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Received: 19 January 2021    Revised: 18 June 2021    Accepted: 21 June 2021

DOI: 10.1111/are.15449

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

White faeces disease and abundance of bacteria and

phytoplankton in intensive pacific white shrimp farming

Mohamad Iqbal Kurniawinata | Sukenda Sukenda  | Dinamella Wahjuningrum |

Widanarni Widanarni | Dendi Hidayatullah

Department of Aquaculture, Faculty

of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, IPB
University, Bogor, Indonesia
Correspondence
Sukenda Sukenda, Department of
Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries and
Marine Science, IPB University (Bogor
Agricultural University), Campus IPB
Dramaga Bogor, West Java, 16680,
Indonesia.
Email: sukenda@apps.ipb.ac.id
Abstract
Shrimp farming intensification has impacted various diseases; one of these is white
faeces disease (WFD). Factors that cause WFD remain unknown. The research ana-
lysed phytoplankton and bacteria abundance and community composition in intensive
Pacific white shrimp farming during an outbreak of WFD. Composite sampling was
conducted. Fifty litres of water samples were taken and filtered using a plankton net.
Filtered water was preserved in bottle samples by adding 8–­10 drops of Lugol solution
and labelled. Bacteria were enumerated by total plate count. Symptoms began to ap-
pear on the 49th day of culture, which are the size of the shrimp that is smaller than the
normal size, the soft carapace condition, the intestinal tract that is not filled, and the
appearance of spots of white faeces on the surface of the water. The results showed
that the number of Vibrio in the water and shrimp intestines infected with WFD was
higher than the abundance of bacteria in the culture water and the normal intestine
of shrimp. There were four phytoplankton classes: Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae,
Cyanophyceae and Dinophyceae. Phytoplankton abundance increased significantly in
the WFD-­infected pond.

KEYWORDS
abundance, bacteria, Litopenaus vannamei, phytoplankton, Vibrio, white faeces disease

1  |  I NTRO D U C TI O N diseases easily infect shrimp. Chanratchakool et al., (1998) stated

Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) is one of the world's pri-
madonna aquaculture commodities with high economic value and a
large export market. Pacific white shrimp production has reached
4.9 million tons in 2018 (FAO, 2020). The high demand for shrimp,
especially the export market, encourages intensive shrimp farming,
characterized by high stocking density.
Intensive shrimp culture has a negative potential for increasing
water pollution in the pond environment (Kilawati & Maimunah,
2015). Pollutants such as food waste and other metabolic waste that
are difficult to decipher by microorganisms can cause an increase in
aquaculture waste, which results in a decrease in water quality. Poor
water quality is one of the causes of stress in shrimp; hence, various
that pH fluctuations, oxygen levels, temperature, salinity, ammonia
levels and sulfates, as well as organic materials, are one of the stress
factors that trigger the occurrence of disease in shrimp.
White faeces disease (WFD) is the main disease in shrimp cul-
ture associated with high shrimp mortality and reduced productivity.
WFD was first reported in Thailand in 2010 (Somboon et al., 2012).
In Indonesia, the disease was first reported in intensive shrimp farm-
ing in Sumbawa at the end of 2014 and then was spread to East Java,
Yogyakarta, Lampung, Thailand and Malaysia (Thong, 2016).
Incidences of WFD were observed after 50–­70 days of stocking of
the PLs (Somboon et al., 2012). Clinical symptoms that can be observed
include blackish discoloration of the gills, loose shells and atrophy (shrink-
age) of the hepatopancreas (Limsuwan, 2010, 2014) and intestines not

