Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Air Condition
Air Condition
Paper 3564V2-1
Air conditioning
Contents
1. Introduction
2. Internal climate
2.1 Human comfort
2.2 Air quality
2.3 Ventilation air
5. Air-handling sequence
5.1 Air intake
5.2 Preheat
5.3 Filtration
5.4 Air-cooling and dehumidifying coil
5.5 Dehumidification and humidification
5.6 Reheater
5.7 Fan
6. Fans
6.1 Centrifugal fans
6.2 Axial flow fans
6.3 Mixed flow fans
7. Refrigeration
7.1 Vapour compression cycle
7.2 Absorption refrigeration
8. Air-conditioning methods
(Continued)
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 2
9. Air-conditioning systems
9.1 The single duct system
9.2 The multi-zone system
9.3 The dual duct system
9.4 The perimeter induction system
9.5 The variable air volume system (VAV)
9.6 Fan coil units
9.7 Chilled ceilings
Summary
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 3
1 Introduction
Air conditioning is defined as:
Systems that simply cool and filter air such as room chillers and car climate control,
are really only comfort cooling systems.
This paper identifies the principles of air conditioning and describes some of the
systems and components currently available or in use in modern buildings.
2 Internal climate
2.1 Human comfort
Human beings generate internal heat in order to maintain thermal equilibrium and an
internal body temperature of approximately 36.8°. The body loses this heat by:
This heat loss, and thus the feeling of comfort, are influenced by the properties of the
surroundings (1 to 4 below) and the effects of occupation (5 and 6):
1. Dry bulb temperature of the room air (°C) – narrow band 16 to 25°C
acceptable.
2. Humidity of the room air (%RH) – wide band of 40 to 70 percent acceptable.
3. Mean temperature of the surrounding surfaces (°C) – narrow band 19 to 26°C.
4. Velocity of the air across the body (m/s) – narrow band 0.1 to 0.25m/s.
5. Clothing worn by the occupants (clo) – personal choice.
6. Physical activity of the occupant (ie metabolic rate) mets or W/m2.
Note that there is no clear statement about any one of these factors. It is the
relationship between them that determines what is acceptable.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 4
A number of comfort indices have been proposed over the years. Most have been
some form of temperature classification, such as ‘equivalent temperature’, ‘corrected
effective temperature’, ‘globe temperature’, ‘resultant temperature’. They combine
most (but not all) of the effects of the room variables and ignore the human aspects of
clothing and activity.
For light sedentary occupations, the following operating temperatures are derived:
Winter – 22°C +/–2°C with surface temperature between 19 and 126°C, air
velocity <0.15m/s
z Contaminants
z Lack of oxygen
z Dust and micro-organisms.
Atmospheric contaminants may take the form of finely divided solids, vapours,
gases and micro-organisms. They include:
z Coarse dirt – the largest particles passing through inlet louvres. They may
have an abrasive action upon the installation and should be removed by a
coarse screen as near to the inlet as possible.
z Dust – small, solid particles less than 8µm, such as fine dirt, soot, mineral or
organic particles contained in the atmosphere.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 5
Some of the oxygen content of air is removed by breathing and replaced with carbon
dioxide. Oxygen may also be removed by combustion. Atmospheric air normally
comprises 21 percent oxygen, 78 percent nitrogen, with traces of other gases such as
0.02 percent carbon dioxide, traces of argon etc. Air-quality sensors often use carbon
dioxide as a good measure of occupancy levels and the adequacy of fresh air supply
rates.
z Solids may be removed by filtration, and vapours by cooling and washing, but
gases remain in solution in the air.
z Dilution of air inside with air outside increases the oxygen content and reduces
the concentrations of pollutants.
z A sterilisation facility may be provided for the destruction of bacteria,
principally using ultraviolet light sources.
Air cleaners must be chosen with care to catch the types of contaminants likely to be
present, or revealed by preliminary external air sampling and testing.
Meteorological data record all aspects of weather conditions throughout the year for
particular localities. The internal condition is selected for optimum thermal comfort.
Summertime
External design state condition: 1500 hours in July: 28°C db
19.5°C wb
0°C db
50% sat
Wintertime
External design state condition 1330 hours in January: –2°C db
100% sat
20°C db
50% sat
Figure 1 shows the sequence of the items of plant necessary for the control of the
supply.
z Winter. External air is cold, and although it has a high relative humidity
(perception of humidity level), the actual moisture content is relatively low.
As air is heated up its relative humidity decreases, and left untreated the air
could be uncomfortably dry (a frequent complaint in centrally heated houses).
