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Candlenut oil: review on oil properties and future liquid biofuel prospects

Article  in  International Journal of Energy Research · January 2021

DOI: 10.1002/er.6446

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Received: 18 September 2020 Revised: 29 December 2020 Accepted: 8 January 2021
DOI: 10.1002/er.6446

SPECIAL ISSUE REVIEW PAPER

Candlenut oil: review on oil properties and future liquid

biofuel prospects

Marwan Abdulhakim Shaah | Faisal Allafi | Md Sohrab Hossain |

Alyaa Alsaedi | Norli Ismail | Mohd Omar Ab Kadir | Mardiana Idayu Ahmad

Environmental Technology Division,

School of Industrial Technology,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang,
Malaysia
Correspondence
Md Sohrab Hossain and Mardiana Idayu
Ahmad, Environmental Technology
Division, School of Industrial Technology,
Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 USM,
Penang, Malaysia.
Email: sohrab@usm.my (M. S. H.) and
mardianaidayu@usm.my (M. I. A)
Funding information
Ministry of Higher Education Malaysia,
Grant/Award Number: 203/
PTEKIND/6711817
Summary
The rapid depletion of diesel fuel, increasing energy demand, and environmental
pollution concerns are increasing worldwide interest in the production of liquid
biofuels. Biofuel (bio-aviation and biodiesel) is a potential and plausible alterna-
tive to diesel fuel to substantially mitigate the environmental impact of future
energy demand. Non-edible crop oil is viewed as a potential feedstock for liquid
biofuel production owing to the massive demand for edible oil as a food source.
However, the major limitation of utilizing non-edible crop oil for biodiesel pro-
duction is the cost due to the high price of feedstocks and the limited supply of
large-scale biodiesel production. Candlenut trees can grow in harsh and arid cli-
mates due to low moisture requirements. Therefore, candlenut can be cultivated
in the most unused lands, particularly in developing countries along coasts and
riverbanks and in deserts and other wastelands unsuitable for edible crops. Addi-
tionally, candlenut seed contains a high amount of oil (30%-60%). Thus, candle-
nut oil is a promising source for commercial biodiesel production. The present
study was conducted to review the possibilities and challenges of utilizing candle-
nut as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Additionally, several impor-
tant aspects related to candlenut oil processing, such as extraction technology,
physicochemical properties, biodiesel production technologies, and advantages
and limitations of candlenut biodiesel production are discussed.

KEYWORDS
biodiesel, candlenut oil, engine performance, bio-aviation, biofuel policy, economic feasibility,
oil extraction technology, transesterification

1 | INTRODUCTION development. Moreover, the combustion of fossil fuels

Global energy consumption is escalating.1 The decline in
fossil fuel reserves and rising environmental concerns
has made renewable alternative energies attractive.2-4 In
the past few decades, fossil fuel energy has been the pri-
mary energy resource worldwide. However, non-
renewable fossil fuels are projected to be exhausted soon
due to rapid population growth and economic
increases the level of CO2 in the atmosphere, which is
directly associated with global warming.5 Approximately,
15 billion tons of CO2 are dispersed into the environment
annually due to the utilization of petroleum oil in diesel
engines.5,6 As the demand for energy progressively
expands due to rapid population rise and industrial
growth, wind, solar, hydrogen, and biofuel have been
considered as promising alternative renewable energy

