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Article history: The advancement on the physical heat transfer model in granular system is crucial for the energy process
Received 13 June 2014 efficiency development such as flights rotary kiln encountered in many industrial areas. The present paper
Accepted 14 October 2014 is devoted to a coupled thermal-granular model development applied to that process. Based on the ex-
Available online 29 October 2014
change surfaces estimation governing the heat transfer phenomena, the granular motion distribution is
calculated in the kiln cross-section. The granular volume fraction is accurately obtained in a dilute regime
Keywords:
characterized by one active phase (curtain area) and a granular dense regime characterized by two passive
Numerical simulation
phases (within a bed and the loaded flights). A suitable energy balance, where the fully heat transfer
Heat transfer
Granular mixing
phenomena are considered, is established in an elementary volume and integrated along the kiln. The
Rotary drum numerical results are compared to a set of experiments performed in an industrial flights rotary kiln
Energy efficiency applied to the hot-mix asphalt materials manufacture. The relative errors reach less than 5% on the gases
Hot-mix-asphalt and materials temperature. Finally, a set of simulations is carried out in order to analyze the role played by
the rotational speed and flights in the frame of a suitable energy diagnostics for future process design.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. State of the art angled cylinders rotate at low angular velocity, while internal
flights are often added in order to improve materials mixing and
Many inorganic chemical industries employed rotary kilns for increase their surface renewal. The temperature range of that
drying, reacting, mixing, granulating, coating or heating solids thermal equipment extends from 373 to 2000 K. This widespread
materials, and in many cases there are used to achieve a combi- usage can be attributed to the variable feedstock, as for example
nation of these stages. They are widely used in the fields of building granular materials having large variations in particles size, or the
materials, metallurgical and chemical industries as a unit operation ability to achieve reduction or oxidation reaction of materials from
in the chemical engineering [1]. Within recent years, rotary kilns the freeboard gases [4].
are commonly used for the thermal treatment of waste materials Rotary kiln reactor can be classified as direct-heat, indirect-heat
[2], for immobilize heavy metals in green waste composting pro- or combined direct-indirect heat kilns. This classification depends
cess [3]. Geometry of rotary kiln is characterized by a long, low- on the method of the hot gases stream inlet. In direct-heat kiln, the
heat is supplied to solid materials by direct exchange between
convective gas and solid materials. The indirect rotary kiln is
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ33 240 845 775; fax: þ33 240 845 993. dedicated to the granular flow materials while the heating source is
E-mail address: florian.huchet@ifsttar.fr (F. Huchet). provided by an external way (micro-waves, ohmic heating …).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2014.10.052
1359-4311/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1012 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021
Direct-heat kilns are often used when the contact between solid The heat transfer between the covered wall and covered lower
materials and gas are not harmful [5]. This kind of furnaces is one of bed, Q_ bw , this is an integral approach composed of the serial
the most energy intensive industrial process with important ther- connection of contact resistance between the wall and the solid
mal energy consumption. Indeed, the energy required to conduct materials [17]. The heat transfer coefficient hbw can be defined
rotary kiln is provided by combustible, typically from fossil fuel or by an expression proposed by Tscheng and Watkinson, (1979)
natural gas. For an efficient rotary kiln, maximum of energy must be [18]. This correlation is widely used in the literature, for several
transferred to the solid materials. Fundamentally, rotary kiln mathematical models describing heat transfer by contact be-
reactor is considered as being heat exchanger in which energy from tween the covered inner wall surface and the solid bed in
hot steam gases is transferred to the solid phase. rotating kiln [4,6,17,19,20].
