplishment/efficacy.
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When the MBI was used, there was a significant and positive correlation between surface acting and
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reduced accomplishment/efficacy, but when the OSTES was used, there was no significant

correlation. The negative correlations between deep acting and reduced accomplishment/efficacy
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also varied across measurements, with a stronger relationship when the OSTES was used. EI was
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measured using either the WLTES or the EQ-I. Due to the limited numbers of studies, we were only

able to test the moderating effects on the correlation between EI and teaching satisfaction, and no

significant difference was identified.

4.3 The results of study comparison

Table 8 presents the results of comparisons between the current study, which focused

exclusively on teachers, and previous meta-analytic reviews covering a wide range of occupations.
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A comparison between the current study and Hülsheger and Schewe’s (2011) review showed that

although the meta-correlations’ magnitudes differed significantly, the correlations were in the same

direction—for example, correlations between surface acting and burnout dimensions and

teaching/job satisfaction. In both studies, surface acting had stronger correlations with emotional

exhaustion, depersonalization, and teaching/job satisfaction and weaker correlations with reduced

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accomplishment/efficacy; weak or non-significant correlations between deep acting, emotional

exhaustion, and depersonalization and negative correlations between deep acting and reduced

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accomplishment/efficacy were also found across both studies. In contrast, Hülsheger and Schewe

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(2011) found no significant relationship between deep acting and job satisfaction, while the present

analysis did detect a significant and positive relationship between teachers’ deep acting and

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satisfaction.
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Insert Table 8 here

A comparison of the current study with Alarcon’s (2011) review yielded highly consistent
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results: although some differences in Fisher’s Z transformed coefficients were significant, the

correlations of relevant variables had the same direction and similar strengths across both studies.
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5 Discussion
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In this study, a meta-analytic review was conducted to examine the relationships between

ELSs and their antecedents and consequences. While the main results of the meta-correlations were
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consistent with our theoretical frameworks and hypotheses, some unexpected results deserve further
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discussion. The results of moderation analyses, however, are not discussed, as these only provided

preliminary information about how study characteristics, grade level, participant characteristics, and

measurement different might have influenced the strengths of the relevant correlations. Further

empirical study is needed before meaningful and rigorous interpretations can be given.

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5.1 Relationships between the antecedents and consequences of ELSs

The meta-correlations between the antecedents and consequences of ELSs are generally

consistent with the hypotheses of the JDCS model. The most demanding aspects of teaching lead to

teacher burnout and reduced teaching satisfaction, while job autonomy and supportive environments

correlate positively with teaching satisfaction and less burnout. These results are consistent with

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previous meta-analytic reviews of the relationships between burnout, job demands, and

control/autonomy conducted by Alarcon (2011). Teachers’ higher level of EI is also associated with

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better outcomes. These results corroborate the findings of Martins, Ramalho, and Morin’s (2010)

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meta-analytic review, which used criterion variables of physical, mental, and psychological health

rather than burnout or satisfaction (and as such was excluded in the statistical comparison between

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studies). The correlations within the antecedents and within the consequences were also consistent
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with their conceptualization.
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5.2 Relationships between the antecedents and ELSs

The most unexpected results were in the meta-correlations between the antecedents and
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ELSs. The job demands measured in the sample articles were exclusively emotional job demands
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rather than general job demands, and thus the positive relationships between emotional job demands

and both deep and surface acting were consistent with previous studies. This may indicate that
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emotional job demands are situational cues that remind teachers to perform emotional labor with
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cautious effort. However, limited evidence is available for whether general job demands may
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compete for ego resources and thus prevent teachers from regulating emotions efficiently (Näring et

al., 2006). In addition, few researchers paid due attention to the daily emotional events encountered

by teachers, which, according to Grandey (2000), are also important situational cues for employees’

use of emotional labor strategies.

