Mukt Shabd Journal ISSN NO : 2347-3150

ARCHITECTURE DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH INDIA UNDER

VIJAYANAGARA EMPIRE

*M. Kumara Swamy

Asst. professor of History
Girraj Govt. College (A)
Nizamabad, Telangana

Abstract

The Vijayanagara architecture was a notable building idiom evolved by the imperial
Hindu Vijayanagara Empire that ruled the whole of South India from their regal capital at
Vijayanagara on the banks of the Tungabhadra River in Karnataka, India. The empire built a
number of temples, monuments, palaces and other structures over South India, with the
largest concentration located in its capital. The monuments in and around Hampi, in the
Vijayanagara principality, are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Today, Vijayanagara
represents the richest, surviving monument to South Indian architecture. Every one of its
temples represents the confluence of the finest influences in India at their time of creation.
Those who are fascinated by fractals a topic with its own philosophy on life will have much
to be amazed by at these elaborate and ancient sites. This paper analyze the architectural
advancements made during Vijayanagara empire.

Keywords: Architecture, monuments , temples, sites, Vijayanagara,

Introduction

The Vijayanagara Empire had become famous for art, architecture ,sculpture & fine arts like
dancing and music. Percy Brown has called “Vijayanagara art as the supremely passionate
flowering of the Dravidian style”. The temples of Vijayanagara have borrowed many features
from the earlier monuments of the Kadambas, the Cholas, the Chalukyas, the Pandyas and the
Hoysalas.

The Vijayanagara kings built many temples in Hampi or Vijayanagara, Sringeri, Tirupati,
Tadipatri, Lepakshi, Bhatkal, Kanchi, Kolar, Srirangam, Chidambaram, Moodabidri & other

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places & the thousand pillared sculptured halls, pavilions & aisles were added to the old
temples. The Vijayanagara temples at Sringeri constructed in about 1380 A.D. in memory of
Vidyashankara, guru of Vidyaranya is the oldest temple. The plan of the temple is unique in
India, having an apsidal back on a Hoysala pedestal & with a Hoysala tower. Vidyaranya
constructed this temple on the srichakra plan & also with reference to some astronomical
conceptions. The mantapa has 12 pillars with marks of 12 Houses of Zodiacs. So that the
Sun‟s rays at he dawn of the first solar month falls exactly on the indicated pillar. The
Vijayanagara rulers were great builders. They built large number of temples scattered all over
the empire but the finest flowering of temple building activity could be noticed in the
magnificient temples at Vijayanagara now known as Hampi such as the temples of
Vittalaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy, Krishnaswamy, Bhuvaneshwari, Achyutharaya,
Virupaksha etc.

In addition to building new temples, the empire also added new structures and made
modifications to hundreds of existing temples across South India. Some structures at
Vijayanagara are from the pre-Vijayanagara period. The Mahakuta hill temples are from the
Western Chalukya era. The region around Hampi had been a popular place of worship for
centuries before the Vijayanagara period with earliest records dating from 689 CE when it
was known as Pampa Tirtha after the local river God Pampa.

There are hundreds of extant monuments in the core area of the capital city. Of these
fifty six are protected by UNESCO, six hundred and fifty-four monuments are protected by
the government of Karnataka and another three hundred monuments await protection.
Vijayanagara architecture can be broadly classified into religious, courtly and civic
architecture, as can the associated sculptures and paintings. The Vijayanagara style is a
combination of the Chalukya, Hoysala, Pandya and Chola styles which evolved earlier in the
centuries when these empires ruled and is characterised by a return to the simplistic and
serene art of the past.
For the approximately 400 years during the rule of the Western Chalukya and the
Hoysalas empires, the most popular material for temple construction was chloritic schist or
soapstone. This was also true for sculpture as soapstone is soft and easily carved. During the
Vijayanagara period the local hard granite was preferred in the Badami Chalukya style,
although soapstone was used for a few reliefs and sculptures. While the use of granite
reduced the density of sculptured works, granite was a more durable material for the temple

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structure. Because granite is prone to flaking, few pieces of individual sculptures reached the
high levels of quality seen in previous centuries. In order to cover the unevenness of the stone
used in sculptures, artists employed plaster to give the rough surface a smooth finish and then
painted it with lively colours.

