energies
Article
Energy Conversion System and Control of Fuel-Cell and
Battery-Based Hybrid Drive for Light Aircraft
Tomasz Miazga 1, * , Grzegorz Iwański 1, *






Citation: Miazga, T.; Iwański, G.;
Nikoniuk, M. Energy Conversion
System and Control of Fuel-Cell and
Battery-Based Hybrid Drive for Light
Aircraft. Energies 2021, 14, 1073.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041073
Academic Editor:
Kaushik Rajashekara
Received: 9 December 2020
Accepted: 15 February 2021
Published: 18 February 2021
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Energies 2021, 14, 1073. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14041073
and Marcin Nikoniuk 2
1 Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Warsaw University of Technology, 75, Koszykowa St.,
00-662 Warszawa, Poland
2 Faculty of Transport, Warsaw University of Technology, 75, Koszykowa St., 00-662 Warszawa, Poland;
marcin.nikoniuk@pw.edu.pl
* Correspondence: tomasz.miazga@ee.pw.edu.pl (T.M.); iwanskig@isep.pw.edu.pl (G.I.)
Abstract: The paper presents a power electronic conversion system and its control for a fuel cell and
a battery-based hybrid drive system for a motor glider. The energy conversion system is designed in
such a way that the fuel cell gives power equal to the electric drive power demand for horizontal
flight, whereas during motor glider take-off and climbing, the fuel cell is supported by the battery.
The paper presents the power demand related to the assumed mission profile, the main components
of the hybrid drive system and its holistic structure, and details of power electronics control. Selected
stationary experimental test results related to the energy conversion and drive system are shown.
Some results related to the aircraft tests on a runway are presented.
Keywords: fuel cell; energy conversion; energy management; power converter; aircraft propulsion
1. Introduction
Battery electric drives are nowadays intensively developed for road vehicles.
In aerospace, they are commonly used in unmanned aerial vehicles. Similar technolo-
gies in some range can be taken into consideration for light manned aircrafts such as motor
gliders, training aircrafts, or others in which the mission is short. Due to the limited energy
density of presently available electrochemical cells, the range of flight can be increased
by hydrogen fuel cell systems [1–3] for which energy density, including the weight and
volume of fuel cell, hydrogen storage, and supplementary equipment, is higher. However,
to avoid the fuel cell system sizing for peak power needed during take-off and climbing,
and to design it only for the low power during horizontal flight, it is highly recommended
to use a fuel cell as part of a hybrid energy source supported by additional energy storage.
The energy storage provides boost power during take-off and climbing and should be sized
considering both energy and power demand. In academic research the specific energy of
lithium-ion cells reaches 300 Wh/kg [4]. From among commercially available Li-Ion cells
specific energy of 100–220 Wh/kg is available, but those of higher specific energy have
lower power density. Due to relatively short time of energy storage usage during mission
profile, high energy density but low power density cells may not meet the requirements.
Even taking into account Li-Ion cells with specific energy value in the mid-range, it is still
one order higher than commercially available supercapacitor cells (4–6 Wh/kg).
The hybrid-electric drive system with a fuel cell has been described in a few pa-
pers, mainly in terms of fuel cell behavior. As the fuel cell system is the most expensive
component in the entire hybrid drive system, its design and optimization is the most chal-
lenging [5] issue. Possible direct hybridization without a fully controlled power electronic
converter [6] may be considered for small unmanned aerial vehicles. Direct connection
of fuel cell and battery terminals does not allow fully controlled energy management,
which may cause problems in higher power ranges. In a directly connected fuel cell and
battery in a converter-less drive system, load sharing between the fuel cell and battery
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 2 of 18

depends on the battery discharge level, and depending on the battery voltage level, the fuel
cell operates at a different point, one not necessarily optimal in a specific stage of the
aircraft mission.
Some of the developed hybrid drive systems with fuel cells for light aircrafts contain
DC/DC power electronic converters for both fuel cell and battery [7]. Depending on the
power of both devices, such a solution provides voltage matching of the supply devices to
the DC bus voltage required by the motor inverter. However, in the case of motor glider,
the fuel cell power demanded only for horizontal flight is much smaller than the demanded
power of the battery serving as a boosting energy source. At the same time, the battery
energy demand makes it possible to design the battery so that the voltage is high enough to
connect directly to the DC bus. This way, a relatively large bidirectional DC/DC converter
between the battery and the DC bus is avoided. However, if done this way, there is no
direct regulation of the battery current and its control is indirect through the use of battery
current signal in the fuel cell converter control structure.
The superior control structure (energy management) can be made outside the power
converters controllers in the on-board computer, or another external controller which col-
lects the necessary data from the fuel cell, fuel cell DC/DC converter, battery, and load [8].
However, the signal transmission delays and possible faults of the communication network
prompted us to find solutions that allow energy management without communication
system engagement. This is one of the ways hybrid system reliability increases (elimina-
tion of communication system problems as a reason for hybrid drive faults generation).
This way, the on-board computer applied in the designed system is responsible for sending
starting commands only and is not involved in further control of power converters. It is
also used to visualize hybrid drive operation to give some necessary information to the
pilot, and for data collection from the experiments, but this does not influence the hybrid
drive system operation.
Fault prevention can be achieved in a different way, such as through over-sizing of
components, additional protections, redundancy, etc. [9,10]. The proposed solution of
communication-less energy management can be treated as a redundant solution to the
communication-based system. It must be noted that a communication-based system can
have wider functionalities due to the fact that it collects data from all devices simultane-
ously, but in the case of the communication system fault, an additional energy management
method which provides safe control of power converters and assures the demanded power
may be of interest during the design of hybrid-electric propulsion not only with a fuel cell
system, but also with other types of energy sources.
The paper presents the structure of a power electronics-based energy conversion
system and its control for a hybrid drive composed of a 10 kW fuel cell and 30 kW of battery
power for a motor glider. Section 2 presents the assumed profile of propeller torque and
speed related to the stationary conditions and braking power assumed for different stages
of flight. This is followed by the selection of the fuel cell, battery, and motor parameters,
meeting the requirements in terms of energy and power demands. Propeller characteristics
are also provided. Section 3 presents the selected topologies of DC/DC and DC/AC
power converters and their parameters, as well as some discussion about the efficiency of
electrical energy conversion depending on the braking power demand. Section 4 presents
the communication structure and control method, allowing safe operation in case of
communication system fault, followed by some results related to the fuel cell system
protection against overload and its intentional short circuiting. Some discussion related to
other types of possible faults and concepts of how the conversion system should assist in
these states is given. Section 5 presents the experimental tests results for a full profile in
stationary conditions using a fuel cell simulator instead of the real unit. Section 6 presents
the selected results of experimental tests of the fuel cell and battery-based hybrid drive
system in a real motor-glider on a runway.
The main scope of the paper is an alternative control method not involving a com-
munication system in the entire process of the energy conversion unit, which can be used
 Energies 2021, 14, 1073 3 of 17

Energies 2021, 14, 1073 3 of 18

The main scope of the paper is an alternative control method not involving a com-
munication system in the entire process of the energy conversion unit, which can be used
after any used CAN bus communication faults between the fuel cell controller or between
power
after anyconversion
used CANunits.bus communication faults between the fuel cell controller or between
power conversion units.
2. Power System Demands and Components Selection
2.2.1.
Power System
Loading Demands and Components Selection
Profile
2.1. Loading Profile
The power electronics converter and its control for a hybrid-electric drive system
The
described power
in thiselectronics converter and
paper are developed for aits control
motor forof
glider a assumed
hybrid-electric drive system
max. take-off weight
described in this paper are developed for a motor
660 kg. Mission profile is divided into the following stages: glider of assumed max. take-off weight
660•kg.Start-up
Missionofprofile is divided
the power systeminto thes)–30
(0–30 following
s ramp stages:
used
• • Start-up of the power system (0–30 s)–30 s ramp used
Taking-off of the motor glider (30–60 s)–maximum mechanical power 37 kW
• • Taking-off
Climbing of the motor
(60–330 glider (30–60
s)–mechanical s)–maximum
power equal to 33 mechanical
kW power 37 kW
• • Climbing (60–330 s)–mechanical power equal
Horizontal flight (15 min)–mechanical power equal to 9 kW to 33 kW
• Horizontal flight (15 min)–mechanical power equal to 9 kW
• Maneuvering before landing (1 min)–optional
• Maneuvering before landing (1 min)–optional
• Landing
• Landing
Due to the fact that the considered AOS-H2 light aircraft is a glider with relatively
Due to the fact that
high aerodynamic the considered
performance, theAOS-H2
horizontal lightflight
aircraft is a glider
power with relatively
demand high
is significantly
aerodynamic
smaller than the power demand during take-off and climbing. Figure 1 presents thethan
performance, the horizontal flight power demand is significantly smaller pro-
the
filepower
of the demand
demanded during
torque take-off and climbing.
and rotational speedFigure
related1 to
presents the profile
the stationary of the de-
conditions to
manded
obtain thetorque and of
profile rotational
demanded speed relatedIttomust
power. the stationary
be noted conditions to obtain the
that the referenced profile
rotational
of demanded
speed power.
for a given It must be
propeller noted that the
characteristic doesreferenced rotational
not take into speed forthe
consideration a given pro-
character-
peller characteristic does not take into consideration the characteristic change for different
istic change for different velocities of the aircraft, because most tests have been made in
velocities of the aircraft, because most tests have been made in stationary conditions.
stationary conditions.

