Called the “available noise power,” kT is independent of the resistor value and has the dimension of

power per unit bandwidth. The reader can prove that kT 5 2173.8 dBm/Hz at T 5 300 K. For a circuit to
exhibit a thermal noise density of V2 n 5 4kTR1, it need not contain an explicit resistor of value R1. After
all, Eq. (2.86) suggests that the noise density of a resistor may be transformed to a higher or lower value
by the surrounding circuit. We also note that if a passive circuit dissipates energy, then it must contain a
physical resistance15 and must therefore produce thermal noise. We loosely say “lossy circuits are
noisy.” A theorem that consolidates the above observations is as follows: If the real part of the
impedance seen between two terminals of a passive (reciprocal) network is equal to Re{Zout}, then the
PSD of the thermal noise seen between these terminals is given by V2 n 5 4kTRe{Zout} (Fig. 2.37) [8].
This general theorem is not limited to lumped circuits. For example, consider a transmitting antenna
that dissipates energy by radiation according to the equation V2 TX,rms/Rrad, where Rrad is the
“radiation resistance” [Fig. 2.38(a)]. As a receiving element [Fig. 2.38(b)], the antenna generates a
thermal noise PSD of16 V2 n,ant 5 4kTRrad. (2.92) Zout 4kT Re{Zout} Zout Figure 2.37 Output noise of a
passive (reciprocal) circuit. VX Rrad R 4kTR rad rad (a) (b) Figure 2.38 (a) Transmitting antenna, (b)
receiving antenna producing thermal noise. 15. Recall that ideal inductors and capacitors store energy
but do not dissipate it. 16. Strictly speaking, this is not correct because the noise of a receiving antenna
is in fact given by the “background” noise (e.g., cosmic radiation). However, in RF design, the antenna
noise is commonly assumed to be 4kTRrad. Sec. 2.3. Noise 43 M 1 4kT γ g m M 1 4kT γ g m (a) (b) Figure
2.39 Thermal channel noise of a MOSFET modeled as a (a) current source, (b) voltage source. Noise in
MOSFETs The thermal noise of MOS transistors operating in the saturation region is approximated by a
current source tied between the source and drain terminals [Fig. 2.39(a)]: I2 n 5 4kTγ gm, (2.93) where γ
is the “excess noise coefficient” and gm the transconductance.17 The value of γ is 2/3 for long-channel
transistors and may rise to even 2 in short-channel devices [4]. The actual value of γ has other
dependencies [5] and is usually obtained by measurements for each generation of CMOS technology. In
Problem 2.10, we prove that the noise can alternatively be modeled by a voltage source V2 n 5 4kTγ /gm
in series with the gate [Fig. 2.39(b)]. Another component of thermal noise arises from the gate
resistance of MOSFETs, an effect that becomes increasingly more important as the gate length is scaled
down. Illustrated in Fig. 2.40(a) for a device with a width of W and a length of L, this resistance amounts
to RG 5 W L R, (2.94) where R denotes the sheet resistance (resistance of one square) of the polysilicon
gate. For example, if W 5 1 μm, L 5 45 nm, and R 5 15 , then RG 5 333 . Since RG is distributed over the
width of the transistor [Fig. 2.40(b)], its noise must be calculated carefully. As proved in [6], the
structure can be reduced to a lumped model having an equivalent gate resistance of RG/3 with a
thermal noise PSD of 4kTRG/3 [Fig. 2.40(c)]. In a good design, this noise must be much less than that of
the channel: 4kT RG 3 4kTγ gm . (2.95) The gate and drain terminals also exhibit physical resistances,
which are minimized through the use of multiple fingers. At very high frequencies the thermal noise
current flowing through the channel couples to the gate capacitively, thus generating a “gate-induced
noise current” [3] (Fig. 2.41). This