Elementary Logic

Propositions and Connectives

A proposition (or statement) is a sentence that is either true or false (without additional
information).

The logical connectives are defined by truth tables (but have English language
counterparts).

Logic Math English

Conjunction ^ And

Disjunction v or (inclusive)

Negation ~ Not

Conditional ⇒ If…then….

Biconditional ⇔ If and only if

A denial is a statement equivalent to the negation of a statement.

Examples:

1. The negation of P ⇒ Q is ~ (P ⇒ Q).

2. A denial of P ⇒ Q is P ^ ~ Q.

A tautology is a statement which is always true.

Examples:

1. A v (B ^ C) ⇔ (A v B) ^ (A v C) Distributive law

2. ~ (A v B) ⇔ ~ A ^ ~ B

3. P ⇔ ~ (~ P)
A contradiction is a statement which is always false.

Example: 1. (A v ~ A) ⇒ (B ^ ~B) a contradiction.

The contrapositive of the statement if P then Q is if ~Q then ~P. An implication and its
contrapositive are logically equivalent, so one can always be used in place of the other.

A predicate (open sentence) is a sentence containing one or more variables which

becomes a proposition upon replacement of the variables.

Examples:

1. The integer x is even.

2. y = 5.

3. Triangle ABC is isosceles.

However, a predicate is not a proposition, it does not have a truth value. One can
however use quantifiers to make propositions about predicates. For instance, the
universal/general quantifier (∀) is used to say that a given predicate is true for all
possible values of its variables. This is a proposition, since it is either true or false.
Similarly, the existential quantifier (∃) is used to say that there is some value of the
variables which makes the predicate a true statement.

Examples:

1. Let x be a real number x2 – 1 = 0 is not a proposition, it is a predicate.

2. “There exists an x so that x2 – 1 = 0” is a proposition (true)

3. “For all x, x2 – 1 = 0 is also a proposition (false).

4. These are written as: (∃ x ∈ R) (x2 – 1 = 0) and (∀ x ∈ R) (x2 – 1 = 0).