In the design or modeling of rotary kilns, four important prop- The heat transfer between the exposed wall and hot gases, Q_ gw ,
C R
erties should be considered from a process engineering point view: including both convection, Q_ gw , term and radiation term, Q_ gw .
heat transfer, granular flow, gases-solid mass transfer and kinetics Convective heat transfer coefficient, hgw, between hot gases and
reaction [6]. However, heat transfer is the most significant, because internal wall can be defined by expression proposed by
in many applications heat transport becomes the physical limiting SeghireOuali et al. (2006) [21]. This correlation is widely used in
step [4,7,8]. the literature for turbulent axial air flowing in a rotating cylin-
In rotary kiln, heat transfers occur predominantly through the der [22].
transverse direction and longitudinal heat transfers can be The heat losses at the kiln wall with its surroundingQ_ we , are
neglected [9,10] the temperature gradient is low in a straight sec- estimated by the correlation of Labraga and Berkah, (2004) [23]
tion of the rotating kiln. Heat transfers between solid materials, hot and used by Le Guen et al. (2013) [24] for the determination of
gases and wall involve mainly radiation and convection phenom- the heat transfer coefficient, hwe.
ena. So, calculation of the heat fluxes exchange into the rotary kiln
requires knowledge of heat transfer surfaces and the convective The rotary kilns are often designed with flights in order to
and radiative properties; particularly the heat transfers coefficients discharge the solid materials in the cross-section over the length
and the emissivity of the solid, the kiln wall, and the hot gases, an of the kiln. So, materials are alternately lifted and dropped
accurate definition of the heat transfer coefficients being available repeatedly to form a solid curtain. Thus, the heat transfer surfaces
in Appendix A. In flight rotary kiln, the heat transfers occur via the depend mainly on the solid distribution in the cross-section of the
following mechanisms shown in Fig. 1: kiln. Indeed, in flight rotary kiln, the solid materials can be in the
active phase (curtain, upper surface of bed) or in the passive phase
The heat transfer between the exposed upper solid bed and hot (granular bed and flights area) [25]. Nonetheless, the solid ma-
C terials are also continuously exchanging between the two phases
gasesQ_ , including both convection term, Q_ , and radiation
bg bg
R
and the heat transfer depends on the flow properties of the solid
term, Q_ bg . The convective heat transfer, hbg, coefficient be- materials (angle of repose) and operational parameters (air flow
tween the bed and hot gases can be defined by the expression rate, slope of the kiln, angular velocity and flight/kiln geometry).
proposed by some authors (Gorog et al., 1982) [11]. This Several methods for calculating the materials distribution in ro-
approach is widely used in the literature, for several mathe- tary kiln are developed in the literature. Sherrit et al. (1993) [26]
matical models describing bed solid/hot gases heat transfer in proposed a method for free-flowing granular materials to calcu-
rotating kiln (Barr et al. 1989) [12e14], (Ding et al. 2001) late the hold-up in a lifter. Puyvelde (2009) [27] calculated the
(Boateng et al. 2008). hold-up of material from a geometrical model for different ge-
The heat transfer between the solid contained in the curtain and ometries proving the performance of these lifters. Lee and Shee-
C
hot gases, Q_ cg , including both convection term, Q_ cg , and radi- han (2010) presented an experimental study of the effect of
R
ation term, Q_ cg . The convective heat transfer, hcg, coefficient operating parameters on a discharge law for one lifter [28]. Recent
between the solid contained in the curtain and the hot gases can work of Sunkara et al. (2013)a [29] and Sunkara et al. (2013)b [30]
be defined by expression proposed by Li and Mason, (2000) [15]. include a dimensional analysis of flights. The same method has
Li and Mason, (2000) [15] found that the Ranz and Marchal also been used by Debacq et al. (2013)a [31] and Debacq
(1952) [16] approach is accurate for Rep < 200, while at larger et al.(2013)b [32] for the transverse solid distributions calculation
Rep these same authors [15] propose new correlations. of an industrial powder rotary kiln. An identical strategy is pres-
ently applied in the frame of the granular materials discharge
evaluation. The discharge characteristics of each flight is calcu-
lated from several parameters that affect the solid materials dis-
tribution such as: the kiln diameter, the number and the flights
design, the rotational speed, the physical materials parameters
and the kiln loading.
Several authors were carried out investigations on the one-
dimensional steady state heat transfer model of smooth rotary
kiln. Generally, in the literature, rotary kiln without flights is used
for modeling heat transfer to improve the understanding of the
operating conditions upon the energy consumption in cement kiln
[5,43], or in pyrolysis kiln [6,33e35]. Some studies with flight ro-
tary kiln used for drying solid materials are also presented in the
literature [36,37]. Nonetheless, these latter models are based on a
heat exchange surface averaged at the kiln-scale, only usable for
one equipment and one material.