Autonomy is believed to be a prerequisite for various emotional labor strategies (Grandey,

2000). However, Grandey’s hypotheses were proposed for the service industry context, in which

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employees’ autonomy is not guaranteed. In current review, autonomy does not necessarily push

teachers to use deep acting—that is, to reappraise emotion-eliciting situations differently. For

teachers, who generally enjoy a relatively high level of autonomy and authority, increased

autonomy is related to expressions of inner feelings and to the reduced use of suppression or faking

strategies. In other words, while job autonomy is desirable and important (Grandey, 2000; Karasek

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& Theorell, 1990), it does not guarantee a deep-level, faithful emotional labor process.

Social support was not found to be significantly related to any ELS. This does not

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necessarily indicate that social support is not beneficial to teachers’ emotional labor and well-being.

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However, high social support does not guarantee the use of more adaptive ELSs. One possible

explanation is that social support measures are generally used to examine how teachers support each

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other in terms of teaching tasks and workload. Another explanation may be that social support does
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not predict teachers’ use of ELSs, but rather serves as a moderator and affects the outcomes of those

ELSs (moderating effects).

M

While beneficial external factors (i.e., autonomy and social support) are not closely related

to the use of deep acting, teachers’ high EI is positively related to both deep acting and the
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expression of naturally felt emotions. Consistent with previous findings (Ju et al., 2015; Platsidou,
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2010; Sarraf et al., 2017), high EI was found to be related to not only employees’ adaptive use of
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ELSs, but also their long-term well-being and job satisfaction. Teachers may need more guidance in

terms of how to improve their ability to recognize and understand their own emotions and those of
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others, and to better manage and make use of those emotions (Wong & Law, 2002).
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5.3 Relationships between ELSs and the consequences

The meta-correlations between ELSs and their consequences indicate that surface acting is

detrimental and the expression of naturally felt emotions is beneficial to teacher well-being. No

significant meta-correlations were found between deep acting and emotional exhaustion and

depersonalization; nevertheless, the results revealed a positive relationship between deep acting and

teaching satisfaction, and a negative relationship between deep acting and reduced
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accomplishment/efficacy. By contrast, although surface acting is found to be negatively related to

teaching satisfaction, it is positively related to emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced

accomplishment (when the MBI measurement is adopted). As was elaborated in the literature

review, the three dimensions of burnout denote the individual stress, the interpersonal, and the

efficacy component of workplace strain. Different patterns of meta-correlations between ELSs and

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burnout components and teaching satisfaction may help explain the mixed results in previous

studies, especially the inconsistent effects of deep acting on employees’ well-being. Since the use of

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deep acting may combine the processes of energy loss, positive experiences and rewarding feedback,

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it is not significantly related to exhaustion and depersonalization (i.e., the individual and

interpersonal components). However, the positive feedbacks and a sense of accomplishment (i.e.,

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the efficacy component) which is closely related to deep acting contribute significantly to teachers’
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positive self-evaluations of their work and their personal capacities. The rewarding aspects to

emotional labor should be more closely related to teachers’ professional well-being than to their
M

affective well-being. These findings differ slightly from those reported in Hülsheger and Schewe

(2011), as the positive meta-correlation between deep acting and teaching satisfaction found in the
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current study highlights the potentially rewarding aspects of emotional labor for teachers
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(Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006).

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5.4 Implications

First, the overall results of this study suggest that job demands rather than job resources
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AC

were more closely related to teachers’ use of ELSs. Nevertheless, previous research mainly focused

on the relationships between emotional job demands and ELSs. Thus, for researchers, it is important

and meaningful to find extra evidence in terms of whether general job demands may compete for

ego resources and thus prevent teachers from regulating emotions efficiently (Näring et al., 2006).

In addition, the diary method has been adopted to trace teachers’ emotional expressions and

students’ responses in the classroom. If applied to research on emotional labor, the diary method

could enrich our current knowledge of situation-specific, emotion-eliciting events and teachers’
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daily use of ELSs. For school administrators and other practitioners like teacher trainers, they are

suggested to help teachers with a more comprehensive understanding of the emotional demands of

teaching, its potential influences, and possible coping strategies.