Int J Energy Res. 2021;1–23. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 SHAAH ET AL.
sources to mitigate climate change impacts and to meet
global energy demand.7
Biofuel is the most prominent alternative natural fuel
owing to its technically viable economic benefits and
environment-friendly properties and can be utilized in
petroleum engines without mechanical modification.6,7
Biofuels derived from edible or non-edible oils, animal fats,
and alcohol with or without a catalyst is an eco-friendly,
renewable, biodegradable, vastly available, and non-toxic
fuel.2,8,9 Research and development of biofuels continues to
improve and enhance their reliability and sustainability as
a green energy resource. In the last decade, the biofuel sec-
tor has made advancements in biofuel production by vary-
ing many alternative raw materials. First-generation
biofuels are produced from agricultural crops containing
sugar, such as seeds, corn, wheat, and sugarcane. However,
this has raised the food vs fuel issue and increased the bio-
fuel production cost, as the price of feedstock increased
with high demand and competition for food. Thus, the
second-generation feedstock was introduced, creating a
space for biofuels as the raw materials for fuels obtained
from agricultural and forest residues and wood processing
waste, such as Pongamia glabra (koroch), Aleurites
moluccanus (candlenut), Madhuca indica (mahua), Pon-
gamia pinnata (karanja), Hevea brasiliensis (rubber seeds),
Azadirachta indica (neem), Ricinus communis L. (castor),
Babassu, Simmondsia chinensis (jojoba) Cerbera odollam
(sea mango), Coriandrum sativum L. (coriander), croton
megalocarpus, salmon oil, pilu, crambe, syringa, linseed,
and Schleichera triguga (kusum).2,10,11
Justifying the use of edible vegetable oils and animal
fats for biofuel production is difficult owing to the demand
for food, which has increased sharply.12 Furthermore, vege-
table oils are more expensive as biofuel feedstock, which
encourages the use of non-edible oils, including candlenut,
for biofuel (biodiesel and bio-aviation) production. Numer-
ous studies have focused on the production of biofuel from
non-edible oils using various technologies.7,13-16 In this
paper, emphasis is placed on the prospects of the second-
generation feedstock (candlenut oil) as a sustainable alter-
native fuel. This paper aims to highlight the potential of
candlenut oil for biofuel production, replacing the depen-
dence on fossil fuels and edible feedstocks. Several aspects
related to candlenut oil are reviewed in this paper, includ-
ing the properties and characteristics of candlenut oil fatty
acid composition profile of candlenut oil, candlenut oil
extraction techniques, candlenut biodiesel conversion tech-
niques, biodiesel standard and characterization, candlenut
biodiesel properties, candlenut biodiesel engine perfor-
mance, and emissions. The promising technologies that
can be used for bio-aviation production from candlenut oil,
bio-aviation standards, and characterization are also
highlighted in this paper.
2 | BIODIES EL: ADVANTAGES
AND LIMITATIONS
Candlenut oil might provide a new source of feedstock
for use in biodiesel production. The term “biodiesel” was
popularized in the United States in 1992 through the
National Soy Diesel Development Board, which
spearheaded biodiesel commercialization. Biodiesel is
becoming an increasingly popular clean fuel, and produc-
tion occurs from domestic, renewable resources. Biodie-
sel, which consists of a mono-alkyl ester of long-chain
fatty acids, is a possible alternative to non-renewable
petroleum-derived diesel fuel17-23 and can be combined
with diesel in any proportion, resulting in a biodiesel
blend.9,19,23,24 The environmentally friendly and non-
toxic nature of biodiesel differentiates it from ordinary
diesel, and mixing with diesel improves mechanical effi-
ciency.25 The use of biodiesel in engines reduces emis-
sions of sulfur dioxide (SO2), the major cause of acid rain,
and the effective lubrication properties enhance engine
life and performance. Operational safety is also improved
because of the high flash point of biodiesel, which is safer
than diesel and can be used in engines without alter-
ations.19,22,26 Scientists and researchers are increasingly
interested in the use of non-edible candlenut oil as feed-
stocks to produce biofuel (biodiesel) owing to the rela-
tively low cost, which lowers the price of biofuel.27
Biodiesel fuel has many advantages and benefits over
petro-diesel fuel; nonetheless, it also has shortcomings
and disadvantages.2,28-40 The major advantages of biodie-
sel are as follows:
• Biodiesel, as a renewable energy source, can support a
continuous supply chain.
• Biodiesel is an environmentally friendly energy source
that emits fewer greenhouse gases than diesel.
• The method of biodiesel production is simpler than
that of petro-diesel production.
• Biodiesel has a high cetane number, which promises
effective engine performance and a longer engine
lifespan with less maintenance.
• No additional lubricant is needed with biodiesel.
• Biodiesel fuel has great value for stimulating sustain-
able rural development.
• Transportation energy security issues could be solved
using biodiesel fuel.
• Biodiesel fuel can be locally produced, making it a
cost-effective energy source.
• Biodiesel properties, such as sulfur content, flash
point, aromatic content, and biodegradability are supe-
rior to those of petro-diesel.
• Biodiesel has a highly biodegradable molecular struc-
ture with minimal combustion toxicity.
SHAAH ET AL.
• Biodiesel is safer to handle and transport and less
toxic.
• Biodiesel is more portable renewable fuel with more
available combustion efficiency.
• Biodiesel is non-corrosive and produced under low
pressure and temperature conditions.
• Biodiesel is neither flammable nor toxic and reduces
tailpipe emissions, visible smoke, noxious fumes, and
odors.
• Biodiesel is a potential substitute for diesel in boilers
or internal combustion engines and requires no major
alterations.
• Biodiesel oxygen content is higher, which assists com-
plete fuel combustion and decreases emissions.
• Cultivation of biodiesel materials in rural areas and
unused land within numerous countries can notably
increase national economic potential and reduce
dependency on crude oil imports.
Although biodiesel is regarded as a promising alterna-
tive to diesel fuel, the following limitations must be over-
come to compete for diesel fuel:
• Biodiesel produces higher NOx emissions than die-
sel fuel.
• Biodiesel has higher pour and cloud points when set
against diesel fuel, which causes the fuel to freeze in
cold weather.
• Biodiesel viscosity is higher than that of diesel fuel
because of its chemical structure. The large molecular
mass of non-edible oils may cause problems in
pumping, atomization, and combustion in the diesel
engine injector system.
• Biodiesel provides 5% less engine power and speed
than diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel is degradable when stored over a long period.
• The high viscosity over long-term operations causes
the build-up of injector deposits, ring-sticking, and
plugging of filters, lines, and injectors.
3 | CANDLE NUT ( ALEURITES
MOLUCCANUS) AS A P O T E N T I A L
FEEDSTOCK FOR BIODIESEL
PRODUCTION
Candle nut (Aleurites moluccanus) is also known as
kemiri in Indonesia and kukui Hawaii.24 The candlenut
tree (Aleurites moluccana L. Wild)—found in tropical
subcontinents—belongs to the Euphorbiaceae family24
and is a multipurpose tree native to the Indo-Malaysia
region.27,41 The taxonomical or scientific classification of
the candlenut oil tree is presented in Table 1. The tree
3
can grow in soil with pH of 5-8 at 18-28
C and rainfall of
6500-4000 mm24,42 and is medium-sized with a maximum
height of 20 m. The candlenut is a flowering tree with a
crown shape, irregular branches, and large green leaves.
The annual productivity of candlenut seed and candlenut
oil is 16 ton/ha/year and 3200 kg/ha, respectively.24,43
Indonesia currently cultivates candlenut in eastern prov-
inces as a perennial plant.44 The tree has many different
uses, as almost every part can be used for various pur-
poses. The living tree can be used as a windbreak and
domestic fence. The wood is not resistant to rotting, but
it can be used as an effective substrate for growing mush-
rooms, fuel, and making fishing boats.44 The seeds are
toxic when raw, but edible when dried in small quanti-
ties. Empty seed shells can be used to make jewelry or
produce dye by burning the shells. Approximately 60% of
the candlenut seed is oil, which is obtained using several
extraction techniques.24,27,45,46 Candlenut oil has a high
iodine number (≥125) and lower pour point24,46 and is
primarily for cosmetics, varnishes, paints, and high-
quality biofuel production. The seed cake that remains
after extracting the candlenut oil can be used as animal
fodder or fertilizer.24,44 Crude candlenut oil contains high
free fatty acids (FFA), which contribute to its low pour
point.24,27,45 Oil content is another important criterion
for determining the suitability of candlenut oil as an
alternative feedstock for biofuel production.24,44,45
4 | CANDLENUT O IL
EXTRACTION METHODS
Extracting the oil from non-edible feedstock (seeds,
leaves, fruits, and seed shells) is the first step in biofuel
production. The extraction process parameters and pre-
treatment processes, such as cleaning, drying, preheating,
and crushing, affect the success or failure of the extrac-
tion process and the extracted oil quality.11 Various
T A B L E 1 The taxonomical or scientific classification of
candlenut oil tree
Taxonomical classification
Kingdom Plantae
Division Spermatopphyta
Sub division Angiospermae
Class Dicotyledoneae
Order Archichlamydae
Family Euphorbiaceae
Genus Aleurites
Species Aleurites moluccana
4 SHAAH ET AL.
outcomes of oil and grades of oil can be obtained
depending on the type of plant seeds and the extraction
method.47 Common technologies for the extraction of
non-edible oils from various plant seeds are the mechani-
cal screw press, Soxhlet extraction, enzymatic extraction,
microwave extraction, and supercritical fluid extraction
(SFE).2,48 However, researchers have tested only the
mechanical press method, Soxhlet extraction technology,
and supercritical carbon dioxide extraction technology to
extract candlenut oil from seeds.
4.1 | Mechanical extraction of
candlenut oil
The mechanical pressing of candlenut seeds is the tradi-
tional oil extraction method. Researchers have used a
mechanical press with solvent extraction on the pressed
candlenut cake to extract candlenut oil from the
seeds,46,49 and the mechanical press is the most common
and conventional method used in extracting oil from
high-oil-content natural materials, including candlenut
seeds.49-51 The mechanical screw technique is operated
manually or using a hydraulic shaft to exert a pressing
force of up to 100 MPa by reducing the space and volume
in the extraction chamber to squeeze out the oil from the
materials.49,52,53 The operation process of the mechanical
press is simple but yields medium oil extraction. None-
theless, the efficiency of the mechanical press extraction
method increases with proper pretreatment of the seeds
by drying, cooking, and particle size reduction.49,52,54
Martín et al.49 extracted candlenut oil using a mechanical
press method that yielded 43.5% candlenut oil. Budianto
et al.50 and Yuliani et al.51 also used a mechanical press
to extract candlenut oil. The use of a mechanical press is
more effective with organic solvent extraction, which
yields approximately 8%-13% more candlenut oil.50,51
Martín et al.49 combined a mechanical press with hexane
solvent extraction to extract candlenut oil from the seeds.
The use of solvent extraction on the pressed cake
increased the oil yield by 13.1%. The disadvantage of
applying mechanical extraction technology for non-edible
oil extraction is that the extracted oil requires further oil
purification by filtration and degumming processes.48,55
4.2 | Soxhlet extraction of candlenut oil
Soxhlet extraction is widely used for the extraction of
nonedible oil from seeds, including candlenut oil, using
organic solvents, of which hexane is the most commonly
used.56-58 The extraction and removal of a constituent
from a solid material using a liquid solvent is called
solvent extraction.2 Non-edible oil Soxhlet extraction can
be performed using other organic solvents, such as meth-
anol, ethanol, diethyl ether, acetone, or chloro-
form.57,59,60 The performance of Soxhlet extraction
depends on several parameters, such as the type of sol-
vent, operating temperature, particle size of the sample,
solvent to seed ratio, and extraction time.2,48,49,61,62
Mixing the organic solvent can also be applied during the
extraction of lipids, which have different types of polari-
ties.59 Particle size is one of the most influential parame-
ters in Soxhlet extraction, because the smaller particle
size has a greater interfacial area between the solvent
and solid matrices.24,58 Temperature potentially influ-
ences the extraction rate, because increased temperature
increases the solubility of the solid matrices.57
Subroto et al.24 reported that solvent extraction using
hexane produced approximately 62.8% oil yield from can-
dlenut seeds. Siddique et al.43 and Sulistyo et al.46
extracted candlenut oil using hexane as a solvent. Martín
et al.50 extracted candlenut oil from candlenut pressed
cake using ethanol as the extraction solvent to yield
13.1% candlenut oil. However, drawbacks of the Soxhlet
extraction process include the long duration of the
method and the large amount of solvent required, which
makes it economically inefficient.56 Furthermore, the use
of dangerous solvents in the extraction methods has
many environmental limitations and has driven efforts to
find cleaner alternative processes for candlenut oil
extraction.
4.3 | Supercritical carbon dioxide
extraction of candlenut oil
The SFE technique was introduced in the 1980s and
offered a short extraction process without the use of
organic solvents.49,63,64 Supercritical carbon dioxide
(scCO2) is a clean, unconventional extraction method
used for the extraction of candlenut oil.24,56,63 The use of
CO2 gas as a solvent has many advantages; it is relatively
cheap, non-toxic, non-flammable, and completely
inert.65,66 scCO2 is a good solvent for most natural com-
pounds, such as natural pigments, vitamins, aromas, and
essential oils,67-70 and it is the most commonly used sol-
vent for the extraction of valuable products, such as food
additives, nutraceuticals, and antioxidants from natural
sources. Conventional extraction methods normally
involve the use of organic solvents to dissolve the com-
pounds of interest from their source materials, followed
by a separation process to separate the extractant from
the residue. The final step is to isolate the valuable prod-
uct from the solution using various methods that nor-
mally require heat application. The solvent can be reused
SHAAH ET AL. 5

many times after the separation process. With scCO2, the
depressurization process at the end of the extraction
phase ensures the complete removal of the utilized sol-
vent from the extracted oil—a major advantage of using
scCO2 for natural product extraction. The use of scCO2
also ensures the stability of the extracted compounds
owing to the lower operating temperatures and the
absence of organic solvents. scCO2 also permits the
extraction of selected components or fractionation of
extracts.71,72 In scCO2, the solubility of the mixture or
compounds is a function of the dielectric constant and
density of the applied supercritical fluid (SCF), both of
which are dependent on the applied temperature and
pressure. Hence, the process parameters must be opti-
mized to ensure adequate levels of compound solubility
and easy process control. Various researchers have
reported the use of scCO2 for candlenut oil extraction
and reported various oil yields of 61.4%,24 77.27%,43 and
52.58%.60
Owing to the high investment cost of SFE, the cost of
SFE products is reasonably high when compared to the
cost of products from other conventional methods; this is
a major disadvantage of SFE,67 but it is counteracted
avoiding legal limitations regarding the presence of sol-
vent and solvent residues in products intended for
human and animal applications. The need for
components isolation/fractionation from crude extracts
for compound formulation and sterilization devoid of
organic solvents and high temperatures implies that the
extraction process must be conducted using only dense
gases.68 The technologies for candlenut oil extraction are
listed in Table 2. The extraction yield primarily depends
on the oil content of candlenut seeds; maximum candle-
nut nut oil was extracted using supercritical carbon diox-
ide extraction, as reported by Siddique et al.43 Figure 1
shows the schematic flow diagram of candlenut oil
extraction and biofuel production.
4.4 | Physicochemical properties and
fatty acid composition of non-edible
candlenut oil
Obtaining non-edible oil derivatives to enhance the prop-
erties and performance of biofuels has been a subject of
scientific effort.2 The principal features of vegetable oils
are fuel properties, such as the flash point, density, vis-
cosity, calorific value, acid value, iodine number, perox-
ide value, and saponification value.17,18,28
Physicochemical characterization of candlenut oil has
been reported by various researchers. Determining these
properties allows candlenut oil to be evaluated as a