Review of Literature
.
Narasimhaiah B (1992) in his book deals with Hampi and its different aspects like
roads and bazaars, the residential quarters and the accounts of the Foreign Travellers like
Razaq and Figueiredo, it mentions the architectural rich, elephant stables, palaces of kings
and other Noble men. In the light of new evidences found in excavations, and also
corroborating historical and archaeological evidences, an attempt is made to identify the
structures and their probable functions.
Srinivasan K. R (1993) in his book speaks about structural stone temples of South
India in general and also covers Vijayanagara temples and Vijayanagara architecture in
particular. The detailed description of some of the important temples at Hampi and general
characteristics of Vijayanagar architecture are explained. The photographs of Virupaksha,
Krishna, Hazara Rama, Achyuta, Vithala and Pattabhirama temples are illustrated.

Shivarudra Swamy S.N (1996) in his book depicted the art and architecture of
Vijayanagara empire. The ground plan, wall details and superstructure of Vijayanagara
temple are explained. Though the examples of various temples are considered, the important
temples at Hampi like Ramachandra, Tiruvengalanatha and Alwar are explained in detail
considering art and architectural forms. The list of Vijayanagara temples and the period of
constuction, photographs and glossary are given.
Christopher Tadgell, (1998) in his book entitled “The History of Architecture in India
“elaborately discussed the history of architecture in India and one of the chapters covers the
period between thirteenth and eighteenth centuries AD that largely covers the Vijayanagara
period. It also mentions about the architectural features of Vitthala, Virupaksha,
Ramachandra Temples and other secular structures at Hampi.
Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat and Vasundhara Filliozat (1998) in their book enables us he
study of the architecture of Vijayanagara period with particular reference to the Vitthala
temples situated at Hampi. Besides giving the general feature of the site, it provides the
architecture and inscriptional details of the Vitthala temple.

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Dhruvaraja N. Gadagakara (1999) in their book deals with the architectural aspects of
the temple cars or chariots (rathas), while describing the origin and importance of such
temple cars it mentions about the stone chariot found at Vitthala temple built in the Dravida
style of architecture.
Anila Verghese, (2001) in his book entitled” Monumental Legacy, Group of Monuments
at Hampi”, is an illustrated of monographs on heritage sites in India. Each volume in the
series is a unit by itself and is written by a specialist on the site. In this volume he presents
Vijayanagara to the general reader and visitor to the site. It traces the foundation myths and
the history of the site and discusses its location within a wider historical and geographical
setting. Specialized information is provided on the site, its architectural and sculptural details
and its uniqueness.
Statement of the Problem
Vijayanagara is considered by many today, especially in the states of Karnataka and
Andhra Pradesh, to have been a golden age of culture and learning. By the 16th century
almost all of southern India was part of the Vijayanagara Empire. The characteristic feature
of this period is the development of the temple complex, concentric series of rectangular
enclosure walls with the gopuras (towered gateways) in the middle of each side. Hence the
study entitled “contribution of Vijayanagara Empire to Architecture under “makes an
attempt to probe the details of these contributions.

Objectives of the study

1. To analyze the great monuments of Vijayanagara Empire
2. To make an assessment of Vijayanagara rulers contribution to the development of art and
architecture.
Methodology
In the present study literary sources, primary and secondary sources were scanned in order to
examine the different facets of Vijayanagara Empire and its contribution to the art and
architecture development of South India. The source material has been collected both from
primary and secondary sources. The method followed is historical and descriptive. The
secondary material has been collected from the Libraries of Osmania University, Hyderabad;
University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad; University of Madras, Chennai; South East Asian
Study Centre, Hyderabad. The material collected has been thoroughly analysed and used
purposefully.