Second, EI is found to be the most closely related to teachers’ use of deep acting and the

expression of naturally felt emotions. Thus, when investigating teachers’ use of emotional labor

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strategies, researchers are suggested to evaluate the EI of the participants. Other emotional aspects

of individual teachers, such as emotional expressivity, positive and negative affect, are also of

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relevance if researchers want to have deeper understanding of individual characteristic and ELSs.

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However, these variables were less widely examined especially in the educational contexts. In

addition, the close relationships between EI and teachers’ use of deep acting and the expression of

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naturally felt emotions can be explained from different perspectives. For example, individuals with
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higher EI are better at understanding and regulating emotions; they can establish and maintain better

relationships with others and thus receive more supports from others; they are better prepared to
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perceive the external environments as more friendly and supportive. Anyhow, EI is an adaptive

trait or ability for individuals especially when it comes to emotional labor. Thus, school
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administrators should also take teachers’ and teacher candidates’ EI into account during teacher
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recruitment and training.

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Third, the findings of our review differ slightly from those reported in Hülsheger and

Schewe (2011). Specifically, a positive meta-correlation between deep acting and teaching
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satisfaction and a negative one between deep acting and reduced accomplishment/efficacy were
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identified in the current study. These differences highlight the potentially rewarding aspects of

emotional labor for teachers (Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006). Thus, it is worthwhile and necessary

to do further research on topics such as the rewarding aspects of emotional labor, person-

environment fit, and contingency theory. School administrators and teacher trainers should provide

sufficient guidance for skillful use of ELSs and help teachers to perceive their emotional labor as

professional and rewarding, rather than stressful and demanding.

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Finally, in the research of teacher emotional labor, most attention has been paid to general

rather than special education. In special education, students’ emotional and behavioral problems are

extremely challenging to teachers, which requires intensive emotional labor on the part of teachers.

Thus, both theoretical and empirical attention should be paid to teachers’ emotional labor in special

education in future.

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5.5 Limitations

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This meta-analytic review has three limitations. First, most of the articles reviewed used a

cross-sectional design; this makes it impossible to demonstrate causal relationships. Second,

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although the average number of independent samples used in our analyses is 12.65, some of the

meta-correlation results are based on two independent samples. Researchers have suggested that

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two studies are adequate for a meaningful meta-analysis (Valentine et al., 2010). Thus, correlations
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examined by small numbers of articles have also been synthesized and reported in this review.
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However, relevant results should be interpreted with caution. Third, due to the limited numbers of

studies, moderating effects are tested only in an exploratory manner; the results provide some
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insights in terms of the potential moderating effects, which should nevertheless be taken with
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caution.

With different researchers interested in a variety of aspects of emotional labor in the

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workplace, Grandey’s (2000) conceptual framework for emotional labor provides a useful

overarching framework for current empirical studies. It is also used in the present review to locate
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studies and synthesize results. Recently, Grandey and Melloy (2017) have updated the integrative

model of emotional labor, which conceptualizes the relationships between emotional labor and

other relevant constructs at event, personal, and work context levels, respectively. Future work may

advance this line of research by examining the specific relationships proposed by Grandey and

Melloy’s (2017) recent model.

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6 Conclusion

By revisiting Grandey’s conceptual framework of emotional labor in light of Karasek and

Theorell’s (1990) JDCS model, this meta-analytic review synthesizes previous findings on the

associations between teachers’ emotional labor strategies and their antecedent and consequence

constructs. The antecedent constructs include emotional intelligence, job demands, job autonomy,

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and social support. Emotional labor strategies include surface acting/suppression, deep

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acting/reappraisal, and the expression of naturally felt emotions. The consequences of teachers’

emotional labor include three dimensions of burnout and teaching satisfaction. Most of the findings

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are consistent with previous studies and provide further insights into teachers’ emotional labor and

their potential longer-term consequences.