TABLE 2 Extraction technologies of candlenut oil

Extraction technologies
Mechanical press
Type of press Pre treatment Parameter Oil yield (%) Reference
Pressure (Mpa) Time (Min)
Pneumatic press Drying 8.8 5 43.2 49
Compression / / / 42.5 50
Press Drying / / / 51
Solvent extraction
Solvent Parameters Oil yield (%) Reference
Temperature (oC) Solvent to seed ratio Time (h)
Ethanol 40 15:1 24 13.1 49
Hexane 68.5 10:1 6 62.8 24
Hexane / / / / 46
Hexane / / 11 / 43
Supercritical extraction
Solvent Parameter Oil yield (%) Reference


Temperature ( C) Pressure (Mpa) Particle size (mm)
CO2 60 35 0.8 61.4 24
CO2 76.4 48.26 / 77.27 43
CO2 40 34.5 5 52.58 60
6 SHAAH ET AL.
possible source of industrial feedstock for biofuel produc-
tion and for other purposes. Table 3 outlines the physical
and chemical qualities of non-edible candlenut oil.
All biofuel sources include fatty acid composition, a
highly significant parameter that facilitates the selec-
tion of efficient production methods. The composition
of fatty acids primarily depends on the source type and
quality and the habitat of the plant.2 The fatty acid
composition of certain non-edible oils usually involves
aliphatic compounds that have a straight chain with a
carboxyl group at the end.28 Commonly reported fatty
acids are palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), oleic (C18:1),
linoleic (C18:2), and linolenic (C18:3).24,27,43,60 Other
forms of acid may be less evident.60 Research suggests
that candlenut oil primarily contains unsaturated fatty
acids with a higher degree of polyunsaturated acids.
The values determined in research may differ slightly
depending on the precise extraction procedure,
employed analytical method, and geographical origin of
the candlenut tree. The fatty acid compositions of can-
dlenut oil are listed in Table 4.
F I G U R E 1 Schematic flow
diagram of candlenut oil
extraction and biofuel
production47 [Colour figure can
be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
5 | C A NDL E NUT BI O DI E SE L
C O NV E R SI O N T E C HNO L O GY
Generally, four standard methods are used in the produc-
tion of biodiesel from various non-edible feedstocks,
namely, pyrolysis, micro-emulsification, dilution, and
transesterification. Researchers have produced candlenut
biodiesel via transesterification and by using micro-emul-
sification, pyrolysis, and dilution to produce candlenut
biodiesel.
5.1 | Transesterification process
Transesterification is the most commonly used way to
reduce the viscosity of nonedible oils, including candle-
nut oil. This process generates products usually known as
biodiesel (alkyl esters of fats or oils).22 In the trans-
esterification process, ethanol and methanol are the most
commonly used forms of alcohol. Methanol is preferred
to other types of alcohol owing to its comparatively cheap
SHAAH ET AL. 7

price and chemical and physical advantages over other appropriate catalyst is present to produce ethyl/methyl
aliphatic alcohols—it is the shortest chain alcohol.73,74 esters. The basic transesterification pathway is shown in
The transesterification process—simple and relatively Figure 3. The reaction produces two clear layers of liq-
cheap—is considered the optimal technique and solution uids, ethyl/methyl ester, and glycerin.75 Many
to overcome the high viscosity issue found in different researchers have reported the transesterification of can-
approaches.48,75,76 Figure 2 shows the basic trans- dlenut oil with different parameters using different cata-
esterification process for biodiesel production. lysts. Transesterification shows high sensitivity to
Transesterification is a technique broadly available feedstock purity, especially in terms of moisture content
for the production of industrialized biodiesel and has and FFA content (greater than approximately 1% w/w).
greater conversion efficiency and fewer costs.75,78 This Candlenut oil typically requires pre-treatment operations;
method has numerous advantages over other methods. thus, saponification and lower reaction yields can be
Transesterification can be achieved under standard con- prevented.19,27,45,75
ditions, yields higher-quality biodiesel, and demonstrates The transesterification process generally uses two
high energy conversion, cost effective catalysts and reac- standard methods: non-catalytic and catalytic trans-
tants, and low energy consumption.78,79 In this tech- esterification. The former requires co-solvents and super-
nique, alcohol reacts with nonedible oil, and an critical alcohol, whereas the latter requires acid and base
catalysis.2,19,45,46,56,81,82 The catalytic transesterification
method can be conducted using a heterogeneous or
TABLE 3 Physicochemical properties of candlenut oil
homogeneous catalyst or enzymes.77,83 Candlenut biodie-
Sulistyo Pham Subroto sel is a synthesis that uses the transesterification method
Parameter et al.45 et al.27 et al.24 to produce candlenut oil in the presence of alcohol and a
Viscosity (mm/s2) 25.89 24.89 76.44 catalyst. The methanolysis reaction has been widely stud-
Density (kg/m ) 3
914.5 914 904
ied, and the standard process uses alkalis or acid, such as
sodium hydroxide or sulfuric acid as a catalyst.27,45,46,84,85
Moisture content — 0.02 0.26
(wt%)
In the catalytic method, the type and cost of the catalyst
are the principal factors that reduce the cost of biodiesel
Calorific value — 5446.89 —
production. Potassium, sodium hydroxide, or sodium is
(MJ/kg)
typically selected as a catalyst, as these are low-cost and
Iodine number 137 138 —
active in this reaction.45,48,80,85 Many researchers have
(g I2/100 g)
produced candlenut biodiesel from candlenut seeds using
Acid value (mg 1.597 1.39 1.5
the transesterification method under different conditions.
KOH/g oil)
Table 5 summarizes biodiesel production through this
Saponification 3.384 3.29 187
process using candlenut oil; the advantages and disad-
value (mg/g)
vantages of transesterification are summarized in
FFA (%) 7.77 15 —
Table 6.
Peroxide value — 4.1 4.1 Biodiesel was produced from candlenut oil using the
(mEq O2/100 g transesterification method by Pham et al.,27 who stated
oil)
that candlenut oil contained 7% FFA. The oil was first

TABLE 4 Fatty acid composition of candlenut oil

Compound Structure Norulaini et al.60 Pham et al.27 Subroto et al.24 Siddique et al.43
Caprylic acid C8:0 0.019 — — —
Capric acid C10:0 0.017 — — —
Lauric acid C12:0 0.022 — — —
Myristic acid C14:0 0.051 — — —
Palmitic acid C16:0 6.340 6.3 6.51 0.383
Stearic acid C18:0 54.022 3.2 2.53 6.36
Oleic acid C18:1 16.147 21.8 26.35 47.17
Linoleic acid C18:2 20.391 41.1 39.71 42.63
Linolenic acid C18:3 2.991 26.8 25 2.38
8 SHAAH ET AL.