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5730    © 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/are Aquaculture Research. 2021;52:5730–5738.
KURNIAWINATA et al.
TA B L E 1  Water quality parameters
in Pinang Gading shrimp farm, Lampung
during culture period
Parameter
Temperature (oC)
pH
Dissolved oxygen (mg L−1)
Salinity
filled with food but with white faeces strands. Sriurairatana et al., (2014)
reported that WFD in shrimp arises from transformation, sloughing
and aggregation of hepatopancreatic microvilli into vermiform bodies,
which superficially resembles protozoan Gregarines. WFD causes a de-
crease in shrimp appetite, which hampers the growth and can lead to
death, and a decrease in productivity (Durai et al., 2015).
The decreasing of shrimp productivity due to WFD negatively
impacts the shrimp farming industry. However, there have been no
reports regarding the main causes of WFD, making it difficult for
farmers to prevent WFD attacks. According to Limsuwan (2014), the
majority of shrimp farms infected with WFD have water conditions
in phytoplankton bloom, increase in total ammonia nitrogen, pH
fluctuations throughout the day >5, high total organic matter value
(>100 ppm) and high total Vibrio in water (>1 × 102 CFU ml−1).
Some scientific publications mention the causes of WFD, includ-
ing the type of Vibrio bacteria. Vibrio found in WFD-­infected shrimp
and culture water include V. vulnificus, V. fluvialis, V. parahaemolyticus,
V. alginolyticus, V. damselae, V. mimicus and V. cholera (Somboon et al.,
2012). Additionally, the presence of microsporidian parasites, espe-
cially Enterocytozoon hapatopanei (Ha et al., 2010), and the conse-
quences of aggregated transformed microvilli are closely related to
WFD cases (Sriurairatana et al., 2014). Even so, it is not certain that the
main causes of WFD. The existence of a relation between the struc-
ture of the community of bacteria and phytoplankton may be the ini-
tial cause of these. Research related to bacteria and phytoplankton as
the causative agents of the emergence of WFD is not much explored.
This study analyses the bacteria and phytoplankton abundance in in-
tensive Pacific white shrimp farming during a WFD outbreak.
2  |  M ATE R I A L S A N D M E TH O DS
2.1  |  Ethics statement
The experimental procedures of Pacific white shrimp in this study
have been approved by the Indonesian local authorities (Animal Care
and Use Committee, Bogor Agricultural University, Indonesia) and
were handled under Indonesian accreditation SNI 8008:2014.
2.2  |  Shrimp and water sampling
Sampling was conducted in Pinang Gading Shrimp Farm Lampung
Province, Indonesia. Pond management activities were monitored
|
      5731
Range
Normal Standard
WFD pond (PERMEN No. 75/PERMEN-­KP/2016)
27–­32 27–­32 >27
7.8–­8.2 7.8–­8.2 7.5–­8.5
4.9–­7.8 5.3–­8.4 ≥4
30–­33 33–­35 26–­32
from the beginning of the stocking to harvest. Shrimps were cul-
tivated in different ponds with an average area of 2500 m2. The
shrimp seeds were used from the hatchery unit of PT Citra Larva
Cemerlang, Kalianda, South Lampung. Farm management activities
were conducted by standard operating procedures established in
the Pinang Gading Shrimp Farm, Lampung. At the start of cultiva-
tion, all pond plots were assumed to be normal plots. However, after
a pond showed symptoms of WFD, ponds were then classified as
WFD-­infected pond and normal pond with no symptoms.
Thirty Pacific white shrimp were randomly taken from the nor-
mal shrimp pond, whereas shrimp showing WFD signs were taken
from the WFD-­infected shrimp pond. Meanwhile, water samples
were collected using a composite sampling method. A total of 5 L
of sample water was taken at the inlet and outlet points and then
mixed in a container. Then, 1 ml of mixed water samples were taken
for testing. Afterwards, shrimp and water samples were immediately
analysed in the laboratory in <2 h. Shrimp and water samples were
taken after 15, 45 and 80 days of culture (DOCs). Table 1 presents
the water quality parameters during the study.
2.3  |  Counting the number of bacteria
The bacteria in the water and shrimp intestines were counted. The
shrimp intestine weighing 0.1 g was crushed in an Eppendorf tube
and homogenized with 900 µl of phosphate-­buffered saline solution.
The homogeneous shrimp intestines, as well as water samples, were
serially diluted and plated into a petri dish containing medium sea-
water complete (SWC) (for the total bacterial colonies) and medium
Thiosulfate Citrate Bile Salts Sucrose Agar (TCBS) (for the total Vibrio),
respectively, and then incubated at room temperature for 24 h. The
bacterial colonies were counted as total bacteria and total Vibrio.
2.4  |  Observation and identification of
phytoplankton
Phytoplankton samples were taken at each pond. The method used
is the passive method. This method is conducted by inserting 50 L
of pond water into a plankton net with a mesh size of 60 µm. The
water collected in the plankton net container is moved into a 100 ml