Figure 1. Propeller torque Tref and rotational speed nref profile for stationary tests of electric drive.
Figure 1. Propeller torque Tref and rotational speed nref profile for stationary tests of electric drive.
2.2.Fuel
2.2. FuelCell
CellParameters
Parameters
AA1010kW kWfuelfuel cell
cell system
system used
used in the
in the designed
designed platform
platform suffices
suffices to the
to keep keep the hori-
horizontal
zontal
flight flight without
without the use ofthe use of aThe
a battery. battery. The
fuel cell fuel
unit cell unit two
comprises comprises
H-5000two H-5000stacks
Horizon’s Hori-
zon’s stacks whose construction has been adapted to the airframe.
whose construction has been adapted to the airframe. The main parameters of the selectedThe main parameters
of thestack
single selected single stack
are provided are provided
in Table 1. Detailsin of
Table 1. Details
the single of thestack
original single
areoriginal stack
available are
in the
available [11].
datasheet in the datasheet
Figure [11].voltage-current
2 presents Figure 2 presents voltage-current
and power-current and characteristics
output power-current
of the single
output stack.
characteristics of the single stack.
Detailed properties of the fuel cell system, composed of two series connected stacks
Table 1. Parameters
designed for this of the single
aircraft, canfuel cell stack.
be found in [12]. Total weight of the fuel cell system equals
~65 kg. Fuel cell stacks are periodically short-circuited for tens of milliseconds to improve
Symbol Parameter Value
humidification of membranes [13]. In these conditions, the stack does not provide energy
to the load due PFCnto the zeroed voltage Rated on
single
thestack
stackpower
terminals, so the energy 5 kWat this state is
UFCn Rated single stack voltage 72 V
consumed from I
a battery used in a Rated
hybrid system.
stack current 70 A
FCn
TFC_max Max. stack temperature 65 ◦ C
PH2 Hydrogen pressure 0.45–0.55 bar
εFC Efficiency at 72 V 40%
 PFCn Rated single stack power 5 kW
UFCn Rated single stack voltage 72 V
IFCn Rated stack current 70 A
TFC_max Max. stack temperature 65 °C
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 PH2 Hydrogen pressure 0.45–0.55 bar 4 of 18
εFC Efficiency at 72V 40%

FigureFigure
2. Voltage-current and power-current
2. Output characteristics output
of a single 5kWcharacteristics ofcell
stack of the fuel a single 5 kW to
according stack
the of the
fuel fuel
cell cellmanual
user according
[11].to(a)
the fuel cell
voltage
user manual [11].
UFC and power PFC for single stack as a functions of fuel cell current IFC , (b) voltage of single cell UFC_cell and power density
PFCd as a functions of fuel cell current density IFCd .
2.3. Battery Parameters
Detailed
Taking properties
into account of thatthe fuel
the cell
fuel system,
cell systemcomposed
is designedof for
twotheseries connected
power stacks
range needed
designed
to for this
obtain safe aircraft,flight,
horizontal can beduring
found anyin [12]. Total
other weight
state of the
requiring fuel cell
higher system
power equals
(e.g., dur-
~65 kg. Fuel cell stacks are periodically short-circuited for tens of milliseconds
ing climbing or maneuvering), the battery set providing boosting energy has to be used. to improve
humidification
The of membranes
selected battery [13]. In 96
pack comprises these conditions, the stack
Lithium-Polymer cells, does
modelnotSLPB78205130H
provide energy
from Kokam, which is dedicated for automotive, military, and aviation at
to the load due to the zeroed voltage on the stack terminals, so the energy this state is
applications.
consumed from a battery used in a hybrid system.
According to [14], the estimated resistance of a single cell equals 4 mΩ. The energy re-
quired for five minutes of take-off and climbing and for one minute of maneuvering
2.3. Battery Parameters
equals 3 kWh. Additional 2.5 kWh is stored in case of energy deficit from the fuel cell
during Taking into account
horizontal flight ifthat
the the fuel cellpower
demanded systemisishigher
designed
thanfor
thethe power range
assumed 10 kWneeded
and in
to obtain safe horizontal flight, during any other state requiring higher power (e.g., during
case of fuel cell system emergency stop, to provide the energy necessary to assure time to
climbing or maneuvering), the battery set providing boosting energy has to be used.
find a safe place for landing. The battery system is equipped with its own battery man-
The selected battery pack comprises 96 Lithium-Polymer cells, model SLPB78205130H from
agement system BMS (responsible for monitoring each battery cell voltage and temper-
Kokam, which is dedicated for automotive, military, and aviation applications. According
ature, battery voltage, and battery current) and common DC-bus precharging. Parame-
to [14], the estimated resistance of a single cell equals 4 mΩ. The energy required for
ters of the battery pack are provided in Table 2.
five minutes of take-off and climbing and for one minute of maneuvering equals 3 kWh.
Additional 2.5 kWh is stored in case of energy deficit from the fuel cell during horizontal
Table 2. Parameters of the battery pack for the AOS-H2 motor glider.
flight if the demanded power is higher than the assumed 10 kW and in case of fuel cell
Symbol
system Parameter
emergency stop, to provide the energy necessaryValueto assure time to find a safe place
for landing.
CBAT The battery system is equipped with its own
Capacity 16 Ah battery management system
BMS (responsible for monitoring each battery
Number of cells cell voltage and
96 temperature, battery voltage,
and battery
EBAT current) and common DC-bus
Nominal energy precharging. Parameters
5.5 kWh of the battery pack are
provided in
UBAT_max Table 2.
Maximum voltage (4.2 V/cell) 403 V
UBAT_nom Nominal voltage (3.7 V/cell) 355 V
Table 2. Parameters of the battery pack for the AOS-H2 motor glider.
UBAT_min Minimum voltage (3 V/cell) 288 V
IBAT_max Symbol Maximum discharge Parameter
current 100 A Value
RBAT C Battery resistance Capacity 384 mΩ [14] 16 Ah
BAT
mBAT Battery weight
Number of cells 65 kg 96
EBAT Nominal energy 5.5 kWh
UBAT_max Maximum voltage (4.2 V/cell) 403 V
UBAT_nom Nominal voltage (3.7 V/cell) 355 V
UBAT_min Minimum voltage (3 V/cell) 288 V
IBAT_max Maximum discharge current 100 A
RBAT Battery resistance 384 mΩ [14]
mBAT Battery weight 65 kg