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References
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(* References marked with an asterisk indicate studies included in the meta-analysis.)

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Emotional intelligence, occupational stress and self-efficacy as predictors. Journal of

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Educational and Social Research, 4(3), 487-498.

Alarcon, G. M. (2011). A meta-analysis of burnout with job demands, resources, and
attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79(2), 549-562.
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*Anomneze, E. A., Ugwu, D. I., Enwereuzor, I. K., & Ugwu, L. I. (2016). Teachers’ emotional
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Science, 12(2), 9-22.

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Antoniou, A. S., Polychroni, F., & Vlachakis, A. N. (2006). Gender and age differences in
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Sri Lanka. Human Resource Management Journal, 4(1), 1-12.
*Arshadi, N., & Piryaei, S. (2016). The mediating role of emotional dissonance in the relationship
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*Author (2012). Details removed for peer review.
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*Authors (2013). Details removed for peer review.
*Authors (2016a). Details removed for peer review.
Authors (2016b). Details removed for peer review.

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*Authors (2017). Details removed for peer review.
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Table 1. Meta-correlations between the antecedents and ELS

95% CI 80%CV
Antecedents ELS k N r ρ SDρ %Vart
Lower Upper Lower Upper
Demand* SA 7 4369 0.26 0.11 0.39 0.33 0.24 0.04 0.02 0.64

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Demand DA 7 4369 0.38 0.21 0.52 0.50 0.24 0.06 0.19 0.81
Demand ENFE 4 3476 0.11 -0.05 0.26 0.16 0.15 0.09 -0.04 0.35

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Autonomy SA 2** 555 -.10 -.18 -.01 -.12 .00 1.00 -.12 -.12
Autonomy DA 2** 555 -.06 -.15 .02 -.08 .00 1.00 -.08 -.08
Autonomy ENFE 2** 555 .14 .06 .22 .19 .00 1.00 .19 .19

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Support SA 4 1359 -.15 -.32 .02 -.18 .17 .12 -.40 .04
Support DA 4 1359 .04 -.12 .20 .05 .16 .14 -.16 .25

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Support ENFE 1** 365 -.01 -.11 .09 -.01 .00 1.00 -.01 -.01

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EI SA 4 2353 -.15 -.34 .06 -.18 .21 .05 -.44 .09
EI DA 4 2353 .31 .12 .47 .38 .19 .07 .13 .63
EI ENFE 3 2143 .35 .25 .45 .43 .09 .24 .32 .54

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Note: k=number of independent samples included, N=total sample size; r=inverse variance weighted meta-correlation, 95% CI=95%
confidence interval; ρ=corrected meta-correlation, SDρ=standard deviation of the corrected meta-correlation, %Vart=percentage of variance

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explained by artifacts, 80% CV=80% credibility interval.

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Demand= emotional job demands, EI=emotional intelligence; SA=surface acting, DA=deep acting; ENFE= expression of naturally felt
emotions.
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* Job demands in this part are emotional job demands, ** the results should be interpreted with caution.
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Table 2. Meta-correlations between EL and the consequences

95% CI 80%CV
ELS Consequences k N r ρ SDρ %Vart
Lower Upper Lower Upper
SA EE 19 5721 .26 .18 .34 .32 .22 .09 .04 .59

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SA Depersonalization 11 2391 .24 .09 .38 .31 .30 .07 -.07 .68
SA Reduced 12 4039 .09 -.03 .21 .11 .23 .08 -.18 .40

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SA TS 9 3306 -.22 -.38 -.05 -.27 .21 .08 -.54 .01
DA EE 19 5721 -.02 -.09 .05 -.02 .19 .11 -.27 .23

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DA Depersonalization 11 2391 -.03 -.13 .06 -.04 .21 .15 -.31 .22
DA Reduced 12 4039 -.20 -.30 -.09 -.24 .19 .11 -.48 .00
DA TS 9 3306 .30 .14 .44 .36 .23 .06 .06 .66

