Assessing the effects of thermal

bridging at junctions and IP 1/06

around openings
information paper
T I Ward
BRE Scotland

This paper gives guidance on assessing the effects of thermal bridging at

junctions and around openings in the external elements of buildings and
how to assess their effect on the overall heat loss (or heat gain). It enables
a satisfactory estimate of these heat transfers to be made for the purposes
of carrying out building regulations compliance calculations. It supports
the building regulations for the conservation of fuel and power in all three
jurisdictions within the UK. The guidance is primarily intended for junction
and opening details that are not as recommended in Accredited
construction details or MCRMA/EPIC guidance.
It is assumed that the reader has an understanding of the principles,
and familiarity with the calculation, of the fabric heat loss through the
plane external elements of buildings.
This paper is a revision of IP17/01 which is now withdrawn.

1 Introduction (b) Non-repeating thermal bridges (such as

In general, thermal bridges can occur at any
junction between building elements or where the
building structure changes. Reduced internal
surface temperature and increased heat loss,
compared with that of the unbridged structure, are
the two primary effects associated with a thermal
bridge where a building is being heated.
Consequently there is an increased risk of
condensation and mould growth at the thermal
bridge and a significant additional heat loss
through the thermal bridge.
Thermal bridges fall into two categories:
(a) Repeating thermal bridges (such as timber
joists, mortar joints, and mullions in curtain
walling). The additional heat flow due to the
presence of this type of thermal bridge is
included in the determination of the U-value
of the particular building element which
contains these bridges (for further details see
BR 443[1])
junctions of floor and roof with the external
wall, and details around window and door
openings) where the additional heat flow due
to the presence of this type of thermal bridge is
determined separately
This paper deals only with type (b). It gives
guidance on limiting the risk of surface
condensation and mould growth at these thermal
bridges. It describes how to assess their thermal
performance and how to incorporate the additional
heat loss through such thermal bridges in
calculations of the performance of the building
fabric as a whole.
Note
The heat loss through the frame of the door or window in
an opening is accounted for in the U-value of the door or
window.

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2 Building Regulations[2,3,4] the U-values and areas of the plane elements. It is