The minimum voltage for selected cells declared by the manufacturer equals 2.7 V,
but to increase the battery lifetime, such deep discharge is avoided by setting the minimum
voltage for a single cell at 3 V in a BMS system. Depending on the demanded power, a few
 mum voltage for a single cell at 3 V in a BMS system. Depending on the demanded
power, a few percent of energy stored in the battery will not be used (e.g., 7% at 5 C of
discharging current and 10% at 8 C of discharging current). According to short-circuiting
of fuel cell stacks, the battery must be resistant to temporarily increased current. This is
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 5 of 18
solved by average current calculation per each 100 ms period, and the battery is discon-
nected if the current five consecutive samples calculated this way exceed the limit.
2.4. Selection of Electric Motor for Propeller
percent
From of energy
the point stored
of viewin the batterydesign,
of aircraft will notpropeller
be usedcharacteristics
(e.g., 7% at 5 C of of discharging
thrust vs. rota-
current and 10%
tional speed andatvs.8C of discharging
aircraft velocity arecurrent). According
the most importantto short-circuiting
issues. However, of from
fuel cell
the
stacks, the battery must be resistant to temporarily increased current.
point of view of electric drive system design and control, the power/torque vs. rotational This is solved by
average current calculation per each 100 ms period, and the battery
speed characteristics are crucial because they determine energy consumption from both is disconnected if the
current five and
the battery consecutive
the fuelsamples
cell. Thecalculated this waysetexceed
motor-propeller the limit. obtained in the sta-
characteristics
tionary tests are shown in Figure 3. Maximum mechanical power 38 kW in stationary
2.4. Selection of Electric Motor for Propeller
conditions is available at 1950 rpm of rotational speed. The propeller of 1.85 m diameter
From the
is designed in point
such aofwayview to of aircrafthigher
provide design, propeller
thrust characteristics
for climbing velocityof thrustkm/h
80–100 vs. rota-
(1.7
tional
kN) than in stationary conditions (1kN) at full rotational speed 1950 rpm. Real thrust the
speed and vs. aircraft velocity are the most important issues. However, from has
point of view
not been of electric
measured drivethe
because system design
aircraft andequipped
was not control, the power/torque
with a thrust sensor.vs. rotational
speedIncharacteristics are crucial
horizontal flight, because they
the propeller speeddetermine energy consumption
is considerably lower than the from both the
maximum
battery and the fuel cell. The motor-propeller set characteristics obtained
speed (1300 rpm vs. 1950 rpm respectively), so even a slight change to 1400 rpm or even in the stationary
tests
1500 are
rpmshown in Figure
is possible. Thus,3. Maximum
the voltagemechanical
required inpower
the DC 38bus
kWby in astationary conditions
DC/AC converter is
is available at 1950 rpm of rotational speed. The propeller of 1.85
much lower than battery voltage connected directly to the DC bus. Please note that m diameter is designed
at the
in
endsuch a way
of the to provide
profile, higher thrust
we assumed for climbing
the optional velocitystage
maneuvering 80–100 km/h
before (1.7 kN)and
landing, thanat
in stationary conditions (1kN) at full rotational speed 1950 rpm. Real
this stage, the speed is maximal. Of course, the possibility depends not only on the bat- thrust has not been
measured because the aircraft was not equipped with a thrust sensor.
tery terminal voltage but on the energy available in the battery as well.

Figure 3. Torque-speed
Figure and and
3. Torque-speed power speed
power characteristics
speed of the
characteristics propeller
of the in stationary
propeller conditions
in stationary (a),(a),
conditions andand
motor voltage
motor and
voltage current
and
characteristics vs. speed (b).
current characteristics vs. speed (b).

The
In selected motor
horizontal flight, was EMRAX 268
the propeller VHML
speed MVAC, which
is considerably according
lower than thetomaximum
the motor
datasheet
speed [15],
(1300 rpm can
vs.provide
1950 rpm40 respectively),
kW at 2000 rpm. Maximum
so even a slightmotor
changermstoline
1400torpmlineor
voltage
even
for maximum
1500 speed equals
rpm is possible. Thus, the180voltage
V and required
the rms current
in the DCequals 160a A.
bus by DC/ACIt is visible that is
converter at
much lower(so
low speed than
lowbattery voltage
mechanical connected
torque), directly linearly
the voltage to the DC bus. Please
depends on the note that at
speed, the
while
end of the profile,
at higher speed, thewe assumed the optional
torque increases maneuvering
according to the stage
speedbefore
square landing,
function andand
at this
the
stage, the speed voltage
stator resistance is maximal.
drop Of course, thus,
increases; the possibility dependsvoltage
the stator terminal not only is on the battery
slightly higher
terminal
than the voltage but onfrom
one resulting the energy available
the linear speed in the battery as well.
function.
The selected motor was EMRAX 268 VHML
The electric motor has to provide the required MVAC,
torquewhich according
at a given speedtowithout
the motorex-
datasheet [15], can provide 40 kW at 2000 rpm. Maximum motor rms
ceeding the maximum temperature in different ambient conditions. Figure 4 presents line to line voltage
the
for maximum
motor speedmeasured
temperature equals 180 V and
using the rms
a KTY current
81/210 equals winding
embedded 160 A. It temperature
is visible thatsen-at
low speed (so
sor during thelow mechanical
testing profile. torque), the voltage linearly depends on the speed, while at
higher speed, the torque increases according to the speed square function and the stator
resistance voltage drop increases; thus, the stator terminal voltage is slightly higher than
the one resulting from the linear speed function.
The electric motor has to provide the required torque at a given speed without exceed-
ing the maximum temperature in different ambient conditions. Figure 4 presents the motor
temperature measured using a KTY 81/210 embedded winding temperature sensor during
the testing profile.
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 6 of 18
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 6 of 17

Figure 4.
Figure 4. Motor
Motor temperature waveform during
temperature waveform during the
the testing
testing profile.
profile.

It can be seen that the temperature margin allows take-off of the aircraft even after a
stay on
longer stay onthe
therunway
runwayinin case
case of of high
high solar
solar radiation,
radiation, whichwhich
may may increase
increase signifi-
significantly
cantly the initial temperature of the uncovered
the initial temperature of the uncovered motor. motor.
The mainmainparameters
parametersofof thethe selected
selected electric
electric motor
motor are provided
are provided in 3.
in Table Table 3. Ac-
According
cording
to to kω [rpm/1Vudc)
kω [rpm/1Vudc) the minimum
the minimum dc voltage
dc voltage required
required to obtain
to obtain 2000 of
2000 rpm rpm of rota-
rotational
tional equals
speed speed equals
285 V, so285 V,close
it is so ittoisthe
close to the minimum
minimum battery
battery voltage voltage
and it makesandit it makesto
possible it
possiblefully
almost to almost
use thefully use stored
energy the energy
in thestored in up
battery thetobattery up to thelevel
the minimum minimum level of
of dc (battery)
dc (battery)
voltage voltage (3 V/cell).
(3 V/cell).

Table 3.
Table 3. Parameters
Parameters of
of the
the air-cooled
air-cooled EMRAX
EMRAX 268
268 VHML
VHML MVAC
MVACmotor.
motor.

Symbol
Symbol Parameter
Parameter Value
Value
PMP Maximum
Maximum continuous
continuous mechanical
mechanical powerpoweratat 2000
2000 rpmrpm 40kW
40 kW
M
IMIM Maximum
Maximumcontinuous statorrms
continuous stator rmscurrent
current 190AA
190
LdL/Ldq/Lq Motor inductances
Motor inductances 126/118
126/118µH μH
◦C
RsRs Phase resistance at
Phase resistance at 25 °C 25 12
12mΩ
mΩ
ε Motor efficiency 0.92–0.98
εM M
Temp Motor efficiency
Maximum temperature 0.92–0.98
120 ◦ C
M_max
TempM_max
kω Maximum temperature
Specific load speed 120 °C
7(rpm/1Vudc)
kωmM Specific
Motorload speed
weight 7(rpm/1Vudc)
20 kg
mM Motor weight 20 kg
3. Power Conversion System Structure
3. Power
3.1. Scheme Conversion System
of the Applied PowerStructure
Conversion System
3.1. Scheme of the Applied
The structure of the Power
powerConversion
conversionSystemsystem for a hybrid fuel cell and battery-based
driveThesystem is presented in Figure
structure of the power conversion5. During starting-up
system andfor climbing,
a hybrid the battery
fuel provides
cell and bat-
higher power than a fuel cell; therefore, the battery is connected
tery-based drive system is presented in Figure 5. During starting-up and climbing, the directly to the common
DC bus.provides
battery This is tohigher
avoid apower
heavythan and abulky 30 kW
fuel cell; DC/DCthe
therefore, bidirectional converter between
battery is connected directly
the battery
to the common and the
DCDC bus.bus.
This is to avoid a heavy and bulky 30 kW DC/DC bidirectional
The typical
converter between two-level structure
the battery and the ofDCthebus.
DC/AC motor converter was applied due to
the relatively small power of the electric
The typical two-level structure of the DC/AC drive builtmotor
with IGBT technology.
converter The DC/DC
was applied due to
converter has been designed in silicon carbide technology
the relatively small power of the electric drive built with IGBT technology. The to increase the operational
DC/DC
frequency
converter has (switching frequency)
been designed to 100 carbide
in silicon kHz. This providestoa increase
technology significantthereduction
operationalof
size, weight, and volume of passive filter components with a reasonable
frequency (switching frequency) to 100 kHz. This provides a significant reduction of size, level of losses.
The usedand
weight, transformer-less
volume of passivestructure of components
filter the power converter has higher level
with a reasonable efficiency. To make
of losses. The
the
used transformer-less structure of the power converter has higher efficiency. To makeby
implementation of this topology possible, the fuel cell voltage has been increased a
the
series connection of two stacks. It provides 150 V at the maximum
implementation of this topology possible, the fuel cell voltage has been increased by a power point (nominal
power), and higher when the fuel cell is not fully loaded.
series connection of two stacks. It provides 150 V at the maximum power point (nominal
power), and higher when the fuel cell is not fully loaded.
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 7 of 18
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 7 of 17