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ENFE EE 11 3419 -.21 -.28 -.14 -.26 .14 .19 -.45 -.08

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ENFE Depersonalization 7 1776 -.34 -.38 -.30 -.47 .00 1.00 -.47 -.47
ENFE Reduced 8 2891 -.32 -.42 -.20 -.40 .24 .08 -.71 -.10
ENFE TS 6 2794 .28 .13 .42 .34 .18 .09 .10 .57

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Note: k=number of independent samples included, N=total sample size; r=inverse variance weighted meta-correlation, 95% CI=95%
confidence interval; ρ=corrected meta-correlation, SDρ=standard deviation of the corrected meta-correlation, %Vart=percentage of variance

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explained by artifacts, 80% CV=80% credibility interval.

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SA=surface acting, DA=deep acting, ENFE= expression of naturally felt emotions; EE=emotional exhaustion, Reduced=reduced
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accomplishment/efficacy, TS= teaching satisfaction
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Table 3. Meta-correlations between antecedents and the consequences

95% CI 80%CV
Antecedents Consequences k N r ρ SDρ %Vart
Lower Upper Lower Upper
Demand EE 20 10625 .47 .43 .51 .56 .10 .17 .44 .69

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Demand Depersonalization 14 5433 .29 .23 .35 .39 .13 .21 .22 .55
Demand Reduced 18 6246 .14 .04 .23 .17 .21 .09 -.09 .44

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Demand TS 18 8857 -.28 -.38 -.18 -.36 .26 .05 -.69 -.03
Autonomy EE 16 5556 -.25 -.29 -.22 -.32 .08 .39 -.42 -.21

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Autonomy Depersonalization 13 4986 -.24 -.27 -.21 -.32 .04 .76 -.37 -.27
Autonomy Reduced 12 3071 -.31 -.34 -.28 -.40 .00 1.00 -.40 -.40
Autonomy TS 11 2942 .35 .30 .39 .48 .07 .56 .39 .56

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Support EE 22 10203 -.29 -.35 -.23 -.33 .16 .09 -.54 -.13

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Support Depersonalization 20 7132 -.25 -.30 -.20 -.31 .13 .20 -.48 -.14
Support Reduced 16 4901 -.25 -.31 -.18 -.29 .14 .17 -.47 -.11
Support TS 15 6333 .40 .32 .48 .48 .15 .10 .28 .68

M
EI EE 7 1334 -.17 -.28 -.06 -.21 .12 .33 -.37 -.05
EI Depersonalization 5 647 -.28 -.38 -.17 -.37 .08 .66 -.48 -.27

D
EI Reduced 12 1549 -.24 -.43 -.03 -.30 .30 .10 -.68 .08

TE
EI TS 13 7667 .31 .25 .37 .37 .14 .11 .19 .55
Note: k=number of independent samples included, N=total sample size; r=inverse variance weighted meta-correlation, 95% CI=95%
confidence interval; ρ=corrected meta-correlation, SDρ=standard deviation of the corrected meta-correlation, %Vart=percentage of variance
EP
explained by artifacts, 80% CV=80% credibility interval.
C

Demand= job demands, EI=emotional intelligence; EE=emotional exhaustion, Reduced=reduced accomplishment/efficacy; TS= teaching
AC

satisfaction

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Table 4. Meta-correlations within the antecedents, ELS, and the consequences

95% CI 80%CV
Antecedents Consequences k N r ρ SDρ %Vart
Lower Upper Lower Upper
Demand Autonomy 18 8833 -.23 -.31 -.14 -.30 .25 .05 -.61 .02

PT
Demand Support 21 12217 -.30 -.36 -.23 -.36 .17 .07 -.57 -.14
Demand EI 4 2160 .06 -.20 .32 .08 .42 .02 -.46 .62