important therefore to use the correct dimensions
Building regulations for the conservation of fuel (within the numerical model) over which the
and power indicate that provision should be made U-value of the plane elements is considered to
to limit thermal bridging at junctions and around apply, in order to subtract the correct one-
openings in order to avoid excessive heat losses dimensional heat flow when calculating Ψ. From
(or gains) and the possibility of local condensation BS EN ISO 10211[7], the linear thermal
problems in heated buildings. One way of transmittance is calculated from:
demonstrating that such provision has been made n
is to use the details in Accredited construction Ψ = L2D – ∑ Uj lj
j=1
details[5] or MCRMA/EPIC guidance[6].
In other cases thermal bridges should be
assessed by numerical modelling. where L2D = the total heat flow through the two-
dimensional numerical model
3 Numerical modelling Uj = the U-value of the plane building
element j
BS EN ISO 10211[7] sets outs criteria for carrying lj = the length (in the two-dimensional
out numerical calculations, covering both three- model) over which Uj applies
and two-dimensional numerical modelling of
building details. It provides specifications of the Use of the correct dimension for lj is illustrated in
geometrical model and boundary conditions Examples 1 and 2 by way of two similar junctions,
together with accuracy criteria for the solution for which the calculated Ψ-values for the two
technique adopted. It gives methods for the cases are distinctly different. Example 1 illustrates
calculation of heat flows and surface temperatures in plan the junction of an external wall with an
and includes the method for deriving linear internal partition, and Example 2 illustrates in plan
thermal transmittance values. Guidance on the junction of an external wall with a party wall
appropriate modelling techniques is in (ie a wall separating different premises).
preparation[8]. The two different lengths for l1 arise from the
different areas over which the U-value is applied.
3.1 Calculating the temperature factor In the Building Regulations the U-value applies
For a specific detail, three-dimensional modelling ‘between finished internal faces of the external
can be used to calculate the temperature factor fRsi elements of the building’, ie ignoring partition
of the location(s) of the lowest internal surface walls and intermediate floors of the same
temperature (see section 4). Simpler two- premises, but not the separating walls or floors
dimensional modelling of the building detail can, between different premises. Thus the Ψ-value
in many cases, be used where any three- depends not only on the specific construction of
dimensional effects arise solely from the the junction, but also on the area over which the
intersection of two or more two-dimensional relevant U-values are being applied.
models, ie where the intersection itself does not
contain a constructional ‘point’ thermal bridge.
One exception, however, is the corner of a ground
floor, where the modelling to determine the Example 1 Junction of external wall with an
internal partition wall
temperatures must be three-dimensional.
a b c
3.2 Calculating linear thermal transmittance External wall – U1
(Ψ )*
The linear thermal transmittance of junctions (see l1 = a + b + c
section 5) is obtained from the total calculated heat
flow through a two-dimensional model by
subtracting the one-dimensional heat flow through
the plane building elements. It therefore Example 2 Junction of external wall with an
represents the additional heat flow associated with internal party wall
the junction, over and above that obtained from
a b c
External wall – U1
* Note that point thermal transmittances (χ-values), arising
from the intersection of two or more two-dimensional
junctions, are ignored, unless (in addition to the geometrical l1 = a + c [not including b]
point thermal bridge) there is an important constructional
thermal bridge (eg penetration of insulation by a metal
component).
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3.3 Numerical modelling of details around
openings
When determining the linear thermal
transmittance (Ψ ) of a detail around an opening,
the boundary in the model, where the frame of the
window or door connects with the opening, is
taken to be adiabatic, that is the heat flow across
this boundary is considered to be zero. Therefore,
the Ψ-value for an opening is independent of the
properties of the window frame, and depends only
on the location of the frame in the opening and its
dimension (where it connects to the opening
detail). However, when determining internal
surface temperatures (and hence the temperature
factor), strictly, the opening details should be
re-modelled with the window or door and its
frame in place. This can be done where the
window or door construction to be used is known.
Often, however, the performance of such details
needs to be determined when the window or door
to be used is unknown (or might vary). For the
purposes of Building Regulations, the assessment
of internal surface temperatures, and hence
temperature factor, may be determined using the
same adiabatic connection as used when
determining the linear thermal transmittance, Ψ †.
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† If, however, a more refined assessment of the temperature
factor is required, and the window or door to be used (including
the frame) is known, then the window or door and its frame
should be included in the re-modelling, from which the more
refined temperature factor can be determined.
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3
4 Limiting the risk of surface
condensation or mould growth
To assess the risk of surface condensation or
mould growth for a specific detail, the minimum
internal surface temperature (for specified internal
and external environments) is required. Under
steady-state conditions the temperature factor fRsi
is defined by:
Tsi – Te
fRsi =
Ti – Te
where Tsi = minimum internal surface
temperature
Ti = internal temperature
Te = external temperature
The temperature factor is, therefore, a property of
the construction. To limit the risk of surface
condensation or mould growth, fRsi should be
greater than or equal to a critical value ( fCRsi). This
critical value depends upon the internal and
external environments and applies generally to the
whole of the internal surface. However, for three-
dimensional corners of ground floors, even with
good designs, the internal surface temperature
(because of the geometry of the three-dimensional
corner) dips steeply. Therefore the area over which
the internal surface temperature is less than the
critical temperature is usually small. It is
appropriate in such cases to have a relaxation (g)
of the critical temperature factor fCRsi to f ′CRsi,
coupled with a relaxation in distance from the
coldest point. So:
f ′CRsi = g × fCRsi
and the condition to avoid surface condensation or
mould growth becomes:
fRsi ≥ f ′CRsi
for all points that are a distance of d mm or more
from the point(s) with the lowest fRsi. For three-
dimensional corners of ground floors only,
d = 10 mm and g = 0.93. For all other details these
relaxations do not apply.
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4.1 Avoiding mould growth in buildings
In buildings with absorbent internal surfaces, the
need is to avoid mould growth on these absorbent
surfaces. Table 1 gives the critical temperature
factor that should be met for avoiding mould
growth.
4.2 Limiting the risk of surface condensation
in buildings
For buildings with non-absorbent internal
surfaces, the risk is only that of surface
condensation. However, with the variety of
building constructions and the wide range of use
of such buildings, determining the level of risk of
surface condensation is difficult and complex, and
with present knowledge it is unclear how much
condensation might be acceptable. For example,
surface condensation occurring overnight
followed by evaporation during the day is
acceptable, whereas a build-up of condensation
over days may lead to corrosion or deterioration of
the surface or the condensate may drip and cause
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problems. Table 2 gives indicative values of
critical surface temperature factor for different
building types.
Table 1 Critical temperature factors for avoiding mould
growth in buildings
Type of building fCRsi
Dwellings; residential buildings; schools 0.75
Swimming pools (including a dwelling with an indoor pool) 0.90
Table 2 Critical temperature factors for limiting the risk of
surface condensation
Type of building fCRsi
Storage buildings 0.30
Offices, retail premises 0.50
Sports halls, kitchens, canteens; buildings heated with
un-flued gas heaters 0.80
Buildings with high humidity, eg swimming pools,
laundries, breweries 0.90
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5 Assessing thermal performance
The quantity which describes the heat loss
associated with a thermal bridge is its linear
thermal transmittance, Ψ, with units W/m·K.
Linear thermal transmittance is a property of the
thermal bridge and is the rate of heat flow per
degree per unit length of the bridge that is not
accounted for in the U-value of the plane building
element (or elements) containing the thermal
bridge.
The transmission heat loss coefficient
associated with these thermal bridges, HTB, can
then be calculated from:
HTB = ∑ (l × Ψ ) …(1)
where l = the length of the thermal bridge in
metres over which Ψ applies
Note that point thermal bridges are usually small
and can be neglected. This is generally the case
with geometrical effects at corners of building
elements. However, when insulation is penetrated
by a highly conductive element, for example a
steel girder penetrating the insulation layer, these
constructional thermal bridges should have their
point thermal transmittance (χ) calculated (from
numerical modelling). HTB is then calculated with
equation 1 modified into:
HTB = ∑ (l × Ψ ) + ∑ (n × χ) …(1b)
where l = the length of the thermal bridge in
metres over which Ψ applies
n = the number of each calculated point
thermal bridge
5.1 Compliance with building regulations for
dwellings
Building regulations for dwellings may refer to
carbon dioxide emissions as calculated by the
Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP)[9] as the
method of demonstrating compliance with
regulations for the conservation of fuel and power.
Within the SAP calculation, the transmission heat
loss coefficient associated with thermal bridges at
junctions and around openings is calculated from
equation 1 and added to the transmission heat loss
for the plane building elements.
∑ (l × Ψ ) can be explicitly calculated where l
and Ψ for the particular junction are known, with
Ψ being taken to be the Ψ-value for the
corresponding detail from Accredited
construction details or that obtained from
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 5
numerical modelling. Where ∑ (l × Ψ ) is not For new dwellings where all junction details are as
explicitly calculated, the default‡ transmission recommended in Accredited construction details
heat loss coefficient associated with thermal (or are otherwise shown to be equivalent), y = 0.08
bridges at junctions and around openings can be otherwise a default value of y = 0.15 applies. For
expressed as a fraction y multiplied by the total each type or classification of junction detail
exposed surface area of the building. That is, the recommended in Accredited construction details,
default transmission heat loss coefficient for Table 3 gives the default Ψ-value for these generic
junctions can be taken to be: details. Note that if the default value of y = 0.15 is
used, then for any details that are not as
HTB = y × ∑ Aexp. …(2) recommended in Accredited construction details,
it is nevertheless necessary to determine their
where ∑ Aexp. is the summed area of exposed temperature factor. The temperature factor and the
elements, in m2. value of Ψ can be determined from the results of
numerical modelling, or alternatively they can be
Table 3 Default values of Ψ for junctions in wall constructions derived from measurement (eg in a hot box).
in Accredited construction details[5]
Default Ψ-value 5.2 Compliance with the Building
Junction detail in external wall (W/m·K) Regulations for buildings that are not
dwellings§
Steel lintel with perforated steel base plate 0.50 Building regulations for buildings that are not
Other lintels (including other metal lintels) 0.30 dwellings may refer to carbon dioxide emissions
Sill 0.04 as calculated by the Simplified Building Energy
Jamb 0.05 Model (SBEM)[10] (or approved commercial
Ground floor 0.16 software) as a method of demonstrating
Intermediate floor within a dwelling 0.07 compliance with the requirements for the
Intermediate floor between dwellings* 0.14 conservation of fuel and power. Within the SBEM
Balcony within a dwelling† 0.00 calculation, the transmission heat loss coefficient
Balcony between dwellings*† 0.04 associated with thermal bridges at junctions and