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When the Sangamas established the kingdom of Vijayanagara, they were confronted with a
question of great significance and which had a great bearing on their style of architecture and
its subsequent development. The question related to what medium or material to be used for
building their temples. In Karnataka before Vijayanagara times, the Hoysalas had developed
to the fullest extent the later Chalukya style of architecture, giving it a distinct stamp of their
own. The Hoysalas used "SCHIST" a soft stone, as the medium of their constructions. But
then, in the middle of the 14th century, the Sangamas decided to go in for granite as the
building material for their temples.
They decided to use hard granite instead of the then popular soft Schist for three reasons.
Schist quarries were situated in the heartland of the erstwhile Hoysala kingdom, where
opposition to the Sangamas still prevailed. Whereas granite was available on the site in
plenty, it was also a very economic medium as compared to Schist. So, they would rather
spend the money saved on their campaigns and for defence purposes. Lastly, a rich
architectural tradition in granite was already available in Tamil country which was readily
made use of by the rulers.
The hard granite stone was not suitable for the delicate filigree work that could be carved on
Schist.What the artists had to sacrifice on the delicacy of the work was compensated by the
massiveness of the sculptures. The crude hard granite boulders were transformed by the
sculptors into images of awesome beauty and charm, symbolising the vibrant and mighty
power of the Vijayanagara rulers.
The Vijayanagara architecture can be further divided into:
1) Religious Architecture
2) Civil Architecture
3) Military Architecture
Religious Architecture:
Having decided on granite, the architectural traditions of Tamil country were adopted. There
was also a substantial Tamil influence in the temple rituals which resulted in elaborate temple
layout to perform many of these rituals. Hence, a typical Vijayanagara temple consists of a
Sanctum, a circumambulatory passage, an ante-chamber, an ardha mantapa, a pillared hall
with entrance on three sides, a front pillared hall, a kalyana mantapa, shrines for the attendant
deities and an enclosed courtyard with entrances adorned by lofty 'Gopuras.' Balakrishna
temple is a very good example of a Vijayanagara temple.

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Civil Architecture:
While almost all the religious structures were built in granite, it is very unfortunate that the
rulers built their palaces in wood, for, none of them has survived. Compared to the original
state of the city, the existing ruined specimens are only a few, representing minor edifices
like guards quarters and elephant stables. For civil architecture, stone was used for the base
while various materials like stone, wood, metal and brick were employed for the
superstructure. The buildings were originally painted and gilded.
Defense Architecture:
The natural fortification was further strengthened by the rulers by linking up the rapid
flowing Tungabhadra, the massive granite boulders and steep and unclimbable hills, by
means of massive lines of fortification-walls. The seven concentric fortification walls
enclosed an area of 26 square kilometres.
Temple structures
Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines
consist simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch. Medium sized temples have a
garbhagriha, shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and
outer mandapa (hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall
Rayagopuram built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to
indicate a gopura built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara
resembling a barrel made to rest on its side. Large life sized figures of men, woman, Gods
and Goddesses adorn the gopuram. This Tamil dravida influenced style became popular
during the rule of king Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over
the next 200 years. Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur, and
the temples at Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium sized temples
also have a closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an
open mahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to
serve the needs of annual celebrations.

Temple pillars often have engravings of charging horses or hippogryphs (Yali) -

horses standing on hind legs with their fore legs lifted and riders on their backs. The horses
on some pillars stand seven to eight feet tall. On the other side of the pillar are usually
carvings from Hindu mythology. Pillars that do not have such hippogryphs are generally
rectangular with mythology themed decoration on all sides. Some pillars have a cluster of
smaller pillars around a central pillar shaft. The bottom supports of these pillars have

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engravings of Gods and Goddesses. Carvings of Hippogryphs clearly show the adroitness of
the artists who created them.
The Mantapas are built on square or polygonal plinths with carved friezes that are four to five
feet high and have ornate stepped entrances on all four sides with miniature elephants or with
Yali balustrades (parapets). The Mantapas are supported by ornate pillars. The thousand
pillared style with large halls supported by numerous pillars was popular. The 1000 pillared
Jain basadi at Mudabidri is an example. Larger temples have a separate shrine for the female
deity. Some examples of this are the Hazara Rama , Balakrishna and Vitthala temples at
Hampi.

Some shrines in the Vitthalapura area inside Vijayanagara were consecrated

specifically for Tamil Alwar saints and for the great Vaishnava saint, Ramanujacharya.
Architecturally they are different in that each shrine has an image depicting the saint for
whose worship the temple was built. Each shrine has its own enclosure, and a separate
kitchen and pilgrim feeding hall. The water storage tank inside the royal center, the stepped
tank called Pushkarni, is a recent archaeological discovery. The stepped tank is fashioned
with finished chlorite schist slabs arranged in a symmetrical formation with steps and
landings descending to the water on all four sides. This is clearly a Western Chalukya-
Hoysala style tank and is seen in many parts of present day Karnataka. The inscriptions on
the slabs indicate the material was brought from outside the Vijayanagara area.

