South Africa

- Is called the Rainbow Nation because it has 11 official languages. It is the second largest
continent in the world.
- The only continent that lies on the Equator and Prime Meridian also on the tropic of Cancer and
Capricorn.
- It is where the Nile river is (longest river in the world)
- It is also where the Sahara is (world’s largest desert)
- Rich in minerals (95% of the world’s diamonds and more than 50% of the world’s gold is from
Africa)
- 66% of the world’s chocolate comes from Africa
- Africa has the shortest coastline despite being the second largest continent in the world

Scientists believe that Africa was the birthplace of mankind. By 100,000 BC modern humans lived by
hunting and gathering with stone tools. From Africa, they spread to Europe.

By 5,000 farming had spread to North Africa. People herded cattle and they grew crops. At that time
the Sahara Desert was not a desert. It was a green and fertile area. Gradually it grew drier and
became a desert.

Farmers in Africa continued to use stone tools and weapons however about 600 BC the use of iron
spread in North Africa. It gradually spread south and by 500 AD iron tools and weapons had reached
what is now South Africa.

 
I am an African Child by Eku McGred

I am an African child
Born with a skin the colour of chocolate
Bright, brilliant and articulate
Strong and bold; I’m gifted
Talented enough to be the best
I am an African child
Often the target of pity
My future is not confined to charity
Give me the gift of a lifetime;
Give me a dream, a door of opportunity;
I will thrive
I am an African child

Do not hide my fault

show me my wrong
I am like any other;
Teach me to dream
And I will become
I am an African child

I am the son, daughter of the soil

Rich in texture and content
Full of potential for a better tomorrow
Teach me discipline, teach me character, teach me hard work
Teach me to think like the star within me
I am an African child

I can be extra-ordinary
call me William Kamkwamba the Inventor;
 Give me a library with books
Give me a scrap yard and discarded electronics
Give me a broken bicycle;
Plus the freedom to be me
And I will build you a wind mill
I am an African child

We are the new generation

Not afraid to be us
Uniquely gifted, black and talented
Shining like the stars we are
We are the children of Africa
Making the best of us
Yes! I am an African Child

Local Culture is used to characterize the experience of everyday life in specific, identifiable localities. It
refers to ordinary people’s feelings of appropriateness, comfort, and attributes. It also focuses on the
characters, and environment or situation that is relevant to the beliefs, values, and practices of one’s
culture. It also presents the features and peculiarities of a particular place and inhabitants.

When the writer gives an emphasis on local culture, the readers are given a chance to get a clear picture
of the exotic, unusual features and peculiarities of the characters and the setting of the story. It also
helps the students gain a deeper understanding of the text through its context.

Context Clues

- Words that appear in sentences to help understand the meanings of difficult words
- They are the “hints”, “signs” and “indicators” that the author gives to help you decode the
meaning of the words.
- They can significantly increase your vocabulary
- Develop Reading Comprehensions
- Make you effective readers
- Effective usage and understanding of context clues can surely lead to academic success

Types of Context Clues

Types of Context Clues Description Clue Words Examples

1) Definition - The definition of the word is - Is / are A treasure hunter is a
(Explanation) literally given to the reader in - Defined as person who searches for
the form of an explanation (it - Means treasure from sunken ships
is literally there) - Known as and ancient tombs to obtain
- “which means” “that is” “in - Refers to valuable relics and artifacts.
other words”
- The unfamiliar word is defined Definition: a person who
in a sentence searches for treasure
2) Synonyms - A similar word is placed in the - Or It is common for Filipinos to
(Restatement) same sentence to know the - In other feel compassion or pity for
meaning of the unfamiliar words the suffering of their
word - That is fellowmen
- For instance Synonym: pity
- For example
3) Antonyms - An opposite word is placed in - But Among the siblings of thin
(Contrast) the same sentence - However body structure, Isabel is the

4) Example - Samples are provided in the
(Clues) sentence to understand the
meaning of the unfamiliar
word
5) Mood (Tone) - The tone or mood of the story
can help you guess the
meaning of the words. Your
feelings and emotions towards
the setting of the story can
give you a clue into the
meaning of a new word
6) Inference Clue - Making inferences is a little
(General) more subtle since clues are
missing. You need to look
beyond the sentence or
paragraph you are reading.
You need to consider the
illustrations, the topic of the
piece for better understanding
of the meaning of the word.
- To understand the meaning of
the unknown word, one has to
make a guess based on the
description given in the
sentence.
7) Cause and - The meaning of the difficult
Effect Clue word depends on the cause-
effect relationship of other
words as expressed in the
sentence
8) Comparison - A similar word with the same
meaning of the unfamiliar
- Although only one who is portly.
- Otherwise
- On the Antonym: thin
- Contrary
- Instead of
- While
- Unlike
- For example In ancient times, some of
- For instance our forefathers believed in
- Including amulets, such as pearl of the
- Such as crocodile, pearl of the ax,
- Specifically bullet necklace and bag of
herbs to protect them from
harm.
Example: as pearl of the
crocodile, pearl of the ax,
bullet necklace and bag of
herbs
Maasai tribe people of
Kenya and North Tanzania
use spitting to greet or say
goodbye to friends.
Slobbering is a way of
wishing good luck, and a
long life to a baby.
Moreover, a father will spit
on his daughter’s forehead
during her wedding day to
wish her a blessed union.
When one shows
belligerence, harsh words,
disruptive actions and
offensive behaviors can be
observed.
Description: harsh words,
disruptive actions and
offensive behavior
- Because Since only a few followed
- Consequentl the wearing of face mask, it
y was made mandatory by the
- Since government.
- As a result
- Hence Cause: only a few followed
the wearing of face mask
Effect: It was made
mandatory by the
government
The stench of the garbage
was like the smell of a rotten
 word is placed with an object - Like fish.
to be compared - As
- Similar to Comparison: smell of rotten
- In the same fish
way
- Likewise
- Too
- Also

Learning the meaning of a word through its use in a sentence or paragraph is the most practical way to
build vocabulary, since a dictionary is not always available when a reader encounters an unknown word.