F I G U R E 2 Basic transesterification
process for biofuel production48,73,77
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]

FIGURE 3
Transesterification reaction of
triglycerides2,48,77,80

TABLE 5 Biodiesel production from candlenut oil

Solvent Catalyst Temperature/time Alcohol: oil ratio Performance Reference

acetone KOH 1% 40 C/45 minutes 5:1 99.3% 27
Methanol KOH 1% Ambient temperature/75 minutes 6:1 98% 45


Ethanol KOH 1% 70 C/75 minutes 7.5:1 98.77% 46


Methanol KOH 1% 60 C/120 minutes 8:1 — 86


Nitrogen Co-Ni/HZSM-5 1 g 350 C/120 minutes — 46.77% 87
Nitrogen Zn/HZSM-5 325
C — 80.75% 50

pretreated through the esterification process to reduce
the FFA to less than 1%. The results of the esterification
process using a co-solvent of acetonitrile (30 wt%) and
H2SO4 as a catalyst reduced the FFA in the oil to 0.8% in
1 hour at 65
C. The candlenut oil was transesterified
using 20 wt% of acetone as a co-solvent and 1 wt% potas-
sium hydroxide (KOH) with a 45-minute reaction time at
40
C. The biodiesel conversion obtained in this study
was 99.3%.
Sulistyo et al.45,46 conducted transesterification of
candlenut oil using different solvents (methanol and eth-
anol) with KOH as the respective catalyst. The oil was
esterified to reduce the FFA to less than 1% using 1% sul-
furic acid and 30 wt% of methanol as a co-solvent, for
1 hour at 65
C. The ideal reaction conditions for the
transesterification process were 1% potassium hydroxide
as a catalyst, with a ratio of 6:1 of methanol to oil, and a
75-minute reaction time at room temperature, with an
ethanol-to-oil ratio of 7.5:1, and 1.5% potassium hydrox-
ide as a catalyst. The purity of the ethyl esters reached
98.77% under these reaction conditions. Furthermore,
blends of candlenut biodiesel with petroleum diesel in
diesel engines have been tested. Imdadul et al.86 studied
the two-step transesterification process of using candle-
nut oil to produce biodiesel. The researcher also studied
blending the resulting biodiesel with diesel fuel at three
different blending ratios (10%, 20%, and 30%) as test
blends for engine testing. The candlenut oil contained
15% free fatty acid content and was pretreated with the
esterification process by an acid catalyst. The trans-
esterification method using a base catalyst was used to
produce candlenut biodiesel. The researcher concluded
SHAAH ET AL.
TABLE 6 Advantages and disadvantages of transesterification
method
Advantages Disadvantages
Biodiesel properties are similar Pretreatment is required
to diesel (esterification)
Relativity low cost Neutralizing and washing
the product is required
High conversion efficiency Accompanied by side
reactions
It is suitable for industrialized Separation of products is
production difficult
Low free fatty acid and water
content are required (for base
catalyst)
Source: References 17 and 88.
that the optimum parameters for the transesterification
process were an 8:1 methanol to oil ratio, 1 wt% potas-
sium hydroxide (KOH), temperature of 60
C, and reac-
tion time of 2 hours.
Budianto et al.50 and Al-Muttaqii et al.87 conducted
catalytic hydrocracking of candlenut oil to produce bio-
diesel. Budianto et al.50 used a Zn/HZSM-5 catalyst to
produce biodiesel from candlenut oil. He stated that
a temperature of 325
C with a nitrogen flow rate of
60 mL/min obtained the greatest percentage of biodiesel
(80.75%). Al-Muttaqii et al.87 produced biodiesel from
candlenut oil using Co-Ni/HZSM-5 as a catalyst.
5.2 | Factors affecting the candlenut oil
transesterification reaction
The candlenut oil transesterification process for synthe-
sizing candlenut biodiesel is affected by numerous factors
and parameters. The FFA content of candlenut oil is the
primary factor affecting the transesterification process.
Candlenut oil is reported to have a high FFA content
ranging from 7% to 15%.27,45,46,50,86 Reduction of the FFA
content in candlenut oil is important for reducing and
preventing downstream processing issues and soap for-
mation.27,45,86 The ideal homogeneous acid catalyst in
candlenut oil esterification is H2SO4, with alcohol to
reduce the FFA content to less than 1 wt.% before the
transesterification procedure.2,17,27,89,90
The alcohol-to-oil ratio is another important factor
affecting the candlenut oil transesterification method.
Candlenut oil transesterification requires alcohol to drive
the reaction to completion. KOH and NaOH are the most
used alkaline homogeneous catalysts in the candlenut oil
transesterification process.45,46 Sulistyo et al.46 stated that
9
the optimum ratio to maximize biodiesel yield at 98 wt.%
was 7.5:1 M alcohol to oil. Many researchers agree that
the alcohol to oil ratio is a significant factor in the pro-
duction of candlenut biodiesel within a certain limit,
beyond which the amount of alcohol does not affect the
biodiesel yield, whereas a greater concentration of alco-
hol may lead to high downstream processing.27,45,51,86
Catalyst concentration is also an important factor in the
transesterification of candlenut oil to yield biodie-
sel.2,27,45,90,91 Candlenut biodiesel yield was optimized
using a catalyst concentration of up to 1 wt.%, with a
98 wt.% conversion.45,46 The suitability of the catalyst
weight (%), time, and reaction temperature are normally
determined through optimization.27,45 The physical
appearance of candlenut biodiesel is affected by using the
correct catalyst concentration, where a greater concentra-
tion may produce a darker color.88,92 The reaction tem-
perature is also influential in the transesterification of
candlenut oil. Generally, increased reaction temperature
increases the reaction speed and yields more candlenut
biodiesel.45 However, raising the temperature further
above the boiling points of certain types of alcohols, such
as methanol and hexane (boiling points of 64.7
C and
68.7
C, respectively), does not yield a higher quantity of
biodiesel.27,92
6 | PHYSICOCHEMICAL
P R O P E R T I E S O F C A NDL E NUT
BIODIESEL
Biodiesel quality is ascertained by comparing its proper-
ties with the standard specifications provided by alterna-
tive fuel data centers.93 The quality of the resulting
candlenut biodiesel was ensured by physio-chemical
analysis. The major properties of biodiesel are density,
kinematic viscosity, flash point, calorific value, cloud
point and pour point, oxidation stability, and cetane
number, in accordance with ASTM.28,94 The physico-
chemical characterizations of candlenut biodiesel and
other nonedible plant biodiesel compared to ASTM
D6751 and EN14214 are presented in Table 7.
6.1 | Density
Density is a key property of fuel and biofuel that directly
affects engine performance and is related to other signifi-
cant properties, such as the cetane number and viscos-
ity.102,103 Density is defined as the relationship between
the mass and volume of a liquid or solid and is given in
units of grams per liter (g/L),2,28 indicating a delay
between the injection and combustion of biodiesel in a
10 SHAAH ET AL.

diesel engine (known as ignition quality) and energy per

6 hours minutes
unit mass (specific energy).28 Biodiesel density was mea-
EN14214 sured by the ASTM D1298 and EN ISO 1676

28,86,95
methods.2,28,103 Density affects combustion quality by
860-900

0.5max
>0.05
<120
3.5-5
influencing the mass of fuel injected through the injec-

120
51

35
/
/
tor.28,104,105 A higher density indicates that the combus-
tion chamber contains larger biodiesel droplets; thus, the

3 hours minutes
efficiency of atomization and air-fuel ratio formation
ASTM 6751

decreases. Therefore, the different mass of injected fuel

28,86,95
−3-11.8

0.5max
−15-15

>0.03 affects the engine output power.28,106 The density of bio-

<130
1.9-6
—

47
diesel also influences engine emissions. A higher volume

/
of emissions, notably NOx and particulate matter (PM), is
Diesel

produced by high-density biodiesel.28,107,108 Pham et al.27

28,86
829.7

44.34
68.7

0.18

59.4
3.5

and Imdadul et al.80 stated that candlenut biodiesel has a

8
5
/

density range of 885.7-887 kg/cm3.

2,32,33,100
Kusum

−10.8

47.27

38.33
−2.5

0.45
860

139
4.2

6.2 | Kinematic viscosity

/

/
Karanja

Another key property of biodiesel is kinematic

2,31,95
0.04
57.6

0.21
37.8
3.68

viscosity—the resistance of the liquid to flow. Kinematic

870

174
5.6

10

91
7

viscosity refers to the thickness of the oil and is measured

by timing the flow of a given measure of oil through an
Properties of biodiesel from various feedstock sources compared to diesel and biodiesel standard

2,28,30,100

orifice of specified size.2,28,109 The fuel injection equip-

Mahua

ment performance is affected by kinematic viscosity, par-

0.47
882

170
4.2

8.2
13

57
71

37
6

ticularly at low temperatures when higher viscosity

affects fuel fluidity.2,3,110 Additionally, a higher viscosity
2,28,100,101

results in incomplete combustion and greater difficulty in

Rubber

cold weather as the temperature falls as viscosity

0.04

0.07
36.5
870

110
3.7

8.5

rises.28,107 Research suggests that the viscosity of oil

−2
−6

43
/

methyl esters falls rapidly after biodiesel trans-

Caster

esterification.2 The kinematic viscosity of biodiesel is

78.21
2.805
38.34

2,99
15.4

0.15
43.7
−30
−18
946

194

4.4

higher than that of diesel fuel owing to its chemical struc-

ture and huge molecular mass. Pham et al.,27 Imdadul
2,57,98
Jojoba

et al.,86 and Sulistyo et al.46 reported that biodiesel kine-

0.053

42.82
5.86

74.7
0.22

3.05
871

150
−6
−2

matic viscosity is greater than that of diesel fuel, which

/

ranges from 4.2 to 4.8 mm2/s. The ASTM D445 and EN

2,28,95-97
Jatropha

ISO 3104 test methods are used to determine the kine-

matic viscosity in biodiesel.
4.84

0.02

38.5
3.37
879

191

2.8

0.3
51
3

/
Candlenut

6.3 | Flashpoint, cloud point, and

27,46,86

pourpoint
885.7

40.33
0.33
161
4.8

6.3

0.4

5.9
51
5

The flashpoint is a key property of biodiesel and reveals

Acid value (mgKOH/g oil)

its safety and flammability for storing, handling, and

Calorific value (MJ/kg)
Iodine Number (mg/g)

transporting.2,28,111 The flashpoint is the lowest tempera-

Moisture content (%)