Figure
Figure 5. Scheme
5. Scheme of power
of the the power conversion
conversion system
system withwith a DC/DC
a DC/DC siliconsilicon carbide
carbide (SiC) power
(SiC) power converter
converter responsible
responsible forcell
for fuel fuel
loading and DC/AC
cell loading and insulated gate bipolar
DC/AC insulated transistor
gate bipolar IGBT converter
transistor IGBTresponsible for feeding the
converter responsible propellerthe
for feeding driving a permanent
propeller driving a
magnet synchronous
permanent magnetmotor.
synchronous motor.

3.2.
3.2. DC/AC
DC/AC IGBT Motor Converter
Converter and
andDC/DC
DC/DCSilicon-Carbide
Silicon-CarbidePower
PowerFuel
FuelCell
CellConverter
Converter
Insulated
Insulated gate gate bipolar
bipolartransistors
transistors(IGBT)
(IGBT) areare a mature
a mature technology
technology [16][16]
mostlymostlyusedused
in
in tens-kW
tens-kW motormotor drivedrive inverters.
inverters. The The
DC/AC DC/ACpowerpower electronic
electronic converterconverter
for a motorfor adrive
motor
drive
is builtis built with SEMiX603GB066HDs
with SEMiX603GB066HDs modules.
modules. The module
The module maximum maximumcurrent current
is aroundis around
2.5
times
2.5 timeshigher
higher thanthanrequired
required by bythethemotor,
motor,butbut thethemodule
module thermal
thermal losses
lossesforforthe thedesired
desired
rms motor
rms motor phasephase current are the the lowest
lowest among
amongmodulesmodulesfrom fromthe thesame
samefamily
family(modules
(modules
with300
with 300A,A,400 400 A,A,600600 A ofA rated
of rated current
current are compared).
are compared). Therefore,
Therefore, the weight
the weight and
and volume
volume
of the heat of sink
the heat sink are This
are smaller. smaller. This is especially
is especially important important
in the case in the
of the case of the
air-cooled
air-cooled(this
converter converter
was one (this wasproject
of the one ofrequirements).
the project requirements).
Power modules Power modules are
are switched with
switched with 10 kHz frequency, which is enough to obtain
10 kHz frequency, which is enough to obtain high quality, sinusoidal motor current with high quality, sinusoidal
amotor current of
low amount with a low amount
switching frequency of switching
harmonics, frequency
even if harmonics,
the electric evenmotor if frequency
the electricat
motor
2000 rpmfrequency at 2000
is relatively high rpm(333is Hz).
relatively
At the high (333 Hz).
selected At the frequency,
switching selected switching fre-
the converter
quency, the
efficiency converter
equals 97.6%efficiency equals 97.6%
for full electric powerfor (40full
kW) electric power for
and 96.6% (40 10kW)kW andof 96.6%
electric
for 10 kW
power of electric
required during power required
horizontal during
flight. The horizontal flight. The
main parameters ofmain parameters
the motor converterof the
are
motor converter
shown in Table 4.are The shown
DC/AC in Table 4. The
converter is DC/AC
controlled converter
from the is controlled
control board from the with
built con- a
trol board builtmicrocontroller
TMS320F28335 with a TMS320F28335 microcontroller
with external analog/digital with converters.
external analog/digital
Figure 6a presentscon-
averters.
view ofFigure 6a presents
the designed and abuilt
view 40of kWtheDC/AC
designed and converter.
power built 40 kW DC/AC power con-
verter.
The DC/DC converter is designed and constructed with DF11MR12W1M1_B11 silicon
carbide The(SiC)
DC/DC converter
modules. is designed
Switching and constructed
frequency with DF11MR12W1M1_B11
for this converter equals 100 kHz to reduce sili-
the weight and volume of passive filters [17,18]. Interleaved topology has been chosenre-
con carbide (SiC) modules. Switching frequency for this converter equals 100 kHz to due
duce
to the weight
possible postfault andoperation
volume of passive
[19] when filters
one of[17,18]. Interleaved
the converter topology
legs fails, but this has issue
been is
chosen due
beyond to possible
the scope of thispostfault operation
paper. Figure [19] when
6b presents theone of the converter
designed legs fails,
and constructed but
DC/DC
this issue is
converter. Itsbeyond
efficiency theequals
scope of this at
99.2% paper. Figure(10
full power 6b kW).
presents
Thethe main designed
parameters and con-
of the
structed
fuel DC/DC converter.
cell converter are shown Its in
efficiency
Table 5.equals
To make 99.2% at fullofpower
control (10 kW).
the power The main
converter with
parameters of the fuel cell converter are shown in Table
this frequency possible, the control board is built with FPGA XILINX XC7A50T-2CSG325I,5. To make control of the power
converter
and with the withsame thisDSPfrequency possible,asthe
microcontroller control
in the DC/AC board is built which
converter, with FPGA
here isXILINX
responsi-
ble mainly for CAN communication with other devices. The DC/DC converter converter,
XC7A50T-2CSG325I, and with the same DSP microcontroller as in the DC/AC is equipped
which
with here current
battery is responsible
measurement mainlytofor makeCAN communication
it possible to controlwith other devices.
the battery current duringThe
system operation and to make energy management possible without engagement ofto
DC/DC converter is equipped with battery current measurement to make it possible the
control the battery
communication current during system operation and to make energy management
system.
possible without engagement of the communication system.
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 8 of 18
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 8 of 17