It is therefore necessary to humidify the air. If water at room temperature is
used, energy (the latent heat of evaporation) is required to suspend the water in
the air. The air temperature falls (giving energy into the water vapour/air
mixture), resulting in a possible need to reheat the air.
z Summer. The external air is often warmer than the required room temperature,
so cooling is necessary. However, as the air is cooled its relative humidity
increases and more moisture needs to be removed. The air soon reaches its
dewpoint temperature. As the temperature falls further, the air can no longer
hold the same moisture quantity and so condensation occurs, removing water
from the air. This process continues until the correct moisture content is
reached. At this point the air temperature is too low, so reheating is required –
even though it is summertime.
5 Air-handling sequence
Figure 1 illustrated the basic system requirements for summer and winter air
conditioning (temperature climates). The order of the components is determined by
the conditioning processes, but the final arrangement will depend on the type of
system installed – see ‘Air-conditioning methods’ below.
5.2 Preheat
Preheating coils raise the temperature of the incoming air to prepare it for the take-up
of water – this process is humidification. The coils may also temper the air, that is,
prevent very cold or foggy ventilation air from damaging the plant. Figure 8 shows a
typical heat exchanger. Low pressure hot water (LPHW) is commonly used.
However, direct resistance electric heaters can also be used.
If preheaters are required to protect the filters from freezing up or being clogged with
small ice particles, they must come before filters in the air-handling process.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 9
Filtration may be carried out by different units in sequence. The loss of static head
must not impose too much fan head, so the face area must allow for this.
Clean air also reduces discoloration of decorations and prevents dust entering
machinery or other equipment.
z Viscous filters
These consist of a perforated container with a metal labyrinth for the passage
of the air. To prepare them for duty they are submerged in a liquid which is
inodorous, non-flammable and non-evaporative. They are then drained, leaving
the filtering medium with a surface to which solid particles will stick. When
the static pressure loss reaches an intolerable level, they are immersed in a
cleaning fluid, re-immersed in the viscous fluid, then returned to duty.
These filters are also little used now, although ‘grease’ filters used in kitchen
hoods are similarly constructed.
z Electrostatic filters
The passing air becomes ionised as it is influenced by the field in high-voltage
conductors. Downstream it encounters oppositely charged metal plates to
which the ionised particles of dust stick. The plates may be vacuum-cleaned.
They may be coated with a viscous liquid but will then need special cleaning.
Such filters are useful to remove fine particles such as tobacco smoke.
Odour removal
Some gases may be removed by passing the air through activated carbon filters.
Reactivation is achieved by heating before reuse. The filters must be protected from
dust, oil and grease. Chemical deodorants may be used, depending upon the particular
contaminants.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 10
FIGURE 2 Filters
(Continued)
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 11
FIGURE 2 (continued)
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 12
Plate 1
These two plates show air-handling units, with combined supply air and extract air
systems. Heat recovery is via a plate heat exchanger for the supply air system and a
rotary wheel heat exchanger for the extract system
Plate 3
This plate shows a supply air-handling unit consisting of recirculation/fresh air mixing
chamber with volume control dampers; pre-filter; bag filter; heating coil; and supply fan.
Removal of bacteria
The refrigeration cycle is utilised to provide a chilled medium, which may be:
The coils are usually constructed from copper pipes with aluminium, electro-tinned
or, more expensively, copper fins to increase the surface area of contact. Aluminium
is not resistant to chemical attack from corrosive environments such as coastal
locations. The flanged end plates are usually galvanised sheet steel. Often the
manifolding arrangements are quite involved and exchange tubes are interleaved to
provide a more even heat exchange.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 15
If the water is chilled, the air is dehumidified. If the water is warmed, the air is
humidified. The spray water tank should be emptied daily and refilled with fresh
water.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 16
Washers must be long enough to allow full contact between the spray water and the
air and to avoid penetration through the downstream eliminator or the upstream
smoothing screen.
This equipment can be used to humidify (by heating) and dehumidify (by cooling) the
spray water.
Figure 6 shows the principal parts of such a humidifier. These devices can easily be
retrofitted (as only the sparge pipe need be in the air stream). They provide clean,
sterile humidification. There is no recirculation of water, as mains water is used via a
descaler treatment.
The principal disadvantage is the heavy electrical loading required, which can be a
problem in retrofit applications. Steam cleaners range from 1 to 100kg/hour.
For this reason, ultrasonic humidifiers were developed. These devices agitate the
water at very high frequency (but low amplitude) until the water has sufficient energy
to change state and vaporise into the air stream. They consume considerably less
electrical energy but depress the air temperature, so reheating may be necessary. They
produce reasonably clean water vapour and can be capacity-controlled by changing
the frequency of agitation. Most of the vapour is taken up by the air stream, although
drip trays are required.
z Water must be free of small particles and impurities to allow discharge through
very small agitator nozzles. (Reverse osmosis is often used.)
z The whole agitator appliance must be located in the air-handling plant, which
makes this system impractical for small equipment.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 18
The purpose is to heat the air stream to achieve the desired psychrometric condition
after cooling the air to remove moisture or humidifying the air by means other than
steam injection.