RI
Autonomy Support 19 9278 .36 .28 .42 .45 .18 .08 .21 .68
Autonomy EI 4 3434 .34 .17 .48 .42 .15 .07 .23 .61

SC
Support EI 3 687 .28 .21 .35 .36 .00 1.00 .36 .36

SA DA 32 10668 .20 .07 .31 .24 .38 .03 -.24 .73

U
SA ENFE 18 7157 -.22 -.37 -.06 -.28 .44 .02 -.84 .28
DA ENFE 17 7007 .23 .13 .33 .30 .29 .05 -.06 .67

AN
EE Depersonalization 31 9528 .54 .49 .59 .67 .15 .14 .47 .87
EE Reduced 31 8690 .31 .21 .39 .36 .26 .06 .03 .70

M
EE TS 22 8494 -.53 -.56 -.49 -.63 .11 .24 -.77 -.49
Depersonalization Reduced 26 6950 .39 .31 .47 .51 .22 .11 .23 .79

D
Depersonalization TS 16 3704 -.30 -.34 -.25 -.39 .10 .38 -.52 -.26

TE
Reduced TS 21 4853 -.29 -.34 -.23 -.36 .14 .23 -.54 -.18
Note: k=number of independent samples included, N=total sample size; r=inverse variance weighted meta-correlation, 95% CI=95%
confidence interval; ρ=corrected meta-correlation, SDρ=standard deviation of the corrected meta-correlation, %Vart=percentage of variance
EP
explained by artifacts, 80% CV=80% credibility interval.
C

Demand= job demands, EI=emotional intelligence; SA=surface acting, DA=deep acting; ENFE= expression of naturally felt emotions;
AC

EE=emotional exhaustion, Reduced=reduced accomplishment/efficacy; TS= teaching satisfaction

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Table 5. Moderating effects on the correlations between ELS and the consequences
SA- DA- ENFE-
Zr EE Depersonalization Reduced TS EE Depersonalization Reduced DA-TS EE
(p value) (p value) (p value) (p value) (p value) (p value) (p value) (p value) (p value)
Study Characteristic

PT
Year .01 (.21) -.02 (.52) .01 (.66) -.44 (.12) -.01 (.41) -.02 (.15) -.01 (.64) .24 (.04)* -.01 (.72)
Published N.A. -.14 (.79) .21 (.67) -1.52 (.18) N.A. -.07 (.69) -.45 (.17) .74 (.08) .11 (.74)

RI
Grade Level
Sec -.23 (.12) -.04 (.94) .27 (.57) -3.42 (.14) -.04 (.73) .45 (.09) -.21 (.38) N.A. -.04 (.81)

SC
Post Sec -.09 (.52) N.A. .2 (.51) N.A. -.14 (.32) N.A. -.28 (.15) 1.48 (.07) N.A.
Mixed -.21 (.07) .2 (.60) .14 (.43) -.18 (.53) -.01 (.90) .43 (.04)* -.1 (.26) -.20 (.14) -.11 (.56)
Participants Characteristic

U
Age .02 (.01)* N.A. N.A. N.A. .02 (.03)* N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

AN
%Female .01 (.98) -.26 (.79) .16 (.88) -.41 (.47) .21 (.37) .30 (.40) -.43 (.44) .81 (.04)* -.14 (.78)

M
k 12 9 9 8 12 9 9 8 10
2
τ .003 .069 .021 .034 .003 .003 .002 0.000 .024
2
I -res 40.77% 95.62% 85.32% 90.98% 38.70% 25.87% 22.87% .00% 86.27%

D
F F(6,5)=5.47 F(5,3)=.30 F(6,2)=.31 F(5,2)=1.83 F(6,5)=3.65 F(5,3)=3.11 F(6,2)=2.94 F(5,2)=30.90* F(5,4)=.39

TE
2 2
Note: * p<.05; k=number of independent samples included, τ =REML estimate of between-study variance, I -res =% residual variation due
to heterogeneity, F=Joint test for all covariates
EP
Zr= Zr transformed correlation coefficients; N.A. =not applicable; SA=surface acting, DA=deep acting, ENFE= expression of naturally felt
emotions; EE=emotional exhaustion, Reduced=reduced accomplishment/efficacy, TS= teaching satisfaction; Year= year of publication,
C

Grade level: primary school is the reference category, Sec=secondary school, Post Sec=post-secondary schools, Mixed=mixed
AC

samples; %Female=percentage of female participants.