sample bottle and then given 8–­10 drops of Lugol to preserve phy-
toplankton. Sampling was conducted once a week, starting from the
35th DOC until harvest.
 |
5732      KURNIAWINATA et al.
Observation and identification of phytoplankton were con-
ducted at the Laboratory of Macro Biology I, Department of
Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine
Sciences, IPB University. Phytoplankton was calculated using Ln
with enumeration method (census-­S RC). Water samples are pre-
pared to be observed on the basis of plankton identification books
such as Davis (1955), Yamaji (1979), and Tomas (1997). Observation
of the sample was done by dripping a sample of water as large
as 1 ml above the Sedwigck–­R after Cell using a dropper pipette,
after which microscopic observations were conducted, including
the calculation and identification of phytoplankton with 100× and
400× magnification.
2.5  |  Phytoplankton abundance, diversity and
dominance index
Phytoplankton abundance was determined using Sedgwick–­
Rafter Counting Cell and expressed in m−3 cells (APHA, 2005).
Phytoplankton abundance formula: Abundance of phytoplankton (cell
m−3) = Number of individuals on the strip observed (cell) × (Number
of strips in SRC/Number of strips observed) × (Filtered volume of
sample water (ml)/Volume of water contained in the SRC (1 ml)) × (1/
Volume of sample water filtered (L)) ×1000 m3.
A diversity index is a systematic depiction that describes com-
munity structure and can facilitate the analysis of species and
the number of species. Diversity aims to find out a community
structure; data on the number of species and the abundances of
each species must be known (Sosiawan, 2001). Phytoplankton
diversity was determined using the Shannon–­
W iener diversity
index (Odum, 1971), which was calculated via the following for-
mula: Diversity index (H’) = −∑(Pi ln Pi), (Pi = Number of individuals
to type i/Number of individuals of all types). The total range of
diversity index can be classified as follows: H′ <1 = low diversity,
low community stability; 1 < H′ ≤3 = moderate diversity, moderate
community stability; and H′  >3  =  high diversity, high community
stability.
The dominance index is used to clarify the uniformity index. The
dominance index was obtained using the Simpson index (Simpson,
1949 in Odum, 1971): Simpson dominance index  =  ∑pi2, (pi = the
number of individuals to type i). The range of dominance index can
be classified as follows: 0 < C < 0.55 = There is no type that domi-
nates and 0.55 < C ≤ 1.0 = There are types that dominate.
2.6  |  Growth performance
The growth performance parameters measured were initial bio-
mass weight, final biomass weight, weight gain, diet intake, sur-
vival rate (SR) and feed conversion ratio (FCR). All shrimps from
each pond were measured at the beginning and final culture pe-
riods. Growth performance evaluation was based on the formulas
of SR (%) =100 × Final number of shrimp/Initial number of shrimp,
and FCR = Total of diet consumed/Body weight gain (Zokaeifar
et al., 2012).
2.7  |  Data analysis
Descriptive analysis is used to explain the condition and abundance
of phytoplankton and bacteria, SR, FCR and shrimp production dur-
ing the culture period of Pacific white shrimp, which are presented
in the form of tables or graphs.
3  |  R E S U LT S
3.1  |  Clinical signs of WFD
The following is the condition of shrimp affected by WFD
(Figure 1). The symptoms began to appear on the 49th DOC. The
observed symptoms are the size of the shrimp that is smaller than
the normal size, soft carapace condition, the intestinal tract that
is not filled and the appearance of spots of white faeces on the
surface of the water.
3.2  |  Total bacteria in the water
The total bacteria count in the water culture on different ponds
is presented in Table 2. The total bacteria in the water of WFD-­
infected shrimp pond on DOC 45 was higher (6.68 × 105 CFU ml−1)
than the water of normal shrimp pond (6.2 × 10 4 CFU ml−1). Total
bacteria in the water of normal shrimp pond at the 15th DOC to
80th DOC ranged from 7.64 × 103 to 6.2 × 10 4 CFU ml−1. Meanwhile,
the total bacteria in the water of WFD-­infected shrimp pond ranged
from 8.4 × 103 to 6.68 × 105 CFU ml−1.
3.3  |  Total bacteria in the intestines
The total bacteria count in the shrimp's intestines from different ponds
is presented in Table 3. The total bacteria in the intestines of normal
shrimp at DOC 45 was 1.12 × 107 CFU g−1. Total bacteria in the WFD-­
infected shrimp had an average of 1.96 × 108 CFU g−1. Total bacteria
in normal shrimp intestine ranged from 2.0 × 106 to 1.12 × 107 CFU
g−1 and in the intestines of WFD-­infected shrimp at the 15th DOC to
80th DOC ranged from 8.2 × 106 to 1.96 × 108 CFU g−1.
3.4  |  Total Vibrio sp. in the water
The total Vibrio sp. in the water from different ponds is presented
in Table 4. The total Vibrio sp. in the water of normal shrimp pond at
DOC 45 was 1.18 × 103 CFU ml−1. Total Vibrio sp. in the water of WFD-­
infected shrimp pond at DOC 45 amounting to 9.6 × 104 CFU ml−1.
KURNIAWINATA et al. |
      5733