We must be aware that many words have several possible meanings and only by being sensitive to the
circumstances in which as word is used can the reader decide upon an appropriate definition to fit the
context.

Fact or opinion

Idiom

- is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the
phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase. It
is something that can’t be understood from the ordinary meaning of words.

- is a challenging piece of figurative language. Using context clues in explaining the meaning of the
idiomatic expressions will be easier to understand if you are familiar with its structure. (Noun+noun,
noun+verb, adjective+noun and noun+adjective; Page 27 to 28 English Time Worktext)

Examples:
1) A blessing in disguise – something appears bad at first but ends up having good results.
2) Actions speak louder than voice – what you do is more important than what you say
3) Add fuel to the fire – when someone does something to make a bad situation worse
4) Add insults to an injury – to make a bad situation worse
5) All ears – listening attentively

Reading Techniques:

Scanning:

- Reading a text quickly

- Look only for a specific fact
- Find details in a hurry

Skimming

- Strategic reading method

- Focus on the main ideas
- Deliberately skip text

Intensive reading

- Read with full concentration and complete focus

- One of the most critical skills
- Get a deeper understanding
 Extensive reading

- Engage with different types of reading material

- Helps to familiarize oneself with the reading material given
- Helps build the cognitive ability

Advantages of extensive reading

1) Helps you develop an interest in reading
2) Improves your reading comprehension
3) Improves your vocabulary

Photo Reading

- Helps you read faster

- Self explanatory AGHAHSDA

Writing Bibliography (Citation)

In writing an article or research, we cite sources that will give the readers an idea of what and
which sources influenced you in thinking and doing that research. We tell the reader that certain
information or material came from another source and that is through citation. Citing sources
means giving credit for the ideas, information and knowledge you have used in your work. It also
shows the number of research you have done. It also helps you elaborate and strengthen your
views, ideas and knowledge.

Through citation, you will be able to give the readers the needed information in citing sources
such as: the author, title of the work, name and place of the publication, date of publication, and the
page number. Citing sources should be done when you use quotes, when you paraphrase, and when
you use someone else’s ideas.

Two types of citation

a. IN-TEXT CITATION is done when you give information about the topic or text right after you
paraphrase, summarize or quote the statements or ideas. (page 20 of English Time for more
info)
b. BIBLIOGRAPHIC is seen at the end of the research where all the sources are listed. It provides
information of the author, title of the publication, date and place of publication, name of
publisher, volume number, and page number(s).

Importance of Citing a Source (or giving credit)

1) It gives justice and credit to the authors

2) It provides you and the reader more information about the sources
3) It shows the writer’s credibility (referring to whether his/her sources are reliable)
4) It prevents plagiarism (Page 18 English Time Worketext)
-an act of stealing someone else’s idea or work without giving them credit and
presenting them as your own

Bibliography

- is the page of sources at the end of your research

- taken from the Greek word ‘biblion’ which means book and ‘graphia’ which means to write.

- contains an alphabetical list of sources like books, periodicals, and websites used by the writer
or researcher
 - example of bibliography:

A research paper has to contain a bibliography written on a separate page and should be located
at the end of the paper. Each entry uses a hanging indention, also known as a second line
indention.

Three main citation styles:

MLA CITATION

The Modern Language Association

- one of the most common citation styles used by students and researchers.
- uses a simple two-part parenthetical documentation system.
- the simplest way to do this kind of style is to put all the sources of information in parenthesis

example: Hunt, Tim. “The Misreading of Kerouac.” Review of Contemporary Fiction 3.2 (`983): 29-33.
Rpt. in Contemporary Literary Criticism. Ed. Carl riley. Vol. 61. Detroit: Gale, 1990. Pp.308-10. Print.

Guidelines in MLA

For Book:

Author’s Name(s). “Title of the Source”. Title of the Container, Other Contributors, version,
numbers, publisher, publication date, location.

Example: Mitchell, James A. A Guide to Citation. 2nd ed, My London Publisher, 2017.

For edited and translated books:

Last name, First name, editor. Title. Title of container, contributors, version, number,
publisher, year or publication.
Or

Last name, First name. Title. Title of container, edited by contributors, version, number,
publisher, year or publication.
Examples:

Troy, Ben N., editor, and Mary Smith. A Guide to Citation Rules. Oxford Publishers, 2015.

Coyne, Kate and Nick A. Smith. MLA Citation Rules. Translated by Chris Andrews, New York Publishings,
2004

For a chapter or essay in a book

Author’s Name(s), “Chapter Title”. Title of the book, Other Contributors, version, numbers,
publisher, publication date, page number.

-Page 21 to 24 English Time Worktext tinatamad na ako magtype ahaha-

Print Sources

- Sources that have been published in a printed format

Cohesive Devices: used to connect sentences to one another

Examples:

Five kinds of cohesive devices

-Reference
Other Examples:
-Substitution

-Ellipsis

-Conjunction

-Lexical cohesion
Modal Verbs

- are auxiliary verbs that add meaning to the main verb of the sentence.
- they express ability, possibility, impossibility, certainty, permission, request, suggestion and
obligation.

Examples:

- Can
- Could
- May
- Might
- Will
- Would
- Must
- Shall
- Should
- Ought to

Adverbs

- An adverb describes a verb,a nother adverb or adjective.

- It answers the questions: when, where, how, how much, and how often