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Table 6. Moderating effects on the correlations between ELS and other constructs
Demand-SA Demand-DA SA-DA SA-ENFE DA-ENFE
Zr
(p value) (p value) (p value) (p value) (p value)
Study Characteristic
Year -.01 (.85) .07 (.13) -.03 (.24) .01 (.69) .00 (.77)
Published N.A. N.A. -.15 (.51) .11 (.74) .01 (.94)
Grade Level
Sec -.61 (.10) -.59 (.14) .24 (.31) .84 (.16) .05 (.84)
Post Sec N.A. N.A. -.25 (.27) .69 (.27) .45 (.11)

PT
Mixed -.08 (.64) .23 (.29) -.06 (.74) .36 (.53) .17 (.47)
Participants Characteristic
Age N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A. N.A.

RI
%Female -.86 (.40) -1.98 (.13) .49 (.31) .46 (.57) -.19 (.64)

SC
k 8 8 28 16 15
2
τ .025 .033 .121 .221 .035
2
I -res 90.29% 94.01% 97.67% 97.92% 90.16%

U
F F(4,3)=1.98 F(4,3)=2.58 F(6,21)=1.08 F(6,9)=.57 F(6,8)=1.85
2
Note: * p<.05; k=number of independent samples included, τ =REML estimate of between-study
AN
variance, I2-res =% residual variation due to heterogeneity, F=Joint test for all covariates
Zr= Zr transformed correlation coefficients; N.A. =not applicable; SA=surface acting, DA=deep
M

acting, ENFE= expression of naturally felt emotions; EE=emotional exhaustion, Reduced=reduced

accomplishment/efficacy, TS= teaching satisfaction; Year= year of publication, Grade level:
D

primary school is the reference category, Sec=secondary school, Post Sec=post-secondary schools,
Mixed=mixed samples; %Female=percentage of female participants.
TE
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Table 7. Moderating effects of measurements

Correlations Measure k meta-Zr meta-r p

MBI 8 .14 .14 .02

SA-Reduced OSTES 4 .01 .01 .94
Overall 12 .09 .09 .13

MBI 8 -.14 -.14 .00

PT
DA-Reduced OSTES 4 -.30 -.29 .02

Overall 12 -.20 -.20 .00

RI
MBI 7 -.33 -.32 .00
ENFE-Reduced OSTES 1 -.31 -.30 .00

SC
Overall 8 -.33 -.32 .00

WLEIS 6 .42 .40 .00

EI-TS EQ-I
U6 .21 .20 .00
AN
Overall 13 .32 .31 .00

MBI 16 -.31 -.30 .00

M

Reduced-TS OSTES 5 -.25 -.25 .00

D

Overall 21 -.30 -.29 .00

Note: k=number of independent samples included, Zr= Zr transformed correlation coefficients;
TE

SA=surface acting, DA=deep acting, ENFE= expression of naturally felt emotions, EI=emotional
intelligence, Reduced=reduced accomplishment/efficacy, TS= teaching satisfaction; MBI= The
EP

Maslach burnout inventory, OSTES= Ohio State teacher efficacy scale, WLEIS= The Wong and
Law emotional intelligence scale, EQ-I= Bar-On’s emotional quotient inventory.
C
AC