Palaces
Much of what is known today of Vijayanagara palaces is drawn from archaeological
excavations at Hampi as no royal palace structures have survived. Most palaces stand within
their own compound defined by high tapering walls made of stone or layered earth. Palaces
are approached through a sequence of courts with passageways and doorways requiring
multiple changes in direction. All palaces face east or north. The larger palaces have side
extensions giving the complex a symmetrical shape. Palaces were built on raised platforms
made of granite. The platforms have multiple tiers of mouldings with well decorated friezes.
The decorations can be floral, Kirtimukha shapes (demon faces), geese, elephants and
occasionally human figures. Pillars, beams and rafters inside the palace were made of wood
as evidenced by ash discovered in excavations. The roof was made of brick or lime concrete,
while copper and ivory were used for finials. Palaces commonly consisted of multiple levels
with each flight of stairs decorated by balustrades on either side, with either yali (imaginary

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beast) or elephant sculptures. The entrance steps into palaces and temple mantapas were
similarly decorated. Water tanks inside the palace complex have decorative water spouts such
as the carved torso of the Nandi with a gaping mouth to allow water flow into the tank. Other
structures commonly found inside a palace complex are wells and shrines.

The courtly architecture generally show secular styles with Islamic influences.
Examples are the Lotus Mahal palace, Elephant stables, and watch towers. Courtly buildings
and domed structures were built with mortar mixed with stone rubble. The impact of this
style of architecture was seen well into the 17th century when the various successive Nayaka
kingdoms continued to encourage pillars with Hippogryphs and granite became the main
building material.

Famous Temples outside Vijayanagara

While the empire is well known for its monuments in the regal capital, Vijayanagara,
it also built many temples in other areas of South India. Well known among these in
Karnataka are Chaturmukha Basadi and Parshwanatheshwara Basadi (15th century) in
Gerusoppa, Parshwanatheshwara Basadi, Santappanaik Tirumala Temple, Virupaksha
Narayan Temple (1565), Bala Kini Raghunath Temple (1550) and Khetapai Narayan Temple
at Bhatkal, Aryadurga Temple (1505) at Ankola, Partakali Jivottam Mutt (1560) at Gokarna,
Mahalasa Narayan Temple (1565) at Kumta, Mahaganapati Mahamaya Temple (1560) at
Shirali, Iswar Temple at Baindur, Balaram Temple at Malpe, Indrani Temple at Manipal,
Vidyashankara Temple (1357) at Sringeri, Bhoganandiswara Temple and Yoganandiswara
Temple at Nandi Hills, Kanakachalapathi Temple in Koppal district, Someswara Temple at
Kolar, Ganesha Temple at Kurudumale, Tyaramalleshwara Temple (1466) at Hiriyur, Nandi
Temple at Bangalore and others.
In Andhra Pradesh the empire built the Mallikarjuna Temple at Srisailam, Upper
Narasimha Temple and Lower Narasimha Temple at Ahobilam, Veera Bhadra Temple at
Lepakshi and Venkateswara Temple at Tirupati and others. In Tamil Nadu the empire built
the Vijayaraghava Permal temple modelled after the famous temples at Tirupati with statues
of Krishnadevaraya in Thayar Sanithi pillars facing each other.
An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the
presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history
concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara Empire and the Deccan
Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many

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arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. The concentration of structures like
pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty. The decorative details of
these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th
century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to
have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been
Muslim architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened
during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms. The "Great Platform"
(Mahanavami dibba) has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features
of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.
Vijayanagar (Vijayanagara) style of architecture came to existence in the 14th century AD
and reached its zenith during times of Krishnadeva Raya and Achuta Deva. The architecture
reflected the power of their rulers. Under them temples became an elaborate institution
containing large number of structures.
Nearly 1250 temples of the region underwent major phase of expansion under Vijayanagar
rule. In the temples, the Gopurams (templeentrances) were intricately carved and increased in
height reaching upto 13 stories and, the pyramid structure was crowned with bronze
kalasams. They also increased in number as each new ruler added one in his own glory.
Ardha-mandaps (passage-ways, the earlier antarala) became large and contained exquisite
sculptures & paintings. Mahamandaps (main hall) became huge containing upto 100 pillars.
And, along with the Garbhagriha (sanctum- sanctorum), the Amman shrine (subsidiary shrine
dedicated to consort of the chief deity) and Kalyan mandapa (hall for wedding ceremony of
gods) became compulsory. The finest examples of Vijayanagar temples are the Vitthal
Swamy and the Hazar Ramaswamy temples at Hampi.
Vijayanagara temples are usually surrounded by a strong enclosure. Small shrines consist
simply of a garbhagriha (sanctum) and a porch.Medium sized temples have a garbhagriha,
shukanasi (antechamber), a navaranga (antrala) connecting the sanctum and outer mandapa
(hall), and a rangamantapa (enclosed pillared hall). Large temples have tall Rayagopuram
built with wood, brick and stucco in Chola style. The term Raya is added to indicate a gopura
built by Vijayanagar Rayas. The top of the gopuram has a shalashikhara resembling a barrel
made to rest on its side. Large life sized figures of men, woman, Gods and Goddesses adorn
the gopuram. This Tamil dravida influenced style became popular during the rule of king
Krishnadevaraya and is seen in South Indian temples constructed over the next 200 years.
Examples of Rayagopuram are the Chennakesava Temple in Belur, and the temples at
Srisailam and Srirangam. In addition to these structures, medium sized temples also have a