Oxidation Stability

ture at which the vapor from the biodiesel ignites when it

Viscosity (Mm /s)

Cloud point (
C)
Flash point ( C)

Cetane Number
Pour point ( C)
2

encounters a flame or spark. Biodiesel has a higher flash-

Density (kg/l)

point than conventional diesel, which causes a longer

Reference
Property
TABLE 7

ignition delay, leads to carbon deposits, and increases gas

emissions. ASTM D93 and EN ISO 3679 are used to mea-
sure the flash point.2,95,100,110-112 The flash point of
SHAAH ET AL.
biodiesel produced from candlenut is 161
C, as reported
by Imdadul et al.86 The flashpoint of nonedible oil is
reduced in the transesterification process.113 The cloud
point and pour point are also considered major properties
in assessing how biodiesel engines function at low tem-
peratures by cooling fuel to the lowest temperature at
which it can flow before a cloud of wax crystal
appears.28,29 The cloud point refers to the temperature at
which wax is initially visible when the biofuel is cooled.
The pour point refers to the temperature at which the
amount of wax in the fuel is sufficient to combine it—the
lowest temperature at which the flow of fuel is possi-
ble.2,28,113 The cloud and pour points of biodiesel are gen-
erally greater than those of diesel fuel and depend on the
composition of fatty acids.2,3,28,107,114 Mahmudul et al.28
stated that the cloud and pour points of biodiesel can be
reduced by blending biodiesel with diesel fuel. ASTM
D2500 and D97 are the testing methods used to deter-
mine the cloud and pour points for biodiesel. Researchers
found that the cloud and pour points of candlenut biodie-
sel are 5 and 6.3, respectively.27,86
6.4 | Cetane number
Another feature determining biodiesel quality is the
cetane number, which determines the ignition quality of
biodiesel in a particular condition and provides clear
information about the ignition delay time of biodiesel
and the auto ignite after injection into the combustion
chamber.2,3,29 The structure of the FAME component
determines the ignition quality. Biodiesel with a high
amount of saturated fatty acids has a higher cetane num-
ber, whereas biodiesel with a greater degree of unsatu-
rated fatty acid has a lower cetane number.29,115 A higher
cetane number lowers the ignition delay time and
improves engine performance by allowing smooth and
noiseless performance; however, biodiesel with a low
cetane number results in engine-knocking, and a rise in
gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions due to incom-
plete combustion.2,115,116 Biodiesel has a higher cetane
number than petroleum diesel.28,29 This number is mea-
sured according to the ASTM D613 and EN ISO 5165 test
methods. Candlenut biodiesel has a cetane number of
51, marginally higher than that of diesel, at 48.27
6.5 | Calorific value
The calorific (heating) value is a vital aspect of biodiesel
production and is the amount of thermal energy released
per unit quantity after the biodiesel is fully burned.3,29
The combustion characteristics of an engine and its
11
thermal efficiency are affected by the calorific value. The
latter also ascertains the energy content of biodiesel.28,117
The biodiesel heating value is less than that of petroleum
diesel, as it contains more oxygen. Ash and moisture con-
tent represent major parameters, upon which the calo-
rific value of biodiesel depends. Plant materials with high
ash content are less desirable as fuel.29,117 The EN 14214
standard advises a biodiesel heating value of at least
35 MJ/kg. Pham et al.27 reported that candlenut biodiesel
has a calorific value of 40.33 MJ/kg. Blending biodiesel
with petroleum diesel can increase the calorific value of
biodiesel.27
6.6 | Iodine number
The iodine number—another significant property of
biodiesel—represents the number of double bonds in bio-
diesel and shows the degree of unsaturation.2,28 The
iodine value directly affects the oxidation stability for
long-term engine use and is measured per 100 g of iodine
sample, which can be combined with the double bonds of
any fatty acid or oil chain.118 The iodine number has a
direct correlation with biodiesel viscosity and the biodie-
sel cetane number.2 D1541and D1959 are the test
methods used to determine the iodine value. The maxi-
mum value of the iodine number of biodiesel is 120 mg
I2/g, based on EN 14214.2,28,96 A report by Atabani et al.2
found that the paradise tree has the lowest iodine num-
ber (46 mg I2/g), whereas H. brasiliensis had the highest
iodine number (144 mg I2/g). Ndaya et al.98 stated that
the iodine number of candlenut biodiesel was 92 mg I2/g.
6.7 | Acid value and peroxide value
Other important properties of biodiesel include the acid
value and peroxide value. The acid number determines
the amount of carboxylic acid groups in the biodiesel and
clearly indicates the level of lubricant degradation during
the period of biodiesel service.2,99 The acid number is
expressed as the mg/KOH necessary to neutralize 1 g of
fatty acid methyl ester. Biodiesel with a high acid number
may corrode internal engine parts. ASTM 6751 and EN
14214 were used to fix a maximum of 0.5 mg KOH/g for
the acid value. The peroxide value is defined as the
amount of peroxide oxygen per kg of fat, which is an
essential feature of biodiesel fuel oxidation stability.98,101
Biodiesel has a higher oxidation stability as the peroxide
value is reduced, reducing the biodiesel fuel ignition
delay. Peroxide value is a significant indicator of oxida-
tion stability but is not listed in the ASTM standard
it.28,101 Imdadul et al.86 reported an acid value of 0.4 mg
12 SHAAH ET AL.

KOH/g in candlenut biodiesel, but no report examining
the peroxide value of candlenut biodiesel was available.
A summary of the biodiesel characterizations is listed in
Table 8.
7 | CANDLE N U T BI OD I E S EL
ENGINE PERFORM ANCE A ND
EMISSION B EH AVI OR
The use of edible oil (vegetable oil) in rum engines has
long been understood. A century ago, peanut oil was used
to fuel a diesel engine.2,3 Diesel engines are currently
improvised from previous generations of engines. Less
viscous biodiesel is required to run modern diesel
engines. Moreover, polymerization of nonedible oil could
cause carbon deposit build-up in the internal parts of the
engine, injector cocking, and oil ring sticking. No4 rev-
ealed that the correct blending ratio of nonedible oils is
required to lower greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions,
ensure optimum performance, and provide proper com-
bustion properties. Engine performance in terms of effi-
ciency and power output was examined in this study,
which also examined BSFC candlenut biodiesel and its
blends and the emissions resulting from non-edible can-
dlenut biodiesel.
The engine performance, combustion properties, and
emission behavior of candlenut biodiesel and its blends

TABLE 8 Summary of biodiesel characterization

Biodiesel
property Effect
Cetane number 1. The higher the cetane number the shorter ignition delay.
2. Measuring biodiesel ignition quality.
3. It influences particulate and gases emission.
4. Engine knocking is related to biodiesel high auto ignition temperatures.
5. Higher molecular weight alkanes have higher cetane number.
Viscosity 1. Diesel engine requires proper biodiesel viscosity.
2. Affect the biodiesel flow through nozzles, pipes, injector and combustion chamber.
3. Higher viscosity causes incomplete combustion of biodiesel.
Density 1. It has direct effects on the combustion quality and engine performance by changing the mass of biodiesel.
2. It is related to cetane number
Flash point 1. Indicates the flammable compounds in biodiesel.
2. Indicates the safety of biodiesel for storage, handling, and transportation.
3. Measuring biodiesel tendency to produce flammable mixture with air.
Cloud point, pour 1. Determining biodiesel performance under low temperature condition.
point 2. Quality control property for biodiesel storage at low temperature.
Calorific value 1. Effects the combustion characteristics of an engine and the thermal efficiency.
2. Critical property of biodiesel intended for use in weight-limited vehicles.
3. Measure biodiesel energy available when composted.
Ash 1. Results from oil, water-soluble metallic compounds or extraneous solids, such as dirt and rust
2. It can be used to decide product's suitability for a given application
Iodine number 1. Indicates the number of double bonds in biodiesel.
2. Indicates the unsaturation degree of biodiesel.
3. Influence the oxidation stability of engine
Acid number 1. Measure the number of carboxylic acid groups exist in the biodiesel.
2. Indicates the level of lubricant degradation while the biodiesel in use.
Copper content 1. To assess relative degree of corrosively of biodiesel.
2. Indicates the presence of sulfur compounds in biodiesel.
Sulfur 1. Environmental pollution from their combustion products as emission.
2. It is controlled to minimize corrosion, tear and wear which effect the engine parts.
Oxidation stability 1. Long storage of biodiesel causes oxidation which biodiesel quality.
2. Oxidation cause gum formation which affect biodiesel combustion.
3. Combustion of oxidized fuel causes deposition of carbon in a combustion chamber and produces higher
amount of NOx in exhaust emissions.