Fig. 1. Sketch of a typical flight rotary kiln: cross-section view that exhibit the mains
C R C R This state of art shows that many applications are concerned by
relative heat exchange fluxes. With Q_ bg and Q_ bg for bed/gas exchanges, Q_ gw and Q_ gw
for gas/wall exchanges, Q_ bw for bed/wall exchange and Q_ we for wall/environment the flight rotary kiln. An accurate prediction of the heat transfer is
exchange. needed for the granular processes design. Despite the high
M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021 1013
performance computing resource progress, the present two- Finally, the temperature of rotating kiln wall is also supposed
phase flow deserves to be treated differently than by direct nu- homogeneous along the radius r and the discharge angle d.
merical simulation. The present work proposes a numerical tool
based on a coupled thermal granular system including a first stage 2.2. Solids distribution model
devoted to the surface exchange estimation, the second stage
being dedicated to the energy balance solving the fully heat The solids distribution model describes the solid materials
transfer phenomena. The added values of this work include a transport within flight rotary kiln in order to estimate the active
comparison between the numerical results and experimental data phase and the passive phase. First, the mean solid residence time
recently obtained at the pilot [20] and large-scale [24]. Several proposed by Friedman et al. (1949) [38] is used to estimate the
simulations are finally conducted in order to point out the relative flight rotary kiln hold-up fT according to the following relationship:
importance of the rotational speed and flight design upon the !
energy efficiency. 0:23 3:6,104 m_ g
RTD ¼ L ± (1)
xDN 0:9 d0:5
p ms
_
Fig. 3. Rotary kiln with geometrical parameters and flight discharge characteristics. hF ðdÞ cos εB rH sin d tan q cos d
¼ þ (11)
R cos q R cos a
Finally, the amount of particles presents in the curtain is given
et al. (2013a) [29] the kiln is divided into three zones (Fig. 3) and the
by:
filling degree of the flight can be estimated as:
3
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Zone I (d g):
2 dNp dp h ðdÞ dfF;i ðdÞ
¼ 2Fr F ¼ fC;i ðdÞ (12)
3 dz D2 R dd
"
1 r cosðk gÞ sin g þ ε* f with Np the number of particle contain in the curtain and fC,i(d)
fF;i ðdÞ ¼ g þ ε* f H represents the filling degree of the curtain.
2p R cos a cosðf gÞ
2 2 #
l l 2.2.2. Rotary kiln hold-up
2 tanðf gÞ 3 cosðp b1 Þcosðp b2 Þ
R R The rotary kiln hold-up fT is estimated by the mean solid resi-
dence time, after the bed hold-up, fB, the flights hold-up, fF, and the
(5)
curtain hold-up, fC, is calculated according to the following
discharge law:
Zone II ðg d ðd þ g þ aÞÞ: 1
fB ¼ ðε sinεB $cosεB Þ (13)
p B
Then, the total heat transfer surface in the curtain dScg is ob- Gas phase:
tained from the number of active flights and curtain hold-up fC
given from Eq. (12) and Eq. (18) by the following expression: dTg
m_ g Cpg ¼ hgw lgw Tw Tg þ sEgw Flgw Tw 4
Tg4
dz
r D
dScg ¼ lcg dz ¼ nF;a 3p b f Rdz (19) þ hbg lbg þ hcg lcg Ts Tg (22)
rs dp C
þ sEbg F lbg þ lcg Ts4 Tg4
where lcg features a characteristics length corresponding to the
heat exchange in the elementary length dz. Thus, heat transfer
surface in the curtain depends on the volume fraction transported Solid phase
by the flight fF during the kiln rotation and number of flights car-
rying materials nF,a. So, the amount of materials contained in a
dTs
flight is a function of the design of flight and the position of that m_ s Cps ¼ hbw lbw ðTw Ts Þ þ hbg lbg þ hcg lcg Tg Ts
flight, as well as the material properties. dz X
Similarly, the gases to the solid bed surface depend on a charac- þ sEgs F lbg þ lcg Tg4 Ts4 þ n_ i DH
teristic length, lbg, estimated from the bed filling angle εB from Eq. (12).