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Eaves: insulation at ceiling level 0.06 around openings is calculated from equation 1 and
Eaves: insulation at rafter level 0.04 added to the transmission heat loss for the plane
Gable: insulation at ceiling level 0.24 building elements.
Gable: insulation at rafter level 0.04 Where the Ψ-value of a particular junction
Corner: normal 0.09 detail is unknown, but where the junction detail is
Corner: inverted –0.09 as recommended in:
Party wall between dwellings* 0.06 (a) Accredited construction details[5] – for wall
*For these junctions half of the Ψ-value is applied to each dwelling. constructions similar to those for dwellings, or
†This is an externally supported balcony (ie the balcony slab is not a (b) MCRMA /EPIC guidance[6] – for metal-
continuation of the floor slab) where the wall insulation is continuous cladding constructions
and not bridged by the balcony slab. (or are otherwise shown to be equivalent), then the
value of Ψ can be taken to be the Ψ-value for the
equivalent junction detail from the appropriate
Table 4 Default values of Ψ for metal-cladding publication (a) or (b), or it can be taken to be the
constructions default Ψ-value from Table 3 or Table 4 as
Default Ψ-value appropriate.
Junction detail (W/m·K) For any details that are not as recommended in
(a) or (b) above, it is necessary to determine the
Roof ridge (continuous insulation) 0.01 temperature factor of such details. The
Roof eaves 0.32 temperature factor and Ψ-value can be derived
Roof verge 1.15 from the results of numerical modelling or,
Valley gutter 1.50 alternatively, from measurement (eg in a hot box).
Drip sill (junction at base of cladding wall) 1.15
Corner (junction between two
perpendicular cladding walls) 0.25
Window or door head 1.27
Window or door jamb 1.27
Window sill 1.27
§ Thermal bridging in curtain walling or similar constructions
is dealt with in the CWCT/CAB publication The thermal
‡ The default transmission heat loss is that which arises from assessment of window assemblies, curtain walling and non-
using the default method for such thermal bridges. traditional building envelopes[11].