Source: References 2,27-29,45,46,88,102.

SHAAH ET AL.
in diesel engines were studied by Pham et al.27 The study
was conducted using a Samdi electric generator—a one-
cylinder air-cooled diesel engine with a direct fuel injec-
tion system. The combustion of the candlenut biodiesel
and its blends of B5, B10, B20, and B50 with petro-diesel
fuel were tested using a diesel engine at loads of 0%, 30%,
60%, and 100%. The B5, B10, B20, and B50 candlenut bio-
diesel blends produced lower gas emissions (of CO2, CO,
and hydrocarbons [HC]) and smoke density than diesel
fuel, whereas NOx emissions were higher than from die-
sel fuel. The study reported that a 60% reduction in CO
emissions was observed at full engine load. Almost the
same reduction percentage was observed for the HC
emission. On the one hand, the exhaust temperature and
CO and HC emissions were reduced as fuel combustion
efficiency increased. On the other hand, NOx concentra-
tion increased with increased engine load—regardless of
the candlenut biodiesel blends used—compared to the
NOx concentration in diesel fuel. The study found that
increased NOx emissions signaled greater heat release
and might be explained by the cetane number and pres-
ence of oxygen molecules in the biodiesel. Blends of can-
dlenut biodiesel can be utilized in diesel engines.
Imdadul et al.86 tested a single cylinder, natural aspi-
rated, air-cooled, direct injection, compression ignition
engine with candlenut biodiesel and diesel as fuels. The
engine was run at different engine speeds from 1200 to
2400 rpm. The results showed that fuel consumption in
the engine increased as the proportion of candlenut bio-
diesel and its blends increased. The BSFC consumption
of the candlenut biodiesel B10, B20, and B30 blends was
greater than that of diesel fuel by approximately 1.5%,
3.0%, and 4.1%, respectively. Qi et al.119 and Imdadul
et al.86 stated that BSFC is influenced by fuel properties,
such as viscosity, density, and calorific value. Brake
power also increased sharply with increased engine
speed; however, once the engine reached maximum
speed, brake power was reduced due to high frictional
loss but improved by blending candlenut biodiesel with
the diesel fuel. Moreover, reduced thermal efficiency was
observed, and the biodiesel trend became significant as
the biodiesel blending ratio increased. The maximum
brake thermal efficiencies of the B10, B20, and B30 bio-
diesel blends were 1.4%, 3.3%, and 4.37% less than those
of diesel fuel, respectively. Furthermore, the tempera-
tures of B10, B20, and B30 ranged from 224
C to 565
C.
The mix of biodiesel and diesel produced higher exhaust
gas temperatures than diesel. Furthermore, the results
showed that the engine emitted more NOx than diesel
fuel; the average increases in NOx emissions for the can-
dlenut biodiesel blends were 2.48%, 4.49%, and 6.44% for
B10, B20, and B30, respectively. CO and HC emissions
were lower than those of diesel fuel. The results
13
demonstrated average increments of 17.98%, 25.65%, and
28.3% of CO emissions and 8.98%, 19.91%, and 35.98% of
HC emissions for candlenut biodiesel blends B10, B20,
and B30, respectively. Both types of emissions were lower
compared to diesel fuel.
Ndaya98 conducted an examination of the perfor-
mance and emission behavior of a diesel engine, which
used (5-20% v/v) blends of candlenut biodiesel with diesel
as fuel. The study was conducted using a Ford six-cylin-
der, TC, turbo charged, water-cooling diesel engine, at a
constant speed of 1500 rpm with differing loads (1-7LP).
The specific fuel consumption of the B5 and B20 biodie-
sel blends decreased as the load increased from 5.593 to
33.570 KW. The decrease was attributed to the lower
amount of fuel required to operate the engine per unit of
energy output with higher loads, and a lower blending
ratio of biodiesel improved the thermal efficiency. Fur-
thermore, the thermal efficiency for the B5 and B20 can-
dlenut biodiesel blends increased from 12.64% (at BHP
5.59 kW) to a maximum of 32.27% (BHP 27.96 kW), and
from 13.74% (BHP 5.59 kW) to a maximum of 34.21%
(BHP 33.56 kW), respectively. Moreover, the study rev-
ealed that gas emissions of CO and PM decreased with
the use of candlenut biodiesel. However, the report stated
that NOx emissions increased when candlenut biodiesel
and its blends were used. Additionally, the exhaust gas
temperature rose when brake horse power was raised;
the greatest exhaust gas temperature value of the candle-
nut biodiesel B5 blend was 572.5
C, which is higher than
that of diesel fuel (550
C). These experimental results
generally showed that the use of candlenut biodiesel is a
viable alternative to diesel in diesel engines. A summa-
rized view of engine performance and gas emissions pro-
duced from non-edible candlenut biodiesel and its blends
is given in Table 9.
8 | CANDLENUT OIL AS
PRO MI S IN G F EED STOC K FO R BI O
A V I A T I O N ( B I O - J ET) FU E L
As reported by the International Air Transport Associa-
tion (IATA), the aviation industry is expected to continu-
ously grow in the future. Fuel is one of the biggest
operating costs for the aviation industry. Moreover, jet
fuel consumption generates approximately 2% of global
CO2 emissions and considerable GHG emissions. The avi-
ation industry currently aims to reduce CO2 emissions by
50% by 2050 compared to 2005 emission levels.120 Thus,
bio-jet fuel has become the principal target for many
researchers and airline companies. According to IATA,
bio-jet fuel was identified as the most promising fuel to
reduce aviation industry CO2 emissions. ASTM D7566-18
14 SHAAH ET AL.

has identified five types of synthesized paraffinic kero- 9 | BIOFUEL P OLICIES

sene as blending components for jet fuel.120 The path-
ways for bio-jet fuel production are gas to jet (GAT),
alcohol to jet (ATJ), sugar to jet (SIP), and oil to jet
(OTJ)—the focus in this study.120 Nonedible, low-cost oil
can be used as feedstock for bio-jet fuel production and
positively influence global climate change. Researchers
have produced bio-jet duels from different nonedible oil
feedstocks, including Jatropha curcas, castor, cottonseed,
babassu, and Camelina sativa.121-123 Nonedible oils have
a similar composition to kerosene. The sustainability and
environmental friendliness of bio-jet fuel have given it
great attention as an alternative to conventional jet
fuel.123 The physicochemical properties and chemical
composition of the candlenut oil within other nonedible
oils used for bio-jet production enhance its potential as a
feedstock for bio-aviation production. The classified pro-
cesses for conversion oil to bio-jet fuel are hydro-
processed renewable jet, known as hydrotreated esters
and fatty acids (HEFA); hydrothermal liquefaction,
known as catalytic hydro-thermolysis (CH); and hydro-
treated depolymerized cellulosic jet, known as fast pyrol-
ysis. However, only HEFA products have been approved
for blending and have a defined ASTM specification.
Table 10 lists the jet fuel specifications.
The rapid increase in energy demand and energy prices
given the uncertain future availability of fossil fuels and
access to alternative resources have raised global interest
in biofuels as renewable alternatives to non-renewable
fuels.125 Energy is currently the key component of mod-
ern lifestyles and directly affects economic growth. As
energy availability increases, the growth of nations
increases.126 Figure 4 shows the primary global energy
supplies in 2016. The term biofuel defines liquid biofuel
(biodiesel, bio-aviation, bio-methanol, and bioethanol),
gas (biogas), and solids derived from biomass wastes and
products. Biofuel policies are adopted by governments to
address energy security and global climate concerns. The
principal target and main focus of biofuel policies is the
reduction of GHG emissions through production and
consumption of biofuels to reduce dependence on petro-
leum oil and to increase agricultural income.127 Improv-
ing national energy security is the most important factor
for increasing biofuel production. In the last decade, bio-
fuel production has been driven by governmental poli-
cies. Governments worldwide, including energy-short
countries, are searching for and working to increase
national energy production. The demand for biofuel

TABLE 9 Summary of candlenut biodiesel engine performance and emission in diesel engines

Result Reference

Engine Blend ratio Test condition Power BSFC NOx CO HC Smoke

Ford 6C, TC, B5, B20 Constant speed 7.5% lower 2.5% less increased Lower than Lower than 98
WC (1500 rpm) than diesel diesel fuel
Different Load 1Lb- diesel
7Lb
SAMDI 1C, B5, B10, B20, Different Load 1% less / increased 60% less 60% less Lower than 27
DI B50, B100 0%,30%,60%, diesel fuel
100%
Yanmar 1C, B10, B20, B30 Different speed Almost Higher than Higher than Reduced by 35% less Lower than 86
NA, WC, (1200-2400 rpm) similar diesel diesel fuel increasing diesel fuel
DI Increased with the speed and
the ratio blend blend ratio

TABLE 10 Jet fuel and bio jet fuel

Property Unit ASTM D1655 ASTM D7566
specification
Density at 15
C kg/cm3 775-840 775–840

2
Viscosity at 20 C mm /s max 8 max 8
Acid number mg KOH/g 0.100 0.100


Flash point C min 38 38
Heat of combustion Mj/kg min 42.8 min 42.8


Freezing point C −47 −47
Sulfur wt% 0.3 0.3
Smoke point mm min 25 min 25
Aromatics % max 25 max 25

Source: References 124 and 121.