(23)
dSbg ¼ lbg dz ¼ 2 sinðεB ÞRdz (20) where, n_ i is the production rate for various species involved in the
chemical reaction, while DH corresponding to enthalpy of the re-
action. However for inert materials, the chemical reaction can be
2.4. One-dimensional heat transfer model ignored.
One additional condition is necessary to close the differential
Fig. 4 shows a general scheme of a direct-heat rotary kiln ordinary equation system by assuming no net energy accumulation
working at co-current. The cold materials equal to Ts(0) are intro- occurs within the wall. So the energy conservation at wall is:
duced in the inclined kiln at z ¼ 0, and need to be heated to Ts(Lkiln)
4
from hot gases equal to Tg(0). Energy balances are established by hwe dSwe ðTw Te Þ þ sεw FdSwe Tw Te4
considering a transverse slice (see Fig. 4) and the section is divided
¼ hbw dSbw ðTs Tw Þ þ hgw dSgw Tg Tw (24)
into volumes in order to predict the axial evolution of the solid
materials and hot gases temperature into the rotary kiln. The þ sEgw FdSgw Tg4 Tw 4
Fig. 5. Dependence of the volume fraction in the active phase on the axial temperature
Fig. 4. Sketch of rotary kiln working at co-current. The physical kiln model is dis- profile of gases and solid materials temperatures. dScg are calculated for aggregates
cretized according to the axial motion. materials with nF ¼ 12 and operating condition of Le Guen et al. (2013) [24].
1016 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021
used to manufacture hot mix asphalt. During the production pro- Geometrical parameters
cess, the aggregates are conveyed from stockpiles to rotary kiln Kiln Flights Zone 1 Zone 2
where materials are heated at a temperature range between 150 C
L [m] 4 nF 15 14
and 200 C. Then, the aggregates are mixed with the bituminous
D [m] 1.7 l1 [m] 0.23 0.25
binder to produce the final Hot-Mix-Asphalt. fT[-] 0.24 l2 [m] 0.14 0.05
The equipment is those presented in the work of Le Guen et al. x [ ] 3 l3 [m] 0.10 0.00
(2014) [24] characterized by two area separated by a recycling ring
in the case of recycled materials utilization. Two flights geometries
are used in this kind of rotary kiln (Fig. 6). In the zone 1, the flight Table 2
loading reaches its upper limit in order to promote the active phase Operating conditions from [Le Guen et al., 2013].
and to enhance the heat exchange between hot gases and solid Operations conditions 1 2 3 4
materials. Then, the zone 2 conducts to the mixing between the hot
Solid feed rate m_ s [kg s1] 25.7 29.6 30.8 34.0
aggregates with recycled ones in order to reach a uniform tem- Hot gases feed rate m_ g [kg s1] 2.7 3.1 3.0 3.3
perature equal to about 440 K before bitumen injection. In this Hot gases velocity u [m s1] 3.00 3.16 3.19 3.32
process area, the flight is designed in order to avoid the contact Solid materials diameter dp [m] 0.005 0.005 0.005 0.005
between hot gases and recycled materials. Velocity causes entrainment [m s1] 22.04 22.93 22.92 22.88
of the solids materials ulim
The inventory of the industrial kiln parameters are presented in
Angular kiln velocity N [rpm] 9 9 9 9
Table 1, while the operating conditions of the working fluid and Froude number Fr [e] 0.077 0.077 0.077 0.077
solid are summarized in Table 2.
With respect to the Stokes law, the gas velocity into the rotary
kiln is inferior to the limiting velocity, ulim, necessary to the parti-
two flights need to satisfy the following criterion [40] in order to
cles entrainment in the gas phase. The maximum speed ulim is re-
load completely the first flight at d ¼ 0:
capped in Table 2.