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 6
5.3 Default values of Ψ for generic
junction types
Table 3 gives default values of Ψ for junctions
which conform to the guidelines for limiting
thermal bridging in Accredited construction
details[5]. Ψ can be less than those in the table
for particular junction details, or can be
appreciably greater than those in the table if
comparable measures to limit thermal bridging
are not applied.
Table 4 gives default Ψ-values for junctions
in metal cladding constructions. Where
Ψ > 1.0, the internal metal facings are
connected to the external facings. Usually it is
possible to improve the junctions appreciably:
the Ψ-value is crucially dependent on the
precise details of the design and should be
calculated for individual cases.
Acknowledgement
This Information Paper was produced as part of
the research programme of the Building
Regulations Division of the Office of the
Deputy Prime Minister.
References
[1] Anderson B. Conventions for U-value
calculations. BRE Report BR 443. (2006 edition in
preparation. Details on the website
www.bre.co.uk/uvalues)
[2] Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. The
Building Regulations 2000 Part L: Conservation of fuel
and power. Approved Documents L-1A Work in new
dwellings, L-1B Work in existing dwellings, L-2A Work in
new buildings other than dwellings and L-2B Work in
existing buildings other than dwellings. 2006 editions.
Available on the website www.odpm.gov.uk
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[3] Scottish Building Standards Agency. The Information Papers summarise
Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004. Technical recent BRE research findings, and
Handbooks: Domestic buildings and Non-domestic give advice on how to apply this
information in practice.
buildings. Available on the website www.sbsa.gov.uk
and from The Stationery Office. Digests, Good Building Guides,
[4] Department of Finance and Personnel for Good Repair Guides and
Information Papers are available on
Northern Ireland. Building Regulations (Northern
Ireland) 1994: Technical Booklet F: Conservation of
subscription through BRE Connect.
Details at: www.BREconnect.com
fuel and power. Available on the website
www.buildingregulationsni.gov.uk
[5] Accredited construction details for limiting
thermal bridging and air leakage. Details on the
website www.odpm.gov.uk
[6] Metal Cladding and Roofing Manufacturers
Association/Engineered Panels in Construction.
Design of metal roofing and cladding systems:
guidance to complement Approved Documents L-2A
and L-2B. MCRMA Technical Paper No 17. Joint
publication by MCRMA and EPIC, 2006.
[7] *BS EN ISO 10211 Thermal bridges in building
construction – Heat flows and surface temperatures.
Part 1: General calculation methods BRE is committed to providing
Part 2: Linear thermal bridges impartial and authoritative
[8] Conventions for calculating temperature factors information on all aspects of the
built environment for clients,
and linear thermal transmittance. (In preparation.)
designers, contractors, engineers,
[9] Defra. SAP 2005. The Government’s Standard
manufacturers and owners. We
Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of make every effort to ensure the
Dwellings. 2005 edition. Available on the website
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accuracy and quality of information
www.bre.co.uk/sap2005 and guidance when it is published.
[10] Simplified Building Energy Model. Available on However, we can take no
the website www.ncm.bre.co.uk responsibility for the subsequent
[11] Centre for Window and Cladding use of this information, nor for any
errors or omissions it may contain.
Technology/Council for Aluminium in Building.
The thermal assessment of window assemblies, BRE is the UK’s leading centre of
curtain walling and non-traditional building envelopes. expertise on the built environment,
Joint publication by CWCT and CAB. construction, sustainability, energy,
fire and many associated issues.
ISBN 1874003386.
Contact BRE for information about
its services, or for technical advice:
*This standard is under review. The two parts of
BRE, Garston, Watford WD25 9XX
ISO 10211 are being combined into one. The revised
Tel: 01923 664000
version is expected to be published during 2007.
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IP 1/06
© BRE 2006
February 2006
ISBN 1 86081 904 4
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