SHAAH ET AL.
F I G U R E 4 The World total primary energy supply in 2016126
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
production is increasing, as it offers increased energy
consumption without greenhouse gas emissions.128 CO2
emissions have increased by 2.5% annually in the past
decade, resulting in a yearly temperature increase of
2
C.126 Five years ago (2015) in the Paris Climate Confer-
ence, 194 countries signed an agreement that aims to
decrease global temperature, reduce GHG emissions, and
explore new renewable energy resources.126 Moreover,
the biofuel policy is linked to farm policy as a current
food and energy production goal to compete for land and,
more specifically, for staple crops.129 Biofuel policies in
the United States, the EU, and many developing coun-
tries are discussed below.
Current EU biofuel policies primarily focus on the
promotion of biofuels. The EU biofuel policy was
designed to achieve energy supply, to protect the environ-
ment, and to enhance the European Union econ-
omy.130,131 Moreover, biofuel development will create
new employment opportunities in construction,
manufacturing, service and plant operation, and fuel sup-
ply and provide work opportunities for rural areas in fuel
harvesting, maintenance, and fuel transport. In 2003, the
biofuel directive set the goal of obtaining (5.75%) of trans-
portation biofuel market penetration by 2010. Each coun-
try in the EU was allowed to show its national action
plan and was encouraged to achieve a 2% biofuel share
by 2005; the share of transport fuel, however, was 1%. In
2007, the European Commission projected a 6.25% share
of biofuel by 2015. This share was planned to be filled by
biodiesel as a transport fuel. Germany became the largest
producer of biodiesel (54%), followed by France (15%),
Italy (9%), United Kingdom (4%), Austria (2.5%), and
15
others (9%). In 2009, the EU set a minimum target of a
10% share of transport biofuel by 2020 as a part of the EU
directive 2009/28/EC on alternative energy and set a min-
imum GHG reduction of 35% to be achieved by biofuels
during their life cycle. Sustainability criteria for indirect
land-use changes are also provided. No bio-feedstock
should originate from primary forests, highly bio-diverse
grassland, protected territories, or carbon-rich areas.131
In the last century, the United States induced demand
for biofuels by requiring their use in the transport sector.
In both cases, government initiatives were underwritten
by multidimensional ideas that linked biofuels to multi-
ple policy goals, including decreasing greenhouse gas
emissions, energy security, economic growth, and rural
job creation.132 The U.S. biofuel policy is comprised of
tax credits for biofuel blenders and production mandates
(a renewable fuel standard) authorized in the Energy Pol-
icy Act of 2005 and the Energy Independence and Secu-
rity Act of 2007 (EISA 2007). The Energy Policy Act of
2005 established the renewable fuel standard (RFS),
requiring U.S. fuel production to include a minimum
amount of biofuel by volume yearly. Ethanol produced
from corn was expected to provide the bulk of the man-
dated fuel—4 billion gallons in 2007 that would reach 7.5
billion gallons in 2012. The 2005 Energy Policy Act also
provided incentives to encourage the production of cellu-
losic biofuels produced from switchgrass, crop residues,
and forest residues. In late 2007, with the volumetric
requirements of the 2005 RFS having been virtually met
and with rising pressure to address several years of rising
oil prices, Congress agreed to the Energy Independence
and Security Act (EISA) (Grossman 2013), which raised
the RFS almost 5fold to 36 billion gallons in 2022 and set
an aggressive target for advanced biofuels, including cel-
lulosic fuels.132 Government support for biofuels has
come under criticism, as research suggested that existing
biofuels do little to accomplish greenhouse gas emission
reduction and improve energy independence—the princi-
pal biofuel policy objectives.133 According to the Interna-
tional Energy Agency (IEA), scenarios developed for the
United States indicate that near-term targets of up to 6%
displacement of petroleum fuels with biofuels appear fea-
sible using conventional biofuels, given available crop-
land. Approximately 5% displacement of gasoline in the
USA requires approximately 8% of the available cropland
to produce ethanol. A 5% displacement of diesel requires
13% of available cropland.129 The recent commitment by
the U.S. government to increase bioenergy threefold in
10 years has added impetus to the search for viable
biofuels.130 Shares of biofuel compared to total global
transport fuel consumption are shown in Figure 5.
Additionally, biofuel production has attracted more
attention from other countries, including Asian
16
F I G U R E 5 Shares of biofuel compared to the total
transport fuel [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
countries. Each country has set a future target for their
share of alternative fuels. China is currently the third
largest global producer of ethanol; additionally, biofuels
are a part of China's long-term energy plan. However,
policies encouraging or mandating the production of
biofuels change frequently. In early 2000, China
implemented an ethanol program in response to abun-
dant grain supplies.2 However, the rapid increase in com-
modity prices (and commodity price volatility) in 2007
and 2011 triggered several changes to the biofuel pro-
gram. For example, policy now dictates that biofuel pro-
duction should not use crops intended for human or
animal consumption. As part of their 12th Five Year plan
(FYP), which ended in 2015, China set a target of produc-
ing 4.5 hm3 of ethanol and 1.1 hm3 of biodiesel; however,
only the biodiesel target was reached. China's 13th FYP
(2016-2021) increases those targets. By 2020, the country
targets the production of 6.3 hm3 of ethanol and 2.3 hm3
of biodiesel annually.134 These targets imply a 100%
expansion of the production capacity of ethanol over the
5 years and even larger development of biodiesel produc-
tion. India's largest potential biofuel component is biodie-
sel, where reaching a 20% reduction target would entail a
triple-digit increase in vegetable oil production. The
Indian government proposes reducing its dependence on
crude oil imports by 10 percentage points in several ways
by increasing domestic output, promoting energy effi-
ciency and conservation, and encouraging greater use of
alternative fuels.134 However, most efforts to increase bio-
fuel production have not panned out. Ethanol consump-
tion has increased, but biodiesel consumption depends
on the use of industrial vegetable oils. Malaysia, the
second-largest producer of palm oil, hopes to use palm
oil biodiesel as an alternative fuel. The mandate to manu-
facture biofuel with a 20% palm oil component, known as
SHAAH ET AL.
B20, for the transport sector will be fully implemented
across the country by mid-June 2021.135 Summary of bio-
fuel policies in selected countries are listed in Table 11.
10 | E N V I R O N M E N T A L IM P A C T ,
EC O N O M I C F E A S I B I L I T Y , A N D
FUTURE DIRECTION
10.1 | Environmental impact and
economic feasibility
Diesel fuel combustion is a major contributor to environ-
mental pollution worldwide. Diesel engines emit toxins
and greenhouse gases, including carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur diox-
ide (SO2), PM, and unburned HC.19,111 Pollutant emis-
sions from diesel fuel combustion cause global warming,
air pollution, and global climate change. Therefore, scien-
tists and environmentalists seek alternatives to diesel fuel
to minimize environmental pollution and global
warming. Biodiesel is regarded as an alternative fuel to
conventional diesel fuel owing to its renewability, low
toxicity, and environmentally friendly properties—it is
free of aromatics and sulfur compounds136 and emits
fewer greenhouse gases and air pollutants than to
petroleum-based diesel.111,136 Studies have reported that
the utilization of biodiesel in combustion engines in place
of conventional petroleum diesel minimizes emissions of
SO2, CO, HC, and PM by 100%, 48%, 67%, and 47%,
respectively.111 Although biodiesel combustion reduces
exhaust emissions compared to fossil fuel combustion, it
unfavorably increases NOx emissions due to the presence
of high oxygen content in fatty acid methyl ester.23,137
Biodiesel offers potential environmental benefits over
conventional diesel fuel but has not been extensively uti-
lized as a complete substitute for diesel fuel owing to its
high production cost. Studies have been conducted to
determine the economic viability of biodiesel production
from various edible and non-edible feedstocks.138 The
biodiesel production cost can be calculated using the fol-
lowing equation138:
Biodiesel production cost
operation cost ð$Þ− byprodcut creditð$Þ ð1Þ
=
product ðkgÞ
where the operating costs include collecting and
processing raw materials, labor, and utilities. By-product
generation during biodiesel production influences the
biodiesel production cost. Studies report that the average
biodiesel production cost is $0.50 ± 10. The raw material
SHAAH ET AL. 17

TABLE 11 Summary of biofuel policies in selected countries

Country Policy Description Biofuel Reference

United Energy Policy Act of 2005
States
Energy Independence and
Security Act of 2007
Food, Conservation, and
Energy Act of 2008
The Agricultural Act of 2014
2014 Farm Bill
European Biofuels Directive 2003/30/EC
United
Renewable Energy (RE)
Directive 2009/28/EC
Directive (EU) 2015/1513
Brazil National Fuel Alcohol