Fig. 7 represents the volume fraction of the flight fF,i(d) and the
360
heat transfer surface per unit of kiln length, lcg,i(d), according to the rHs tan a > l1 tan g (25)
angular position d of the flight. The heat transfer length lcg,i(d) nF
reaches its maximum value when the flight is in the third region of So, the flight design mounted in the zone 1 is more efficient for
solid distribution model, when d ¼ (d þ g þ a), as aforementioned convective and radiative heat transfers than the flight mounted in
(Fig. 2). It is also at this location that the upper limit of the discharge the zone 2. These latter results are in agreement with the work of
rate is observed. Afterwards, the discharge rate decreases until the Sunkara et al. (2013) [29] where the author have showed that the
volume fraction within the flight reaches zero. So, flight design ratio between each flight lengths act on the discharge efficiency.
plays an important role on the distribution of solid materials in the Table 4 reports volume fraction evolving in each phase. The passive
cross-section and consequently on the heat transfer surfaces. The phase contributes respectively to 95% and 98% of the total volume of
augmentation of the flight size tends to increase the heat transfer materials according to the flights size. However, the granular ma-
surface dScg,i(d), yet the solids materials loss during the initial terials are continuously exchanging between the two phases due to
discharge appear to be lower Table 3. the kiln rotation speed. These results are also in agreement with the
The flight number, nF, plays also an important role in the works of Le Guen et al. (2014) [24] performed at the pilot-scale.
determination of heat transfer surface dScg. Limited by the flights Numerical gases and materials thermal responses (Fig. 8) are
size and rotary kiln geometry, the upper limit distance between compared with experimental data [20]. The rotating kiln, as
Fig. 6. Industrial rotary kiln used for HMA plant [24]. The kiln is divided in two zones characterized by their respective flight: the first zone ensures large heat transfer surface and
the second zone ensures mixing between materials (aggregates, recycled materials and bitumen).
M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021 1017
its flow rate, m_ inf , has been measured [24]. Therefore, a mixing Physical properties
temperature, Tg,inf, is established from the heat flow rates measured Density of solid materials [kg m3] rs ¼ 2300
during experimentation [20] in such way that: Bulk density of solid [kg m3] rb ¼ 1150
materials
m_ g;inf ¼ m_ g þ m_ inf (26) Angle of repose [ ] g ¼ 32
Density of gas [kg m3] rg ¼ pM=RTg ¼ 3:5337102 =Tg
Heat capacity of solid [J kg1 K1] Cps ¼ 880
m_ g Cpg Tg ðzÞ þ m_ inf Cpair Te
Tg;inf ¼ (27) materials
m_ g Cpg þ m_ inf Cpair Heat capacity of gas [J kg1 K1] Cpg ¼ a bTg þ cTg2 dTg3
a ¼ 1.0575 103, b ¼ 4.4890 101,
c ¼ 1.1407 103, d ¼ 7.9999 107.
Then, the numerical simulations are assessed in the same
experimental condition presented in Table 2, and shown in Fig. 9.
So, the mean relative error between simulations and measure-
ments are equal to 0.97% for the solid charge, 5.60% for gases plant), the waste heat are connected to the wall losses contributing
temperature and 4.19% for wall temperature. Therefore, one can to 5% while the flue gas contribute to 30%.
conclude that the performance of the flight rotary kiln model is
acceptable in industrial condition.
As shown in Fig. 10, the heat transfers distribution, including 3.2. Effects of flight design and kiln rotational speed upon the
radiation and convection, is compared between the zone 1 and the energy efficiency
zone 2. Among them, the heat transfer between granular materials
and the hot gases represents respectively 96% and 72% from one to The flight geometry influence is studied from two control pa-
the others. This decrease is due to lower value of the radiative heat rameters based on the ratios l1/l2 and l1/D. For each flight ratio, the
transfer between solid materials and hot gases while the secondary upper limit of flight number is calculated, nF,a. Two criteria deserve
air flow improve the convective heat transfer between the wall and to be examined, who's the curtain hold-up fC and the heat transfer
the hot gases. Practically and for that application (continuous HMA efficiency ε given by:
Fig. 7. Evolution of flight hold-up fF,i(d) and heat transfer surface lcg,i(d) of industrial rotary kiln versus the position along the discharge angle d. As expected, flights geometry affects
the material amount within the flight, and consequently increase or decrease the active phase.