Figure
Figure 6. View
6. View of a
of (a) (a)DC/AC
a DC/AC
IGBTIGBT air-cooled
air-cooled motormotor converter
converter and
and (b) (b) a DC/DC
a DC/DC silicon silicon
carbidecarbide air-cooled
air-cooled fuel cellfuel cell
converter.
converter.
Table 4. Parameters of the DC/AC motor converter.
Table 4. Parameters of the DC/AC motor converter.
Symbol Parameter Value
UDC_max Symbol Maximum DC bus voltage
Parameter 450 V Value
IINV_cont UDC_max Continuous Maximum
current (rms)
DC bus voltage160 A 450 V
IINV_peak IINV_cont Peak current (rms) current (rms)320 A
Continuous 160 A
mINV IINV_peak WeightPeak current (rms) 13 kg 320 A
mINV Weight 13 kg
Table 5. Parameters of the DC/DC fuel cell converter.
Table 5. Parameters of the DC/DC
Symbol fuel cell converter.
Parameter Value
UDCDC_maxSymbol Maximum DC bus voltage
Parameter 450 V Value
IDCDC_max Maximum continuous current 67 A
UDCDC_max Maximum DC bus voltage 450 V
UDCDC_in
IDCDC_max Input voltage range 0-U
Maximum continuous currentDCDC_out 67 A
mDCDCUDCDC_in WeightInput voltage range 4 kg 0-UDCDC_out
mDCDC Weight 4 kg
3.3. Discussion on the Power Conversion System Efficiency
3.3. Discussion on the Power
The total efficiency 𝜀 Conversion
of electricalSystem
energyEfficiency
conversion can be determined as follows.
The DC bus electric power P fed to the DC/AC converter
The total efficiency ε t of electrical energy conversion
eDC can is
behigher than mechanical
determined as follows.
braking power P due to the efficiency of the motor
The DC bus electric power PeDC fed to the DC/AC converter
m 𝜀 / and DC/AC converter.
is higher than mechanical
braking power Pm due to the efficiency of the motor 𝑷𝒎 ε DC/AC and DC/AC converter.
𝑷𝒆𝑫𝑪 = (1)
𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑨𝑪
Pm 𝜺𝑷𝑴𝑺𝑴
PeDC = (1)
Battery power Pbat, meant as the sumεof power
DC/AC delivered to the DC bus and internal
ε PMSM
resistance power losses, equals the difference between total DC power PeDC and fuel cell
Battery power P meant as the sum of power delivered to the DC bus and internal
PFC power reduced bybat, DC/DC converter losses divided by battery efficiency.
resistance power losses, equals the difference between total DC power PeDC and fuel cell
PFC power reduced by 𝑷𝒎DC/DC converter losses divided by battery efficiency.
𝑷𝒆𝑫𝑪 − 𝑷𝑭𝑪 𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑫𝑪 𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑨𝑪 𝜺Pm𝑷𝑴𝑺𝑴 −− 𝑷 P
𝑭𝑪 𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑫𝑪 𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝑭𝑪 𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑫𝑪 𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑨𝑪 𝜺𝑷𝑴𝑺𝑴 (2)
𝑷𝑩𝑨𝑻_𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = eDC
P − P FC DC/DC=
ε ε ε FC ε DC/DC= Pm − PFC ε DC/DC ε DC/AC ε PMSM
PBAT_total = 𝜺𝑩𝑨𝑻 = DC/AC PMSM 𝜺𝑩𝑨𝑻 = 𝜺𝑩𝑨𝑻 𝜺𝑫𝑪/𝑨𝑪 𝜺𝑷𝑴𝑺𝑴 (2)
ε BAT ε BAT ε BAT ε DC/AC ε PMSM
Total efficiency ε𝜀 ,, meant
Total efficiency meant as as the
the ratio
ratio between
between mechanical
mechanical power
power andand total
total electric
electric
t
power delivered by fuel call and battery (including energy losses on the
power delivered by fuel call and battery (including energy losses on the battery internal battery internal
resistance),
resistance), can
can be be calculated
calculated as as follows.
follows. Equation
Equation (3) considers only
(3) considers only electrical
electrical energy
energy
conversion efficiency without propeller efficiency and without fuel
conversion efficiency without propeller efficiency and without fuel cell efficiency. cell efficiency.
Pm Pm Pm ε BAT ε DC/AC ε PMSM
εt = = P − P
= (3)
PFC + PBAT PFC + m FC ε DC/DC ε DC/AC ε PMSM Pm + PFC ε DC/AC ε PMSM (ε BAT − ε DC/DC )
ε BAT ε DC/AC ε PMSM
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 9 of 18

where
2
UBAT
PBAT PBAT
ε BAT = 2
PBAT + IBAT R BAT
= 
PBAT
2 = 2
PBAT R BAT +UBAT
=
PBAT + UBAT R BAT
2
UBAT 2
UBAT (4)

Pm

2
= 
Pm − PFC ε DC/DC ε DC/AC ε PMSM

ε DC/AC ε PMSM − PFC ε DC/DC R BAT +UBAT 2
R BAT +UBAT
ε DC/AC ε PMSM

and Pbat is battery power delivered to the DC bus.

The efficiency map of the electric motor is provided by the manufacturer in the motor
datasheet. A separate efficiency test of the electric motor has not been done within the
project. It has to be noted that the motor’s precise efficiency map must be obtained not
with a propeller but with a more stable controlled mechanical load, and this is done by the
motor manufacturer. From the efficiency map provided by the manufacturer [15], it can be
seen that for speed and torque operating point during take-off and climbing (1900 rpm,
165 Nm (33 kW)), motor efficiency equals 94%, and for horizontal flight (1300 rpm, 65 Nm
(9 kW)) it equals 87%. Considering that the motor efficiency for the horizontal flight is
about 87%, 10kW of fuel cell power is marginally enough, but considering that motor
inverter efficiency for this condition is 96.6% and DC/DC converter efficiency is 99.2%,
higher electric power (10.8 kW) is needed to obtain 9 kW braking power on the shaft.
To avoid even a slight overload of the fuel cell, energy lack (0.8 kW of power) is taken from
the battery. Finally, 9 kW of braking power during horizontal flight is only a theoretical
assumption and in a real flight, it may happen that 7 kW of braking power for horizontal
flight is enough, or, in contrast, 11 kW is required. This is one of the reasons to extend
the energy capacity of the electrochemical battery for the first tests. After real flight tests,
the battery can be redesigned using smaller 10 Ah cells from the same family when braking
power is lower than assumed, or the existing battery may be kept in the case in which
higher braking power for horizontal flight will be required.
Taking into account horizontal flight point and assumed 9 kW of braking power,
and noting that almost all energy is taken from the fuel cell and a negligibly small amount
from the battery directly connected to the common DC bus, the efficiency in this point can
be determined using (5b) with a prior determination of battery power and its efficiency
in a given point (5a). Battery efficiency and total efficiency for climbing are calculated
by (6a), and (6b) respectively, whereas for take-off stage by (7a) and (7b) respectively.
For calculation purposes, maximum voltage battery was taken into consideration at a
starting point with maximum braking power 37 kW, 380 V as the average voltage during
take-off and climbing (33 kW of braking power) and nominal battery voltage 355 V during
horizontal flight (9 kW of braking power). In all cases, the fuel cell power taken is maximal
(i.e., rated). This is, of course, exemplary calculation and to find the total efficiency in each
point (note that the battery voltage changes due to the discharging), the calculation should
be made online along the lasting profile assumed.

(355V)2
ε BAT_9kW =   = 0.9976 (5a)
9kW−10kW·0.992·0.966·0.87 2
0.966·0.87 · 0.384Ω + ( 355V )

9kW·0.9976·0.992·0.87
ε t_9kW = = 0.856 (5b)
9kW + 10kW·0.966·0.87·(0.9976 − 0.992)

(380V)2
ε BAT_33kW =   = 0.9352 (6a)
33kW−10kW·0.992·0.976·0.94 2
0.976·0.94 · 0.384Ω + ( 380V )

33kW·0.9352·0.992·0.94
ε t_33kW = = 0.886 (6b)
33kW + 10kW·0.976·0.94·(0.9352 − 0.992)
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 10 of 18

(400V)2
ε BAT_37kW =   = 0.9324 (7a)
37kW−10kW·0.992·0.976·0.945
0.976·0.945 ·0.384Ω + (400V)2

37kW·0.9324·0.992·0.945
ε t_37kW = = 0.887 (7b)
37kW + 10kW·0.976·0.945·(0.9324 − 0.992)
From the above calculations, we can see that the higher the braking power, the higher
the total efficiency. Even if the battery energy losses are relatively smaller (battery efficiency
increases), the DC/AC converter efficiency decreases, and most importantly, motor effi-
ciency decreases, which has the main influence on the total electrical energy conversion
efficiency.

4. CAN Communication System and Control Structure

4.1. Communication System
The scheme of communication between components is shown in the next Section 4.2
together with the control structure. The communication system comprises three isolated
CAN-buses. The first one (CAN1) integrates the battery, DC/AC and DC/DC power
converters, and on-board computer, and this communication is matched to the CAN
protocol of the battery management system. The second communication bus (CAN2) is
completely independent and it integrates the DC/AC converter with a speed command
lever. This is to avoid any influence of other components on the speed commanded from the
lever as well as introduce a kind of redundancy in speed commanding. Simply, any failure
in CAN1 does not influence speed commanding. Additionally, when CAN2 communication
permanent failure is detected between the speed lever and power converter, CAN1 can be
used for speed commanding from the on-board computer as an alternative commanded
speed source.
The third bus (CAN3) is implemented between the on-board computer and the fuel
cell controller. The fuel cell controller requires only starting and stopping commands,
and besides these two signals, the fuel cell controller independently tackles the fuel cell state.
However, the on-board computer is involved in some data collection of the whole system
during the experiment, including some parameters of the fuel cell. CAN3 is established
separately from CAN1 and CAN2 because the fuel cell system has been elaborated by
another team in the project [12]. In such a case it is easier to coordinate the data transfer
when only two devices are communicated in the same bus.
The on-board computer is responsible for the devices switching on before take-off,
collection of all data during profile realization, visualization, and device switching off after
profile ending. Control of energy transfers from the fuel cell and battery to the electric motor
is made in the power converter controllers without intervention of the on-board computer.
The on-board computer was additionally connected to a single-chip computer RaspberryPi
3B+, to send the data by Wi-Fi to the mobile phone placed on-board, and further by GSM to
the webpage. It allows for observation of the waveforms on-line on a PC computer during
testing of the motor glider on the runway.