F I G U R E 1  Clinical signs of WFD in the

shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei: (a) The size
of the shrimp is smaller, (b) The condition
of the intestine is not filled and (c) The
Normal
presence of white faeces [Colour figure Normal
can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
WFD
WFD
(a) (b)

(c)

TA B L E 2  Total bacteria in the water of normal shrimp pond and TA B L E 4  Total bacteria Vibrio sp. in the water of normal shrimp
WFD-­infected pond at DOC 15 to DOC 80 pond and WFD-­infected at DOC 15 to DOC 80

Total bacteria (SWC) (CFU ml‒­1) Total Vibrio sp. (TCBS) (CFU ml‒­1)

Ponds DOC 15 DOC 45 DOC 80 Ponds DOC 15 DOC 45 DOC 80

Normal 7.64 × 103 6.20 × 10 4 1.50 × 103 Normal 1.00 × 10 2

1.18 × 10 3
2.00 × 102
4 5 3 3 4
WFD 5.20 × 10 6.68 × 10 8.40 × 10 WFD 6.88 × 10 9.60 × 10 2.40 × 103

TA B L E 3  Total bacteria in the intestines of normal shrimp and TA B L E 5  Total bacteria Vibrio sp. in normal shrimp intestines and
WFD-­infected shrimp at DOC 15 to DOC 80 those infected with WFD at DOC 15 to DOC 80

Total bacteria (SWC) (CFU ml‒­1) Total Vibrio sp. (TCBS) (CFU ml‒­1)

Ponds DOC 15 DOC 45 DOC 80 Ponds DOC 15 DOC 45 DOC 80

6 7 6 5 5
Normal 2.00 × 10 1.12 × 10 2.00 × 10 Normal 9.00 × 10 7.20 × 10 <102
6 8 7
WFD 8.20 × 10 1.96 × 10 2.40 × 10 WFD 7.00 × 106 1.12 × 10 8 7.20 × 106