5.7 Fan
Figure 1 showed supply and extract fans. It is not essential to employ two fans, as the
supply fan could be sized to achieve the combined performance. However, it is more
usual. Also, in an emergency the extract fan could be used to remove smoke under a
fireman’s control.
The fan must be sized primarily to move a sufficient volume rate of air while
overcoming the resistance to air flow exerted by the other components of the air-
conditioning system.
Of the boxed air-handling units, centrifugal fans are most commonly used. Axial and
mixed flow fans are most often employed as stand-alone items within ductwork
sections. (See below under ‘Fans’.)
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 20
6 Fans
The criteria for selecting fans are:
z Space requirement
z Adaptability for duct connection
z Use of power (efficiency)
z Noise level
z Quality of the air handled, ie temperature and contaminants
z Speed and volume of air movement.
1. Centrifugal fans
2. Axial flow fans
3. Mixed flow fans.
z AC uses mains power without rectifying, but may be noisy owing to the
periodic nature of the supply, and special facilities for speed variation may be
needed. However, with advances in microprocessors, speed variation and
harmonies are easier and cheaper to control.
z DC motors are quieter and speed control is easy, but the rectification gear
makes the motors expensive.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 21
These fans are efficient in power. The volume/pressure characteristics are similar to
those of a centrifugal fan with forward curved blades. However, forward curved blade
centrifugal fans usually develop higher pressures than axial fans. The high running
speed favours the use of small motors. The latest types of blade are quiet in operation.
As the air flows over the rotor it is given both radial and axial velocity components.
In particular, mixed flow fans provide higher pressures and are quieter than axial
fans, even when fitted with guide vanes.
7 Refrigeration
Cooling used for air-conditioning systems is usually provided by a refrigeration
system. Cooling by refrigeration is achieved by causing a change of state of a
refrigerant between gaseous and liquid phases. Currently chemicals are used which
are gases at normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures, boiling at low
temperature and high pressure.
The absorption cycle does not use either of these products. However, care must be
taken with the use of ammonia (used on small systems), as it is very dangerous to
maintenance operatives.
The heat energy may be wasted heat such as flue gases or High Temperature Hot
Water, steam, or direct fired by gas.
Commercial plant combines the generator and condenser into one large cylinder (they
both operate at the same vapour pressure) and the absorber and evaporator into
another cylinder to produce a packaged plant.
z Ammonia/water
z Water/lithium bromide
z Water/lithium chloride.
8 Air-conditioning methods
What type of system is used in a building depends largely on the function of the
building. Air-conditioning systems may be classified under three headings:
z All air systems in which the air is fully treated in a central plant and ducted to
the various rooms. This method requires large spaces in ceiling voids and
shafts for the ducts, but very little space is taken up in the rooms.
This method requires less central plant and less ductwork, but more space is
required for the room air-cooling and heating plant. Control of local conditions
is easier, allowing fairly wide variations between individual conditioned
spaces.
This method allows full control over the conditions in any conditioned space.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 25
9 Air-conditioning systems
The following systems are widely used:
Systems 1–5 are true air-conditioning systems in which the humidity of the air as well
as its temperature are controlled. Systems 6–9 are more correctly called ‘comfort
cooling’ systems, but in practice are almost exclusively referred to for convenience as
‘air conditioning’ – and it sounds better when trying to lease out a building!
z Heat economy
z More care must be taken to ensure a sealed system
z Increase in fan head and so fan power
z Increase in noise level.
However, duct lines may be smaller and fit into the building structure more easily.
Static gain may be achieved by duct enlargement and velocity increased by duct
reduction.
With only a single air condition off the central plant, the system is suitable for:
z Single-cell buildings
z Buildings in which all spaces have an equal thermal requirement
z Parts of a building (other parts of the same building with different
requirements being served by another system).
Single duct systems are the most common because they are cheap to install.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 26
Terminal units are served by both hot and cold air ducts. Mixing is automatic, so that
the induction air to the space is in a desired condition and air is discharged into the
space at a constant rate. The volume control in the terminal unit (mixing box) also
serves to balance the availability of air to other parts of the system (Figure 17). The
mixing boxes are controlled from local thermostats.
Mixing boxes (Figure 16) fitted above false ceilings may serve more than one
discharge terminal in zones, or may be in the form of single units, normally fitted
below window sills.
The mixing hoses reduce the pressure of the incoming air and serve as noise
attenuators. The system has the advantage of ‘free cooling’ when the outside air
temperature is low enough (approximately 10°C in the UK) when the refrigeration
plant is off.