4.2. Scheme of the Control System for Power Converters

A detailed scheme of the control and communication structure of power electronic
converters set for the hybrid energy system with a fuel cell and battery is shown in
Figure 7. The DC/AC converter feeding motor is equipped with stator current vector
control, in which the d component of the current vector is set to zero, because the machine
does not require field strengthening to obtain the maximum demanded power. The q
component of the current vector responsible for torque creation is referenced from the outer
speed controller. This part is a classical rotor flux-oriented control. The reference speed
is commanded from the CAN communicated speed command lever. All controllers are
proportional-integral type. A saturation block joined with a mechanical speed controller
Rnm is a reference current limiter and also serves as the anti-wind-up structure for the
speed controller.
 proportional-integral type. A saturation block joined with a mechanical speed controller
Rnm is a reference current limiter and also serves as the anti-wind-up structure for the
speed controller.
The basic control of the fuel cell converter is composed of four current regulators,
each for a single branch of the DC/DC interleaved converter. The reference value iFC* of
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 11 of 18
the fuel cell current is divided by four to obtain the same reference for each single current
regulator. Four independent current sensors are also used to measure the currents in each
inductor of the interleaved converter.

Figure 7. Detailed
Figure control
7. Detailed and and
control communication structure
communication of theofpower
structure conversion
the power system
conversion in a hybrid
system fuel cell
in a hybrid and
fuel battery-based
cell and battery-
electric drive for the AOS-H2 motor glider.
based electric drive for the AOS-H2 motor glider.
4.3. Battery Charging Current Regulator
The basic control of the fuel cell converter is composed of four current regulators,
Charging
each for a singleofbranch
the battery
of theduring
DC/DC flight is not taken
interleaved into consideration
converter. The reference forvalue
the elabo-
iFC * of
rated alternative communication-less method even if the power possible
the fuel cell current is divided by four to obtain the same reference for each single from the fuel
current
cell is higher than the instantaneous power consumption by the motor
regulator. Four independent current sensors are also used to measure the currents in each drive. This is be-
cause the charging process is
inductor of the interleaved converter. less efficient and higher thermal losses occur in a consid-
erably high charging current. When the propeller is not used during flight of the glider,
theBattery
4.3. full power of theCurrent
Charging fuel cellRegulator
(10 kW) can be used for battery charging. This is equivalent
to 1.5C of charging
Charging of thecurrent. Taking flight
battery during into account that in
is not taken theconsideration
into initial stage of
forthe
theprofile,
elaboratedwe
have 30 kW of battery power discharge, and the temperature of cells
alternative communication-less method even if the power possible from the fuel cell is increases by 14 °C,
furtherthan
higher charging may increase the
the instantaneous cellsconsumption
power temperature to byover 45 °C. According
the motor drive. Thistoisthe cells
because
specification in the temperature range 35–45 °C the charging current should
the charging process is less efficient and higher thermal losses occur in a considerably be limited to
high charging current. When the propeller is not used during flight of the glider, the full
power of the fuel cell (10 kW) can be used for battery charging. This is equivalent to 1.5C of
charging current. Taking into account that in the initial stage of the profile, we have 30 kW
of battery power discharge, and the temperature of cells increases by 14 ◦ C, further charging
may increase the cells temperature to over 45 ◦ C. According to the cells specification in the
temperature range 35–45 ◦ C the charging current should be limited to 1C, whereas above
45 ◦ C charging is prohibited at all. As during CAN communication fault no information
from battery BMS can be received by other devices, the temperature of cells is unknown.
Thus, we decided to resign from the charging process when the presented alternative
communication-less control method is used. To avoid charging during energy surplus in
the fuel cell, the reference fuel cell current iFC * is reduced by the battery charging current
controller RiBAT_min in the DC/DC converter control structure. Implementation of battery
charging is simply possible by a change of the minimum current value iBAT_min to some
allowed level (negative value).
 fault no information from battery BMS can be received by other devices, the temperature
of cells is unknown. Thus, we decided to resign from the charging process when the
presented alternative communication-less control method is used. To avoid charging
during energy surplus in the fuel cell, the reference fuel cell current iFC* is reduced by the
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 battery charging current controller RiBAT_min in the DC/DC converter control 12 structure.
of 18
Implementation of battery charging is simply possible by a change of the minimum cur-
rent value iBAT_min to some allowed level (negative value).
4.4.
4.4.Fuel
FuelCell
CellUndervoltage
UndervoltageProtection
Protection
Series
Seriesconnected
connected fuel cellcell
fuel stacks are are
stacks periodically short-circuited
periodically to improve
short-circuited the hu-
to improve the hu-
midification of the cell, which positively influences stacks performances and
midification of the cell, which positively influences stacks performances and conse- consequently
increases the available power. Short circuits are made through additional switches SW1
quently increases the available power. Short circuits are made through additional
and SW2 (Figure 5) during ten milliseconds with ten seconds intervals at each stack. Due to
switches SW1 and SW2 (Figure 5) during ten milliseconds with ten seconds intervals at
the series connection of two stacks, the total voltage on the fuel cell terminals during
eachcircuit
short stack.drops
Due byto half.
the series connection
Thus, energy ofpossible
flow is two stacks,
from the totalshort-circuited
the non voltage on the fuel cell
stack
terminals
during during The
this process. short circuit
other drops
solution bybring
is to half.the
Thus,
fuel energy flowtoiszero.
cell current possible from the non
Both manners
short-circuited stack during this process. The other
are possible in DC/DC converter control, as shown in Figure 8. solution is to bring the fuel cell cur-
rent to zero. Both manners are possible in DC/DC converter control, as shown in Figure 8.

Figure
Figure 8. 8. Possible
Possible behavior
behavior ofDC/DC
of the the DC/DC converter
converter duringduring
fuel cellfuel cell short-circuit,
short-circuit, (a) with
(a) with loading andloading
and
(b) with(b) with unloading,
unloading, uFC12 -fuelucell
FC12–fuel cell total
total voltage, voltage,
iFC -fuel iFC–fueliBAT
cell current, cell-battery
current, iBAT–battery
current, current,
iM -motor
iM–motor
phase phase current.
current.

Finally,
Finally, to to avoid
avoid additional
additional loading
loading of the
of the fuel fuel cell during
cell during shortshort
circuitcircuit in further
in further
research, the second solution has been taken into consideration, and this is realized
research, the second solution has been taken into consideration, and this is realized by an by an
additional function iFC_limit = f(uFC ) in the DC/DC converter control structure (Figure 7).
The function is implemented for additional reduction of the fuel cell current limit, and the
function details are shown in Figure 9. Periodical drop of the fuel cell current to zero causes
increased current consumption by the battery. To avoid disconnection of the battery during
fuel cell periodical short-circuiting, the battery over-current protection is realized in such a
 additional function iFC_limit = f(uFC) in the DC/DC converter control structure (Figure 7). Th
function is implemented for additional reduction of the fuel cell current limit, and th
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 13 of 18
function details are shown in Figure 9. Periodical drop of the fuel cell current to zer
causes increased current consumption by the battery. To avoid disconnection of the ba
tery during fuel cell periodical short-circuiting, the battery over-current protection is r
way that
alized in five
suchconsecutive
a way thataverage values of battery
five consecutive current
average calculated
values in 100ms
of battery periodscalculated
current are
compared with the current limit.
100ms periods are compared with the current limit.

Figure 9. Fuel cell under-voltage protection function iFC_limit = f(uFC ).