The total Vibrio sp. in the water of normal shrimp pond ranged from
1.0 × 102 to 1.18 × 103 CFU ml−1. Meanwhile, the total Vibrio sp. in
the water of WFD-­infected shrimp pond ranged from 2.46 × 103 to
9.6 × 104 CFU ml−1.
3.5  |  Total Vibrio sp. in the shrimp intestine
Total Vibrio sp. in the intestines of shrimp conducted during the study
are presented in Table 5. Total Vibrio sp. in normal shrimp intestine
at DOC 45 was 7.2 × 105 CFU g−1. The total bacteria Vibrio sp. in the
8
intestine of WFD-­infected shrimp at DOC 45 was 1.12 × 10  CFU
g−1. Total Vibrio sp. ranged from l7.0 × 106 to 1.12 × 10 8 CFU g−1 in
the WFD-­infected shrimp intestine.
3.6  |  Phytoplankton abundance
Phytoplankton found in all ponds observed consisted of 40 gen-
era from four classes. The four classes include Bacillariophyceae
(29 genera), Chlorophyceae (4 genera), Cynopyceae (5 genera) and
Dinophyceae (2 genera). The genus found in each class can be seen
in Table 6.
The phytoplankton abundance pattern is shown in Figure 2. The
abundance of phytoplankton in ponds attacked by WFD increased
every week, whereas that in normal ponds was stable. The abun-
dance of phytoplankton in the WFD-­infected pond ranged from
199.850 to 1.594.230 cell m−3, and that in the normal pond ranged
from101.638 to 568.716 cell m−3.
 |
5734      KURNIAWINATA et al.

3.7  |  Phytoplankton diversity, uniformity and
dominance index
The phytoplankton diversity index is presented in Figure 3. The
range of phytoplankton diversity index of WFD-­infected ponds was
from 0.64 to 1.94 and that of normal ponds was from 1.045 to 1.911.
The graph shows that the whole pond had moderate to low diversity
with low community stability. Dominant results of phytoplankton
are shown in Figure 4. Phytoplankton dominance index in the WFD-­
infected pond ranged from 0.174 to 0.640, and the normal pond was
from 0.184 to 0.534. Based on the index value, no type dominated
except on the 63rd day of culture in the WFD-­infected pond.
The percentage of classes that dominate ponds during cul-
ture based on the amount of phytoplankton abundance is shown
in Figure 5. The class that dominates the normal pond was
Bacillariophyceae in a whole sampling. By contrast, the WFD-­
infected pond from the 49th day of culture was dominated by the
Cynophyceae (Figure 6). The association results obtained from
40 genera identified in the map affected by WFD comprised six gen-
era, two genera in the normal pond, and 32 genera found in both
normal and WFD-­infected ponds. The growth pattern of the phyto-
plankton Cyanophyceae class is presented in Figure 7. In the WFD-­
infected pond, there was an additional population of the genus
Trichodesmium sp. from 42nd to 70th DOCs.
3.8  |  Growth performance
The SR of the WFD-­infected pond is only 69.4% (Table 7), whereas
the normal pond reaches 93%. The FCR in the WFD-­infected pond
was 1.82, whereas the normal pond was 1.29. The final weight was
9.17 g per shrimp in the WFD-­infected pond and 15.77 g per shrimp
in the normal pond.
4  |   D I S C U S S I O N
The typical characteristics of WFD (Durai et al., 2015; Limsuwan,
2010) were observed in the WFD-­affected shrimp pond. The signs of
WFD started appearing in shrimp 49 days after stocking. The results
are consistent with information published by Tang et al., (2016), in
which WFD can infect shrimp 40–­60 days after stocking.
The abundance of bacteria in water naturally varies widely and is
influenced by several factors (Keller, 1960). According to Palaniappan
(1982), the abundance of bacteria in pond water is influenced by the
main environmental parameters such as temperature, salinity, pH
and dissolved oxygen. Besides influenced by environmental param-
eters, the abundance of bacteria is influenced by water changes and
the high level of organic matter in the pond bottom (Ganesh et al.,
2010). The high organic matter content at the bottom of the ponds is
believed to be caused by the use of high amounts of organic fertilizer
in the shrimp culture process, high stocking densities, feed waste,
shrimp faeces and certain phytoplankton blooms (Moriarty, 1997).
Vibrio sp. counted during the culture period showed green and
yellow colonies on TCBS media. The total average of Vibrio sp. in the
pond water when WFD occurred at the DOC 45 was higher than the
total average of Vibrio sp. in normal pond water at the same DOC.
Kumara and Hettiarachchi (2017) observed WFD in the 7th week of
post stocking when the mean total Vibrio count in culture water was
3.1 ± 0.17 × 103 CFU ml−1. Vibrio spp. are normal flora bacteria in
shrimp farming activities (Jiravanichpaisal & Miyazaki, 1994), includ-
ing Gram-­negative bacteria that can live in colonies in the digestive
tract of shrimp and become opportunistic pathogens when shrimp
are under stress (poor water quality, lack of nutrition and weak-
ened immunity) (Thompson et al., 2004). According to Limsuwan
(2010), Vibrio bacteria found in the faeces of shrimp infected with
WFD, namely, V. parahaemolyticus, V. fluvialis, V. alginolyticus, and V.
mimicus.
Phytoplankton found in the whole pond comprised 40 genera,
grouped into four classes. The four classes include Bacillariophyceae
(29 genera), Chlorophyceae (four genera), Cynopyceae (five genera)
and Dinophyceae (two genera). The abundance of phytoplankton in
WFD-­infected ponds tends to increase compared to normal ponds,
which stabilized from the 56th day of culture to harvest. Fluctuations
in the abundance of phytoplankton in the water depend on the sea-
sons and several other factors, including temperature, pH, nutrient
concentration, light, weather, disease, competition between species
and algal toxins (Boyd, 1990). The increase in phytoplankton abun-
dance in the WFD-­infected pond was thought to be due to the ac-
cumulation of feed. The accumulated residual feed can increase the