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closed circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha) passage around the sanctum, an

openmahamantapa (large hall), a kalyanamantapa (ceremonial hall) and a temple tank to
serve the needs of annual celebrations.
The Vijayanagar rulers were amongst the greatest of temple builders.Lepakshi in Andhra
Pradesh houses the Virabhadreswara Swami temple.This temple is known for its exquisite
carvings in the unfinished Kalyana Mandapam as well as for its collossal Nandi and its
elegant murals which depict the various manifestations of Shiva. The murals here are full of
vitality. Mention must be made of depictions of Kirataarjuneeyam, Dakshinamurthy and the
divine wedding of Shiva and Parvati. The mukhamandapa has an 50 feet long panel, which
bears paintings narrating the legend of Manu needhi Cholan (also portrayed in Tiruvarur
which incidentally also houses murals depicting the legend of Mucukunda Chakravarti). The
mukhamandapam also bears paintings depicting Krishna as a child, and scenes from the
Mahabharata illustrating Draupadi's wedding.
Conclusion
Temple architecture received a new impetus and reached to new heights under the patronage
of the Vijayanagar rulers. About the architecture of the period, Prof. S.K. Saraswati has
observed, “The most frequent design is one in which the shaft becomes either a central core
or background for a group of statuary, of substantial proportion and carved practically on the
ground. Important features of Vijayanagar style of temple and architecture were: monolithic
pillars, ornate brackets, decoration on exterior side of the walls, etc.
Though Vijayanagara is no more a city, it has long been host to the usual assortments that come
with being a temple town; a bazaar, some shops, hotels. In the rush to conserve the site, the ASI
evicted the bazaar and all its inhabitants; themselves all part of a historic culture that thrived
In this land . Krishnadevaraya restored many shrines throughout south India especially
lavished wealth upon the temples at Tirupati, Srisailam, Kanchi, and Tanjore. He added huge
gopurams over the main gateways of these temples & hence they are called as Rajagopurams.
Another secular building within the citadel of Vijayanagara is the King‟s audience Hall. The
audience hall has hundreds of pillars arranged in 10 rows of 10 pillars each. The fragments of
the pillars indicate that they had square bases, cylindrical shafts and bricked capitals. Secular
buildings of the Indi-Muslim style have also been unearthed at Hampi. They are Kamal
Mahal, Queen‟s Bath, Watch Tower, Elephant & Horse stables, Market place, Royal Mint
(tankashala), and Royal Balance. (Rajatulabaram)
From the above account it is clear that Vijayanagara empire represted a magnificient epoch in
the history of south India .which can never be forgotten. Paes claimed Vijayanagara or the

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city of victory”, is the best provided city in the world. Now Hampi or Vijayanagara has been
included in the UNESCO‟s list of places of global significance and needs a master plan for
its conservation. The government of Karnataka, together with the Archeological survey of
India & assistance from UNSECO, the Smithsonian Institution and several countries has
undertaken gigantic work of excavation in the city’s 26sq kms of area. Mapping of the
principal remains & buildings are being done and many areas have been dug up to expose to
view remains of temples, palaces, tanks & other structures that lay buried for centuries.
Without interfering with their original shape, a number of structural remains & sculptures are
being restored in addition to partional rebuilding & replacement of building elements. Thus
Hampi became a vast open air museum. To conclude in the words of the art critics “though
the city became a victim of destruction and plunder, it retains its charm even in the ruins”.

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