Figure 9. Fuel cell under-voltage protection function iFC_limit = f(uFC).
The fuel cell under-voltage function serves as additional protection. The fuel cell
Theisfuel
current cell not
reduced under-voltage function serves
only during short-circuit, as additional
but also protection.
in the case in which fuel The
cell fuel ce
current
operatesisabove
reduced notpoint,
nominal onlyandduring short-circuit,
the fuel but also indrops
cell voltage dangerously the case
belowinnominal
which fuel ce
value. Toabove
operates avoidnominal
fuel cell overload,
point, and this function
the is responsible
fuel cell for unloading
voltage dangerously the below
drops fuel nom
cell system. This way, even if it is impossible to reach the rated power from
nal value. To avoid fuel cell overload, this function is responsible for unloading the fu the fuel
cell, it operates with partial power, which is better than fuel cell system disconnection
cell system. This way, even if it is impossible to reach the rated power from the fuel cell,
or even possible degradation of cells. A small supercapacitor bank can be of interest as
operates with partial power, which is better than fuel cell system disconnection or eve
additional storage assisting in the fuel cell short circuits. A supercapacitor bank connected
possible
in paralleldegradation
to the inputof cells. Aof
terminals small supercapacitor
the DC/DC converterbank can
can be be to
used of avoid
interest as addition
battery
storage
current assisting in the
peaks during fuelfuel cell short
cell short circuits.
circuit. However, A supercapacitor bank connected
this requires an additional small in pa
allel
powerto converter
the inputforterminals
charging ofof the DC/DC converter
the supercapacitors bankcan beintervals
in the used to between
avoid battery
short curre
circuits and increases the weight of the conversion system by ca. 3 kg.
peaks during fuel cell short circuit. However, this requires an additional small pow
converter for charging of the supercapacitors bank in the intervals between short circui
4.5. Discussion on Other Possible Faults in the Energy Conversion System
and increases the weight of the conversion system by ca. 3 kg.
Possible faults may happen in all devices. It is quite difficult to find a solution
giving DC/AC on
4.5. Discussion converter postfaultFaults
Other Possible or motor postfault
in the Energy operation in theSystem
Conversion used configuration.
This is why the motor is sized with some margin, avoiding overheating during take-off
and Possible
climbing,faults
and themay happen
same is trueinofall
thedevices.
DC/ACItconverter
is quite difficult to findselection.
power modules a solution givin
DC/AC convertertopostfault
Some protections or motor
avoid faults, such aspostfault
preventionoperation in theorused
against motor DC/AC configuration.
converter This
temperature
why the motor increase, can bewith
is sized donesome
by reducing
margin, maximum
avoidingtorque in the DC/AC
overheating converter
during take-off an
controller. To obtain higher reliability, multiphase (more than three phases)
climbing, and the same is true of the DC/AC converter power modules selection. Som machines with
DC/AC converter redundant legs may be used, or two independent machines clutched on
protections to avoid faults, such as prevention against motor or DC/AC converter tem
the same shaft and fed from two independent DC/AC converters. However, taking into
perature increase,
account that canisbe
the system done by
designed for reducing maximum
a glider, such issues are torque in the DC/AC convert
not critical.
controller.
PossibleTofuel
obtain higherfaults
cell system reliability, multiphase
cause reduction (more electric
of available than three
power, phases)
and themachin
with DC/AC
battery converter
only provides redundant
energy legsItsmay
in this state. be depends
ability used, or ontwo independent
the available energymachin
in a battery, which depends on the stage of flight. In the case
clutched on the same shaft and fed from two independent DC/AC converters. of fuel cell system fault,Howeve
the information from the fuel cell controller or DC/DC converter controller
taking into account that the system is designed for a glider, such issues are not critical. is provided
to the on-board computer by one of the CAN communication channels and the available
Possible fuel cell system faults cause reduction of available electric power, and th
power for the DC/AC converter can be recalculated to the maximum possible torque/speed
battery only provides energy in this state. Its ability depends on the available energy in
on the motor shaft. The information of recalculated maximum torque/speed is updated in
battery,
the DC/ACwhich depends
converter on theThe
controller. stage
newof flight. Intorque/speed
maximum the case of may
fuelbecell systemupfault,
available to the i
formation from the
the total discharge of fuel cell controller or DC/DC converter controller is provided to th
the battery.
on-board computer by one of the CAN communication channels and the available pow
for the DC/AC converter can be recalculated to the maximum possible torque/speed o
the motor shaft. The information of recalculated maximum torque/speed is updated
the DC/AC converter controller. The new maximum torque/speed may be available up
the total discharge of the battery.
Battery faults can be assisted in a similar way. Battery fault detection and its di
connection from the DC bus through the battery switch SWBAT is done by BMS. Aft
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 14 of 17

disconnection of the battery by BMS, information about it can be sent to the on-board
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 computer and the maximum torque/speed is updated by an on-board computer in the
14 of 18
DC/AC converter controller. In such a case, additionally, action is needed related to the
DC bus maximum voltage control in the case in which the propeller energy demand is
lower than the energy fed from the fuel cell. In such a case, the adaptive current limita-
tion ofBattery faults
the fuel cell can
must bebeassisted
enabled in to
a similar
limit theway.
fuelBattery fault detection
cell instantaneous and when
power its discon-
DC
nection from the DC bus through the battery switch
voltage reaches 400V. These issues are part of further research. SW BAT is done by BMS. After discon-
nection of the battery by BMS, information about it can be sent to the on-board computer
5.and the maximum
Experimental Teststorque/speed
in StationaryisConditions
updated by an on-board computer in the DC/AC
converter controller. In such a case, additionally, action is needed related to the DC bus
Stationary conditions experimental test results are obtained with a fuel cell simula-
maximum voltage control in the case in which the propeller energy demand is lower than
tor to test the operation of the power conversion system. A fuel cell simulator is not in-
the energy fed from the fuel cell. In such a case, the adaptive current limitation of the fuel
tended to reproduce the model of chemical processes, but to emulate electrical voltage in
cell must be enabled to limit the fuel cell instantaneous power when DC voltage reaches
the DC/DC converter input terminals with consideration of stack short-circuit processes.
400V. These issues are part of further research.
The simulator voltage is set constant at the level adequate to the nominal power. This
means that the full
5. Experimental nominal
Tests characteristic
in Stationary of the fuel cell is not implemented; only the
Conditions
nominal operating point is implemented. Figure 10 presents the waveforms of voltages
Stationary conditions experimental test results are obtained with a fuel cell simulator
and currents in the power conversion system during the assumed profile realization.
to test the operation of the power conversion system. A fuel cell simulator is not intended to
Corresponding
reproduce the model results presenting
of chemical processes, powers, electric motor
but to emulate torque,
electrical voltageand speed
in the DC/DCare
shown in Figure 11. It can be observed in both figures (Figures 10 and 11)
converter input terminals with consideration of stack short-circuit processes. The simulator that during fuel
cell any stack
voltage short circuit,
is set constant at thethe fueladequate
level cell current drops
to the to zero,
nominal power.andThis
the battery
means thatcurrent in-
the full
creases, climbing above the 100 A battery current limit, but it does not cause
nominal characteristic of the fuel cell is not implemented; only the nominal operating point disconnec-
tion of the battery.
is implemented. It can10also
Figure be observed
presents that during
the waveforms motor start-up
of voltages and at
and currents inthe
the end
powerof
profile whensystem
conversion the motor
during power is lowerprofile
the assumed than realization.
the fuel cell nominal power, the battery
charging is avoided due to the additional battery charging controller RiBAT_min.

FigureFigure
10. Selected waveforms
10. Selected from the
waveforms stationary
from condition
the stationary tests during
condition realization
tests during of mission
realization profile registered
of mission by an oscilloscope.
profile registered by an
oscilloscope.