TA B L E 6  The phytoplankton genus

Class Genus
found during observation in Pinang
Bacillariophyceae Amphiprora sp., Amphora sp., Asterionella sp., Bacillaria sp., Bacteriastrum Gading shrimp farm, Lampung
sp., Biddulphia sp., Chaetoceros sp., Climacosphenia sp., Cocconeis
sp., Coscinodiscus sp., Diatoma sp., Diploneis sp., Fragilaria sp.,
Guinardia sp., Gyrosigma sp., Hemiaulus sp., Leptocylindrus sp.,
Melosira sp., Navicula sp., Nitzschia sp., Pleurosigma sp., Rhizosolenia
sp., Skeletonema sp., Streptotheca sp., Surirella sp., Tabellaria sp.,
Thalassiosira sp., Thalassiothrix sp., Triceratium sp.
Chlorophyceae Cosmarium sp., Gloeocystis sp., Microspora sp., Scenedesmus sp.
Cyanophyceae Anabaena sp., Merismopedia sp., Richelia sp., Spirulina sp., Trichodesmium
sp.
Dinophyceae Ceratium sp., Peridinium sp.
KURNIAWINATA et al. |
      5735

F I G U R E 2  The Pattern of abundance 18

of phytoplankton in normal and WFD-­ Normal
infected ponds in Pinang Gading shrimp 16

Abundance of phytoplankton
WFD
farm, Lampung [Colour figure can be
viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
14

(x105 sel m-3)

12

10

-
35 42 49 56 63 70 77
Days of Culture (days)

2.50 WFD The diversity, uniformity and phytoplankton dominance indices

Normal in this study show species richness in a community and the balance
2.00
of individuals of each species (Yuliana et al., 2012). The population di-
1.50 versity index value in the whole pond is still in the moderate category
Index

1.00 with the stability of the medium community. This condition shows
that pond water quality is relatively good to support the develop-
0.50
ment of the phytoplankton community (Utojo, 2015). The uniformity
0.00 index value in the WFD-­infected pond ranged from 0.527 to 0.844,
35 42 49 56 63 70 77
and normal ponds ranged from 0.537 to 0.870. This value is included
Days of Culture (days)
in the category of moderate uniformity and high uniformity, which
means the uniformity of the genus is relatively even, and there is no
F I G U R E 3  The phytoplankton diversity index in normal and
significant difference (Utojo, 2015). The WFD-­infected pond domi-
WFD-­infected ponds in Pinang Gading shrimp farm, Lampung
[Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com] nance index values ranged from 0.174 to 0.640, and normal ponds
ranged from 0.184 to 0.534. The highest dominance index in the
two ponds occurred on the 63rd day of culture. This value indicates
1.00
WFD
a relatively dominant type. Based on the percentage of phytoplank-
0.90
0.80 Normal ton classes, it was found that the Bacillariophyceae class dominated
0.70 the normal ponds was found more in the Bacillariophyceae class,
Index