1018 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021
Table 4
Distribution of aggregates in the flight rotary kiln. Q_ m_ g Cpg Tg;ð0Þ TgðLÞ
ε¼ ¼ (28)
Zones Aggregates distribution [%] Q_ max m_ g Cpg Tg;ð0Þ Tsð0Þ
fB/fT fF/fT fC/fT
The curtain hold-up fC and the heat transfer efficiency ε increase
1 76 19 5
2 94 4 2
until approximately l1/l2 ¼ 1. Above l1/l2 ¼ 1, the curtain hold-up
and the heat transfer efficiency decrease. So, the optimal flight
design is obtained at highest flight ratio, l1/D, for l1/l2 ranged be-
tween 0.75 and 1.25 (Fig. 11). However the flight size l1 require a
lower size than the bed height in order to fill entirely the flight.
The kiln rotational speed is known for its effect on the granular
mixing while the impact on the heat transfer are not still under-
stood [44]. Fig. 12a demonstrates that the rotational speed has a
notable effect on the kiln hold-up fT, the bed hold-up fB. Their values
decrease when the Froude number rises.
Fig. 12b reveals also the role played by the rotational speed upon
the flight rotary kiln efficiency. In the present case, for
0.03 < Fr < 0.1, the efficiency rises rapidly in the granular flow
regime corresponding to the cascading motion. Those results are in
agreement established in smooth rotating drum. Indeed, from
Fig. 8. Evolution of the hot gases (Tg), solid materials (Ts) and wall (Tw) temperatures Fr ¼ 0.1, the efficiency tend to be stable corresponding to the cat-
versus the position along the rotary kiln axis. These numerical results are compared to aracting motion characterized by an uniform bed leading to a
the experimental data published by Le Guen et al. (2013) [24]. The initial gas and solid constant exchange surface. We can expect that for Fr >> 1, it would
temperatures are respectively equal to 1005 K and 370 K. result a centrifugal motion unfavorable to the heat transfer
efficiency.
4. Conclusion
Fig. 10. Distribution of heat transfer inside rotary kiln used for produce Hot-Mix-Asphalt. The difference of heat transfer distribution between the two zones is due to the decreased
of the surface of the active phase dSa.
M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021 1019
are assessed up to 5%, the rest being imputed to the exhaust flue gas
(~30%)
Several simulations have been also conduct for process design
diagnostics. The role of the rotational speed and flights designs was
expressed leading to the mains conclusions:
Greek letters
Fig. 12. a) Evolution of kiln hold-up, flight hold-up, bed hold-up and curtain hold-up a flight angle [rad]
versus Froude number Fr. b) Evolution of heat transfer efficiency, ε, versus Froude
number, Fr. Fr increases solid velocity and reduces the kiln hold-up. An increasing
b flight angle [rad]
rotational speed modifies the solid motion inside the kiln and increases the heat g kinetic angle of repose [rad]
transfer efficiency. d discharge angle [rad]
1020 M. Piton et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 75 (2015) 1011e1021
dL final discharge point of flight the flight [rad] convective heat transfer inside a rotating cylinder with an axial air
ε efficiency [e] flow. Experimental data leads to the following correlation:
εB angle of material bed [rad]
F auxiliary coordinate [rad] Nugw ¼ hgw Dh lg ¼ 0:02Re0:93 þ 8:5:106 Re1:45
u (A.3)
k auxiliary coordinate [rad]
u angular kiln velocity [rad s1] where the equivalent diameter Dh ¼ 0.5D(2p εB þ sinεB)/(p εB/
s StefaneBoltzmann constant [W m2 K4] 2 þ sinεB/2) was introduced. Then, Eq. (A.3) is valid for a rotational
q dynamic angle of repose [rad] Reynolds number Reu between 1.6 103 and 4.7 105 and a Rey-
l thermal conductivity [W m1 K1] nolds number Re between 0 and 3 104.