The system is high in capital and running costs and requires large amounts of duct
space. The constant volume regulator in the mixing box is set to meet the cold air
flow, which, in turn, must match the heat gains to the space. The warm air volume
flow rate for space heating is always less than that for space cooling because the
warm air may be delivered with a much greater temperature gradient between it and
the room air.
The system is suitable for buildings in which the spaces have different condition
requirements.
If recirculation is not desired, a relief air duct may be provided without an extract fan.
The motive force for the exhaust air is provided by the inducted primary air. A hollow
ceiling over a corridor may comprise a plenum chamber for this purpose.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 31
z Two-pipe system – one supply, one return. The supply can be only hot or cold
and therefore limits the controllability of various rooms. It is the cheapest to
install but not really worth the trouble.
z Three-pipe system – one hot supply, one cold supply, and common return.
Although this provides for independent heating or cooling, the mixed return
adds to the refrigeration and boiler plant loads.
z Four-pipe system – one hot supply with its own return plus one cooling
supply with its return. Full control is achieved by separate system, but clearly
it is the most expensive to install.
The VAV system can only deal with reductions in sensible heat gain to the spaces.
When these heat gains fall to a value at which the constant volume of supply air does
not maintain thermal comfort – that is, the spaces are too cold – then further heat
energy must be provided. There are three common options for satisfying this demand:
The VAV system can deal with different thermal demands in different parts of a
building. For example, it can be used for the interior zones of deep-plan buildings,
whilst the peripheral zones are conditioned by a constant air volume system with a
heating capacity, such as the perimeter induction system.
Heating elements may be installed in the void above ventilating ceilings to meet the
extraneous requirement. The terminal units may be mounted beneath windows to
project an air stream upward, or above a suspended ceiling to blow air across it. The
dropped ceilings over corridors may contain units to supply sidewall grilles.
Heating and cooling at the fan coil units are best done by a four-pipe system
comprising a separate chilled water circuit with separate coils within the terminal
unit. Two-pipe systems with a common coil within the unit operate satisfactorily with
heating or cooling alone. However, when they are used for the single coil changeover,
the removal of contained water causes an energy loss.
Ventilation air may be ducted to the units. It may also be inducted through an air
aperture in an external wall behind the cabinet, but in this case there is no humidity
control.
Each unit is fitted with automatic damper control. Fan speed control can be applied.
Existing heating pipework can be used, but cooling capacity must be installed. The
large heating coil surface allows the use of LTHW. Units may be switched off when
not in use or operated by time clock.
The fresh air requirement of each floor may be measured to suit the occupancy.
The space may be preheated by operating the fan coil unit fans without ventilation air.
Special areas may be air-conditioned using existing hot and cold pipework.
Only a single ventilation air duct is required, which can be low velocity with low
noise and low fan power.
The system occupies minimal void space. However, the units take up floor space,
which can be avoided by using remote fan coils with ducted supply and return air.
The system diagram for a ducted fresh air supply fan coil system is identical to that
shown in Figure 19, the induction system. The principal difference is the use of low-
velocity air.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 36
FIGURE 22 Arrangement for fan coil units (exhaust system not shown)
z By embedding coils in the soffit of a concrete floor and using the ceiling as a
low-temperature surface to receive radiation from the higher-temperature
surfaces in the space. To a lesser degree, the ceiling also receives heat by
conduction from the contacting air, which leads to cool air movement by
convection. The thermal response of this arrangement is sluggish, owing to the
large mass of concrete, but the buried pipelines may be set at an optimum
distance apart to provide the thermal duty. There is no obtrusive equipment.
z By using proprietary metal pans fixed to the pipelines and suspended from the
concrete ceiling. Thermal response is quicker, but the choice of distance
between pipes is restricted by the size of the pans.
z By using ventilated ceilings. Cold air is blown into the ceiling void, which acts
as a plenum chamber. A plenum chamber can also be considered as an
extremely large increase in the cross-sectional area of a duct line, so that when
branches are taken from it, each will have virtually equal pressure available.
There is very little friction loss between these points of connection.
Some ceiling tiles are perforated but some are dummy to create better thermal
diffusion within the space.
When the required air change rate in the space is very high, the whole ceiling may be
perforated, but air extract facilities must be provided to match.
Air conditioning Paper 3564 Page 38
z Thermal quality
z Fan testing
z Duct line air velocity testing
z Determination of airflow at grilles
z Filter tests
z Airtightness of the ductwork
z Noise level tests
z Thermal efficiency of the heating plant
z Thermal efficiency of the refrigeration plant
z Electrical tests.
Summary
As buildings become more sophisticated and the processes carried out in the buildings
become more high-tech, so the demand for accurate control of the internal
environment will increase.
This paper has discussed many aspects of modern air conditioning. However, the
technology is changing very rapidly. You are quite likely to encounter more modest
systems that are just as effective as those described.