0.60
0.50 whereas in the WFD pond the class was Cyanophyceae.
0.40 Bacillariophyceae is a group of microalgae which are yellow to
0.30
0.20 brown, commonly called diatoms. Generally, the types of phyto-
0.10 plankton of this class have high nutritional value, are easily digested
0.00
35 42 49 56 63 70 77 and are very good especially for the survival of shrimp larvae.
Days of Culture (days) Phytoplankton diatom class plays a role in providing shrimp farming
needs in ponds. The types of phytoplankton from this class are nat-
F I G U R E 4  The phytoplankton dominance index in normal and ural foods that are preferred by shrimp compared to other classes
WFD-­infected ponds in Pinang Gading shrimp, Lampung [Colour
(Herawati, 2008). In accordance with the results of the research by
figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
Wijaya (2004) that one of the beneficial phytoplankton that is ex-
pected to grow in the ponds is the Bacillariophyceae class.
concentration of nutrients and organic matter in the pond environ- The percentage of the Cynaophyceae class in the WFD pond
ment (Budiardi, 2008). Smith (1983) reported that the ratio of nutri- has been seen to dominate since the beginning of sampling and
ent load could cause a strong selective effect on the phytoplankton increased in the 49th to its peak in 70th days of culture. The dom-
community. The availability of phosphorus and nitrogen in ponds can inance of the Cyanophyceae class in WFD-­affected ponds was
be an additional nutrient source for phytoplankton population ex- thought to be due to a low ratio (Budiardi, 2008). Baffico and
plosions (Widigdo & Wardiatno, 2013). Pedrozo (1996) stated that Cyanophyceae was found to be more
5736      | KURNIAWINATA et al.

DOC 35 DOC 42 DOC 49 F I G U R E 5  The Percentage of

Bacillariophyceae, Chlorophyceae,
Normal Normal Normal
Cyanophyceae and Dinophyceae
WFD WFD WFD classes in normal and WFD-­infected
0% 50% 100% ponds in Pinang Gading shrimp farm,
0% 100% 0% 50% 100% Lampung [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
DOC 56 DOC 56 DOC 70
Normal Normal Normal
WFD WFD WFD

0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100% 0% 50% 100%

DOC 77 Note:
Bacillariophyceae
Normal Chlorophyceae
WFD Cynophyceae
0% 50% 100% Dinophyceae

F I G U R E 6  Phytoplankton assemblies
based on normal and WFD-­infected
ponds [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
WFD Both Normal

Hemiaulus sp., Leptocylindrus sp., Streptotheca sp., Thalassiosira sp.,

Bacillaria sp. Tabellaria sp., Thallasiotrix sp., Cosmarium sp., Ceraum sp.
Scenedesmium sp., Richelia sp., Biddulphia sp.,
Asterionella sp.
Fragilaria sp., Gyrosigma sp., Surirella sp.,
Guinardia sp. Microspora sp., Merismopedia sp., Amphiprora sp.,
Bacteriastrum sp., Climacosphenia sp., Cocconeis
Anabaena sp. sp., Coscinodiscus sp., Diatoma sp., Melosira sp.,

WFD Normal F I G U R E 7  The Growth graph of

10 10 phytoplankton Cyanophyceae class on
Number of cells
Number of cells

(x105 cell m-3)

(x105 cell m-3)