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Table 8. Comparison between current study and previous studies
Variable I Variable II CS N CS ρ PS N PS ρ d(Zr) z-statistics
ELS & Consequences1
SA EE 5721 .32 11913 .44 -.14 -8.98***
SA Depersonalization 2391 .31 3056 .48 -.21 -7.66***
SA Reduced 4039 .11 2778 .10 .02 .68
SA TS/JS 3306 -.27 8672 -.33 .07 3.25**

DA EE 5721 -.02 9849 .09 -.11 -6.62***

PT
DA Depersonalization 2391 -.04 3056 .05 -.09 -3.46***
DA Reduced 4039 -.24 4937 -.27 .03 1.47
DA TS/JS 3306 .36 6802 .05 .32 15.06***

RI
Antecedents & Consequences2
Demand EE 10625 .56 87242 .45 .14 14.04***
Control/Autonomy EE 5556 -.32 50462 -.25 -.07 -5.15***

SC
Demand Depersonalization 5433 .39 66580 .32 .08 5.38***
Control/Autonomy Depersonalization 4986 -.32 37650 -.30 -.03 -1.74
Demand Reduced 6246 .17 54584 .18 -.01 -1.00

U
Control/Autonomy Reduced 3071 -.40 27887 -.39 -.02 -.81
AN
Consequences 2
EE TS/JS 8494 -.63 32517 -.51 -.18 -14.66***
Depersonalization TS/JS 3704 -.39 18176 -.47 .10 5.45***
Reduced TS/JS 4853 -.36 15626 -.39 .03 2.12*
M

Note:
1
comparison between current study and Hülsheger and Schewe’s (2011) review;
D

2
comparison between current study and Alarcon’s (2011) review;
TE

*** p<.001
CS=current study, PS=previous study, N=total sample size, ρ=corrected meta-correlation, d(Zr) is
based on Fisher’s Z transformation;
EP

SA=surface acting, DA=deep acting; EE=emotional exhaustion, Reduced=reduced

accomplishment/efficacy, TS=teaching satisfaction, JS=job satisfaction, Demand=general demands
C

in current study and sample size weighted average scores of multiple demands in Alarcon’s (2011)
AC

review, Control/Autonomy =job control/autonomy in current study and sample size weighted average
scores of job control and job autonomy in Alarcon’s (2011) review.

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Antecedents Consequences

Job Characteristics
Burnout
-Job demand
-Emotional exhaustion
-Job autonomy/control
ELS -Depersonalization
-Social support
-Surface acting -Reduced

PT
-Deep acting accomplishment/efficacy

-Expression of
Job satisfaction

RI
Individual naturally felt emotions
Characteristics -Teaching satisfaction

SC
-Emotional intelligence

U
Note: ELS=emotional labor strategies.
AN
Figure 1. The conceptual model for the relationships between teachers’ emotional labor strategies
and selected antecedents and consequences
M
D
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Records identified and screened

a. Literature databases (k = 192; out of 1,859)

b. Key journals (k = 72; out of 92)
c. References of relevant studies (k = 5; out of 7)

Duplicates excluded
(k = 12)

PT
Total screened records
(k = 257; out of 1,958)
Records excluded after assessing full texts

RI
(k = 140)
Mainly irrelevant studies, qualitative
studies, and general reviews

SC
Total eligible articles
(k = 117)
Articles excluded during data coding

U
(k = 32)
AN
Due to multiple publications, unsatisfied
study design, and missing of important data
Final included articles
M

(k = 85 articles with 86 independent

samples)
D

Figure 2. The PRSIMA flow diagram of the meta-analysis.

TE
C EP
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The Relationships between Teachers’ Emotional Labor and Their Burnout and

Satisfaction: A Meta-Analytic Review

Research highlights

PT
Surface acting is negatively related to teachers’ satisfaction.

RI
Surface acting positively relates to individual and interpersonal components of burnout.

SC
Deep acting is not related to burnout’s individual or interpersonal component.

Deep acting is positively related to satisfaction and burnout’s efficacy component.

U
Genuine expression is negatively related to burnout and reduced satisfaction.
AN
M
D
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C EP
AC