Corresponding results presenting powers, electric motor torque, and speed are shown
in Figure 11. It can be observed in both figures (Figures 10 and 11) that during fuel cell
any stack short circuit, the fuel cell current drops to zero, and the battery current increases,
climbing above the 100 A battery current limit, but it does not cause disconnection of the
battery. It can also be observed that during motor start-up and at the end of profile when
the motor power is lower than the fuel cell nominal power, the battery charging is avoided
due to the additional battery charging controller RiBAT_min .
 Energies2021,
Energies 14,1073
2021,14, 1073 1515ofof1718
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 15 of 17

FigureFigure
11. Selected waveforms
11. Selected from the
waveforms stationary
from condition
the stationary tests during
condition realization
tests during missionmission
realization profile registered by DSP controllers.
profile registered by DSP
Figure 11. Selected waveforms from the stationary condition tests during realization mission profile registered by DSP controllers.
controllers.
6. Experimental Tests of Aircraft on a Runway
6. Experimental
6. Experimental Tests
tests of
ExperimentalTests of Aircraft
of Aircraft on
on aawith
the aircraft Runway
Runway
a hybrid fuel cell/battery-based drive system
Experimental
were done on a runway
Experimental testsin
tests ofthe
of theAviation
the aircraftwith
aircraft witha ahybrid
Training hybrid
Centre fuel
fuel cell/battery-based
ofcell/battery-based
Rzeszow University drive sys-
of system
drive Tech-
tem were
nology,
were done done
Poland.
on aTheon apicture
runway runway of in
in the the
the Aviation
motor
Aviation gliderTraining
TrainingonCentre Centre
a runway isof Rzeszow
shown
of Rzeszow University
in Figure
University 12. Theof
of Tech-
Technology,
aircraft velocityPoland.
equal The
to 80picture
km/h of the
assuringmotor glider
climbing was on a runway
achieved is
after
nology, Poland. The picture of the motor glider on a runway is shown in Figure 12. The shown
17 s inin Figure
the test, 12.
in
The
which aircraft
before velocity
running equal
the to 80
pilot km/h
waited assuring
to reach climbing
full motorwas achieved
speed and
aircraft velocity equal to 80 km/h assuring climbing was achieved after 17 s in the test, inafter
power17 s in the
before
test, in before
hand-brake
which which before
release.
running running the pilot
the pilot waited
waited to reach
to reach fullfull motorspeed
motor speedand andpower
power before
before
hand-brake release.
hand-brake release.

Figure 12. The AOS-H2 motor glider on the runway of the Aviation Training Centre of Rzeszow University of Technol-
ogy.
Figure 12. The AOS-H2 motor glider on the runway of the Aviation Training Centre of Rzeszow University of Technol-
Figure 12. The AOS-H2 motor glider on the runway of the Aviation Training Centre of Rzeszow University of Technology.
ogy.
Unfortunately, due to the lack of national rules related to hydrogen use in manned
Unfortunately, due to the lack of national rules related to hydrogen use in manned
flying
flyingplatforms,
platforms,full
Unfortunately, flight
fulldue totests
flight were
the lack
tests wereofnot permitted.
national
not rulesHowever,
permitted. related tothe
However, theresults
resultsof
hydrogen ofrunning
use the
in manned
running the
aircraft
flying on a runway show some properties of the hybrid drive. The tests
aircraft on a runway show some properties of the hybrid drive. The tests were donethe
platforms, full flight tests were not permitted. However, the results were
of done
running inin
spring
aircraftconditions
on a with
runway very
show low
some air temperature
properties of (ca.
the 5 °C),
hybrid
◦ thus the
drive. Theperformance
tests
spring conditions with very low air temperature (ca. 5 C), thus the performance of the were of
donethein
hybrid
springdrive was limited
conditions with veryin relation
low airtotemperature
the assumptions.
(ca. 5The
°C), maximum power of theoffuel
thus the performance the
hybrid drive was limited in relation to the assumptions. The maximum power of the fuel
 Energies 2021, 14, 1073 16 of 18
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 16 of 17

hybrid drive was limited in relation to the assumptions. The maximum power of the fuel
cell system (which could be obtained during this short test without a significant voltage
cell system (which could be obtained during this short test without a significant voltage
drop above the nominal level) was 7.5 kW, so the maximum total electric power equal to
drop above the nominal level) was 7.5 kW, so the maximum total electric power equal to
37 kW was achieved. To achieve higher temperature of the fuel cell stacks allowing fuel
37 kW was achieved. To achieve higher temperature of the fuel cell stacks allowing fuel
cell rated power and assuming 40 kW of total power, longer tests are required at this low
cell rated power and assuming 40 kW of total power, longer tests are required at this low
ambient
ambienttemperature
temperature(longer
(longer start-up process of
start-up process ofthe
thefuel
fuelcell
celltotoincrease
increase
thethe temperature
temperature of
of cells).
cells).Nevertheless,
Nevertheless,37 37
kWkW of available
of available total total electric
electric powerpower
allowed allowed the to
the aircraft aircraft
achieve to
achieve the speed needed to start climbing. The results of the tests on the runway
the speed needed to start climbing. The results of the tests on the runway collected using col-
lected using RaspberryPI
RaspberryPI 3+, a mobile 3+, a mobile
phone, phone,
and GSM and GSM communication
communication are shown in Figure are shown
13. in
Figure 13.

Figure 13.13.
Figure Selected results
Selected resultsfrom
fromthe
themotor
motorglider
glidertests
testson
onthe
the runway.
runway.

7. 7.
Conclusions
Conclusions
TheThepaper
paperpresents
presentsrealization
realizationofofaapower
power conversion
conversion system
system and
and itsits control
control for
for aa
hybrid
hybrid fuel
fuelcell
celland
andbattery-based
battery-baseddrivedrivesystem
system for for aa light
light aircraft; its properties
aircraft; its properties were
were
examined in stationary and limited non-stationary tests. The motor power
examined in stationary and limited non-stationary tests. The motor power converter was converter was
built using IGBT technology, whereas the DC/DC converter was
built using IGBT technology, whereas the DC/DC converter was constructed using SiC constructed using SiC
technology.
technology.All Allcomponents
componentsofofthe thehybrid
hybridsystem
system(battery,
(battery,converter,
converter, fuel cell controller,
controller,
speed
speed command
command lever,
lever,on-board
on-boardcomputer)
computer)were wereconnected
connected using
using CAN communication.
communication.
The
Themain
mainassumption
assumption of the the control
controlwas
wasto to develop
develop a control
a control methodmethod not involving
not involving com-
munication buses
communication busesbetween
betweencomponents.
components.This This
is to avoid possible
is to avoid faults of
possible communication
faults of commu-
and possible
nication delays indelays
and possible communication. The powerThe
in communication. conversion
power system is protected
conversion system against
is pro-
charging
tected againstof the battery,
charging which
of the is notwhich
battery, recommended in the designed
is not recommended in thesystem,
designed when the
system,
loading
when the power
loading is power
smalleristhan the possible
smaller than the power of thepower
possible fuel cell. Thefuel
of the control
cell.system takes
The control
into consideration
system fuel cell stacksfuel
takes into consideration periodically
cell stacksshort circuiting, increasing
periodically humidification
short circuiting, of
increasing
cells. The control system protection ability has been proven in laboratory
humidification of cells. The control system protection ability has been proven in labora- tests results in
stationary
tory conditions
tests results as well conditions
in stationary as during run-up
as wellofasthe motorrun-up
during glider on
of athe
runway.
motor glider on
a runway.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.I.; methodology, T.M.; software, T.M.; validation, G.I.;
formal analysis, T.M. and G.I.; investigation, T.M., G.I., M.N.; resources, T.M. and M.N.; data curation,
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.I.; methodology, T.M.; software, T.M.; validation,
T.M.; writing—original draft preparation, G.I.; writing—review and editing, T.M. and M.N.; visual-
G.I.; formal analysis, T.M. and G.I.; investigation, T.M., G.I., M.N.; resources, T.M. and M.N.; data
curation, T.M.; writing—original draft preparation, G.I.; writing—review and editing, T.M. and
M.N.; visualization, T.M.; supervision, G.I.; project administration, G.I.; funding acquisition, G.I.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Energies 2021, 14, 1073 17 of 18

ization, T.M.; supervision, G.I.; project administration, G.I.; funding acquisition, G.I. All authors have
read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by The National Centre for Research and Development, grant num-
ber PBS3/A6/24/2015, and the APC was funded by the Warsaw University of Technology within the
IDUB-Open Science Program.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank the teams co-working within the project for successful
cooperation:
• the team from the Institute of Aviation and Applied Mechanics of the Warsaw University of
Technology led by Professor Piotr Czarnocki, responsible for airframe design,
• the team from the AGH University of Science and Technology in Cracow, led by Professor
Magdalena Dudek, responsible for fuel cell system designing, building and running.
• the team from Rzeszow University of Technology (project Leader) led by Professor Marek
Orkisz, and
• Henryk Mynarski, the owner of The Glider Factory "Jeżów" responsible for the airframe building.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the
design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of the data; in the writing of the
manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

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