8 8 normal and WFD-­infected ponds in Pinang

6 6 Gading shrimp farm, Lampung [Colour
4 4 figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.
2 2 com]
0 0
35 42 49 56 63 70 77 35 42 49 56 63 70 77
Days of Culture (Days) Days of Culture (Days)

dominant in the low N: P ratio which is below 10:1. In addition,
the increase in the number of bacteria in the shrimp rearing media
causes a decrease in the N / P ratio (Satyantini et al., 2020). Under
these conditions, N is the limiting factor in the water column, while
the Cyanophyceae class has the ability to bind N from free air so
that Cyanophyceae will grow faster than other classes. According
to Widigdo and Wardiatno (2013), the Cyanophyceae group has
special cells called heterocysts that are capable of binding ni-
trogen free from the air (nitrogen fixation). The Cyanophyceae
class has filamentous and filamentous morphological character-
istics, as well as groups. Unlike the Bacillariophyceae class, the
Cyanophyceae class is not expected to live predominantly in
KURNIAWINATA et al.
TA B L E 7  Final weight, survival rate, biomass, feed consumption
and feed conversion ratio value in the normal and infected ponds
Average value of
production
Normal
Variable pond WFD pond
Final weight (g shrimp‒­1) 15.77 9.17
Survival rate (%) 93 69.4
Biomass (kg pond‒­1) 3083 1822
Feed consumption (kg) 3979 3315
Feed conversion ratio 1.29 1.82
the pond environment, because it can produce toxins for shrimp
(Widigdo & Wardiatno, 2013).
WFD does not cause mass death in shrimp, but if left continu-
ously it can have a bad impact on shrimp farming activities. Judging
from the results of Pacific white shrimp production obtained
during the study showed that the average data of shrimp produc-
tion attacked by WFD was lower than the average data on normal
shrimp production. The survival value of WFD-­affected shrimp only
reached 69.4% with an average shrimp weight of 9.17 g shrimp-­1,
while normal shrimp reached 93% with an average shrimp weight
of 15.77 g shrimp-­1. Whereas from the feed conversion ratio (FCR)
that the value of RFD of WFD-­infected shrimp has a higher yield of
1.82 compared to normal shrimp which is equal to 1.29. According
to Tang et al., (2016) in addition to inhibiting growth in shrimp, WFD
disease can also increase feed conversion (FCR) and reduce survival
of shrimp.
Phytoplankton found in the whole pond consists of com-
prises 40 genera, grouped into four classes: Bacillariophyceae,
Chlorophyceae, Cyanophyceae and Dinophyceae. The diversity
index value, uniformity and dominance index are still within the nor-
mal range. The appearance of WFD symptoms from the 49th day
of culture was characterized by the dominance of the Cynophyceae
group. The abundance of bacteria in the culture water and WFD-­
infected intestines had a higher range and average values than the
abundance of bacteria in the culture water and the normal intestine
of Pacific white shrimp.
AC K N OW L E D G M E N T S
This article is part of a dissertation written by Mohamad Iqbal
Kurniawinata, Aquaculture Sciences Study Program, Faculty of
Fisheries and Marine Science, IPB University. All gratitudes are pre-
sented to the PMDSU for funding this study.
C O N FL I C T S O F I N T E R E S T
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
AU T H O R ’ S C O N T R I B U T I O N
Mohamad Iqbal K and Sukenda designed the experiment. Mohamad
Iqbal K and Dendi H collected the samples and conducted the
|
      5737
experiment. Mohamad Iqbal K and Dendi H drafted the first version
of the manuscript. Dinamella W and Widanarni critically reviewed
and finally approved the article for publication.
DATA AVA I L A B I L I T Y S TAT E M E N T
The data that support the findings of this study are available from
the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
ORCID
Sukenda Sukenda  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9465-8329
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How to cite this article: Kurniawinata, M. I., Sukenda, S.,
Wahjuningrum, D., Widanarni, W., & Hidayatullah, D. (2021).
White faeces disease and abundance of bacteria and
phytoplankton in intensive pacific white shrimp farming.
Aquaculture Research, 52, 5730–­5738. https://doi.org/10.1111/
are.15449