rb bulk density of the material [kg m3] Finally [23], conducted a set of experimentations on the heat
r density [kg m3] transfer in cross flows around rotating circular cylinders. Experi-
n kinematic viscosity [m2 s1] mental data leads to the following correlation:
m dynamic viscosity [kg m1 s1] 1=3
x slope of the kiln [ ] Nuwe ¼ hwe D la ¼ 0:135 0:5Re2u þ Re2∞ þ Gr (A.4)
Then, Eq. (A.4) is valid for 1.1 103 < Reu < 5.8 104 and
Subscript 0 < Re < 3 104.
B bed
C curtain
F flight Heat contact transfer between the covered wall and bed
g studied phase
s solid Heat is transferred to solid bed by two paths, across the active
g gas phase and from the kiln wall. Heat transfer coefficient between the
w wall covered wall and bed hsw is computed according to established
inf recycling ring infiltration literature correlations by Tscheng and Watkinson, (1979) [18]:
0:3
ls 2εB R2 u
hsw ¼ 11:6 (A.5)
Appendix A. Heat transfer coefficient 2εB R as
Convective heat transfer coefficient in rotary kiln where, as is the thermal diffusivity of solids. Then, Eq. (28) is valid
for a rotation rate u between 3.5 and 10.
Convective heat transfer includes four heat transfer coefficient:
hbg between hot gases and the solid bed, hcg between hot gases and Radiative transfer
suspension solids, hgw between hot gases and exposed wall and hwe
between external wall and environment. The classic correlation for Radiative heat transfers are influenced by the emissivity char-
turbulent convection of McAdams, (1954) [41] hgw(b) ¼ 0.023(lg/Dh) acteristics and temperature distribution of hot gases, solid and wall
Re0.8Pr0.3 in a non-established and non-rotating tube is not suitable surface. In this work, radiation heat transfers emissivity coefficients
for the calculation of hgw, hcg and hbg in a rotary kiln. between hot gases and solids Egs, between hot gases and internal
In the literature [11], conduct a set of experiments about the wall Egw and between internal wall and solid were determined from
influence of gas flow rate and solid hold-up upon the convective the radiative model presented by Manitius et al. (1974) [42]:
heat transfer between the solid bed and hot gases in a rotary kiln.
Regression analysis of the experimental data defines the following Egs ¼ εg εs (A.6)
correlation:
Egw ¼ εg εw (A.7)
3600m_ g 0:62
hbg ¼ 0:4 (A.1)
Ag
Ews ¼ εw εs 1 εg (A.8)
where, Ag is the cross section of hot gases phase and m_ g mass flow
where, εg is the radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient of hot
rate of hot gases in the kiln. According to the experimental studies
gases, εw is the radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient of in-
of [11] (Gorog et al., 1982) hbg must be in the range of
ternal wall and εs is the radiation heat transfer emissivity coefficient
50e100 W/m2/K.
of solids. In the rotary kiln, εg depends on concentration of
[15] Li and Mason, (2000) conducted a set of experiments on the
absorbing species such as H2O, CO2, CO, CH4, or fines presents in hot
influence of Rep on the convective heat transfer in particulate flu-
gases. Indeed, gases are mainly composed of H2O and CO2, emis-
idized bed and propose:
sivity of the others components is negligible due to the low con-
1=3 centration [33,34].
Nucg ¼ 2 þ anF 0:6Rep Pr 1=3 Rep < 200
1=2
Nucg ¼ 2 þ anF 0:5Rep þ anF 0:02Re0:8
p Pr
1=3
200 < Rep < 1500
References
NuE ¼ 2 þ anF 4:5:105 Re1:8
p
Rep > 1500
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(A.2) Transients, Phd ,University of Cambridge, 2010.
[2] F. Marias, A model of a rotary kiln incinerator including processes occurring
with Nucg ¼ hcg dp =lS where, dp is the particle diameter and ls is the within the solid and the gaseous phases, Comput. Chem. Eng. 27 (2003)
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