Program (ProAlcool), 1975
National Program of
Production and Use of
Biodiesel, 1975-2004
National Biodiesel Program,
2004-2010
China Demonstration program
(China's tenth 5-year
planning period
(2001-2005).
China's 13th FYP (2016–2021)
Malaysia Malaysia's first national
biofuel policy, 2006
Malaysian Biofuel Industry
Act of 2007
India Power Alcohol Act, 1948-2000
National Mission on Biodiesel
2003
National Policy on Biofuels
2008
Established the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), targeted Ethanol 125-129
production (7.5 billion gallons) in 2012.
Encourage the production of cellulosic biofuels produced Ethanol
from switchgrass, crop residues and forest residues.
Targeted production 36 billion gallons in 2022
Established new energy programs, including the Biorefinery Ethanol
Assistance Program, the Bio-based Marketing Program
and the Biomass Crop Assistance Program
Reauthorized and provided USD 880 million for energy Ethanol
programs established in the 2008 Farm Bill
Authorized USD 3 million support for biomass research and Ethanol
development grants
Set of first goal for transportation biofuel. Targeted Biodiesel 130,131
production (5.75%) in 2010
Decrease the carbon emission by 6% in 2020. Biodiesel
Reduce the risk of indirect land use change and to prepare /
the transition toward advanced biofuels (2020)
Reducing the demand for imported fuel, increasing national Ethanol 133
income by better utilizing Brazilian resources; and
increasing the growth of agricultural and industrial
domestic sectors. Targeted production (27 604 120 m3) in
2011.
Avoid single crop focus, dominance of agribusiness, and Biodiesel
include biodiesel into the national energy matrix
Gradual increase of blending targets. Targeted production Biodiesel
(2.7 billion litter) in 2011.
Implemented an ethanol program. Targeted production Ethanol 134
(1.7 hm3) in 2006.
Increase the biofuel targets to 6.3 hm3 (Ethanol) and Ethanol &
2.3 hm3 (Biodiesel) in 2020. Biodiesel
To stabilize the prices of crude palm oil in 2016 Biodiesel 135
Increase blending ration to 10% and 20% by 2015-2021 Biodiesel
Provide necessary access for the development of the “power Ethanol 126
alcohol” industry in India (2000)
Blending of 5% ethanol with Petro-fuel (2003) Ethanol
Increase the biofuel targets to 20% in 2020 Biodiesel

price is the principal barrier for commercial biodiesel
production and accounts for over 80% of the total biodie-
sel production cost. The feedstock type is one of the most
important parameters in biodiesel production and
accounts for 80% of the total production cost. Other
factors influencing biodiesel production cost include
fat/lipid extraction technology, separation of lipids, types
of catalysts utilized during the transesterification process,
and by-product production.138,139 The lipid extraction
cost involves the use of utilities and the solvent
18
price.138,140 Transesterification involves 10%-15% of the
total bio-diesel production cost. Studies have reported
that the feedstock lipid content, the quality of the
extracted lipids, and the types of catalyst utilized influ-
ence the transesterification process cost in biodiesel pro-
duction.138 However, the use of methanol in the
transesterification process has minimal influence on bio-
diesel production cost. Catalyst selection can influence
the total production cost. The use of a homogenous cata-
lyst in the transesterification process increases the biodie-
sel production cost because of the cost of the catalyst and
requires further processing steps to separate the catalyst
from the produced biodiesel. However, the replacement
of a homogeneous catalyst with waste-derived biomass,
such as eggshell, biochar, kraft lignin, and scallop waste
shells as heterogeneous catalysts, could minimize the bio-
diesel production cost.138 The high cost of labor for
harvesting is an important issue that should be consid-
ered for biodiesel production from non-edible crops.
The principal biodiesel production cost is feedstock.
Studies have reported that biodiesel production can be
minimized by selecting, (i) the most dominant feedstock
for biodiesel production, (ii) appropriate technology for
higher productivity and quality lipid extraction, and
(iii) abundance of raw materials.138 Candlenut is one of
the most domesticated multipurpose trees. The produc-
tivity of candlenut seed yields up to 16 ton/ha/year, and
annual oil yield is approximately 3200 kg/ha.28 Candle-
nut seed contains approximately 30%-60% candlenut oil,
which can be obtained using several extraction tech-
niques. Additionally, candlenut oil has a high iodine
number (≥125) and a low pour point. The candlenut is a
flowering tree that can grow in a harsh and arid land and
has low moisture requirements. Thus, candlenut can be
cultivated in the most unused lands, particularly in devel-
oping countries, on the coast, along river banks, and in
deserts and other wastelands unsuitable for edible crops.
This allows the maximization of the candlenut crop prod-
uct and sustainable supply chain as a raw material feed-
stock for biodiesel production.
The degradation of lipid quality and lower yield is
due to the extraction technology utilized. Currently, the
most common technologies utilized for the extraction of
lipids from non-edible crops are the mechanical screw
press and Soxhlet extraction. These temperature-based
technologies degrade the quality of lipids during extrac-
tion. Candlenut oil is susceptible to oxidation with tem-
perature, because it contains high amounts of
unsaturated fatty acids.141 Additionally, the extracted
lipids require multiple purification and separation pro-
cesses before utilization for biodiesel production. These
lipid purification steps increase biofuel production cost
and the FFA content in the extracted lipids, thus
SHAAH ET AL.
encouraging low-temperature extraction and separation
methods to maintain the fatty acid content and to avoid
FFA production. Few studies address the environmental
impact and economic viability of candlenut biodiesel pro-
duction. Therefore, additional studies should be con-
ducted to determine the environmental impact and
economic viability of the production of candlenut biodie-
sel as an alternative to conventional diesel fuel.
10.2 | Future direction
Using limited agricultural areas for growing non-edible
crop cultivation for biofuel production will eventually
minimize food crop production, increase food prices, and
ignite the food vs fuel debate and its impact on food pro-
duction and demand in developing countries. Consider-
ing these conditions, identifying promising non-edible
plants on abandoned marginal and degraded agricultural
land is a possible solution to this dilemma, which will
increase biomass capacity. The cultivation of nonedible
candlenut trees will utilize wasteland and enhance bio-
diesel production without competing for the land area
available for food crops. Thus, candlenut could be uti-
lized as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production.
The use of agricultural lands should be limited to edible
oil and food plantations, whereas non-edible oil plants
should be planted in wastelands and forests to optimize
available land area, especially in developed countries.
11 | C O N C L U S I O N
In the last decade, interest in utilizing biofuel as an alter-
native to fossil fuels has increased sharply due to environ-
mental and economic benefits and to the rapid depletion
of diesel fuel. Biodiesel could reduce fossil fuel depen-
dency, as an alternative and renewable energy source
with similar properties. Currently, 95% of biodiesel is pro-
duced from edible oils as a feedstock, which raises con-
cerns about the food vs fuel debate and the argument
against high production cost due to high feedstock price.
Therefore, the demand for non-edible oil as a feedstock
for biodiesel production is sharply increasing. Candlenut
oil is not suitable for human consumption due to the
presence of toxic components. Moreover, candlenut trees
can grow on non-fertile and harsh lands that are not suit-
able for edible crop production. The physicochemical
properties and fatty acid compositions of non-edible oils
are comparable to those of edible oils and fatty acid com-
positions. Thus, non-edible oil has great potential as feed-
stock for biodiesel and bio-aviation production. The
principal barrier to utilizing non-edible oil as a potential
SHAAH ET AL.
feedstock is the presence of high FFA and water content.
This paper provides comprehensive information on the
development of biofuels from non-edible candlenut oil,
candlenut extraction methods, biodiesel conversion tech-
nologies, and the advantages and disadvantages of biodie-
sel. Finally, the engine performance and combustion
behavior of biodiesel in combustion engines and gas
emission behavior from the engine with the use of biodie-
sel were discussed. The summary of this study is as
follows:
• Candlenut oil is a promising feedstock for biofuel
production.
• High FFA in candlenut oil is the principal barrier in
the production of biofuel.
• Transesterification is an appropriate process compared
to other biodiesel production techniques because of its
low cost and simplicity.
• The characteristics of the produced biodiesel depend
on the fatty acid composition of the extracted candle-
nut oil.
• Candlenut biodiesel promises good engine perfor-
mance with less gas emission compared to Petro-diesel
in diesel engines.
• The combustion behavior of candlenut biodiesel is
affected by factors, such as biodiesel properties, injec-
tion timing, and operating conditions.
A C K N O WL E D G M E N T S
The authors would like to thank and acknowledge the
Ministry of Education Malaysia (KPM) for financial sup-
port through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme
(203/PTEKIND/671817).
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data available on request due to privacy/ethical
restrictions.
ORCID
Marwan Abdulhakim Shaah https://orcid.org/0000-
0002-4620-5912
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How to cite this article: Shaah MA, Allafi F,
Hossain MS, et al. Candlenut oil: review on oil
properties and future liquid biofuel prospects. Int
J Energy Res. 2021;1–23. https://doi.org/10.1002/
er.6446