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Practical Workflows and Applications of Least Squares
Adjustments Part 1
Modern CAD packages are powerful applications for Civil Engineering and Survey firms. Despite
their abundant features, many titles, including Autodesk Civil 3D®, lack sufficient adjustment
functionality. This class, drawn on real-world experience in a medium-size survey and
engineering firm, focuses on two main areas: First, the class focuses on the concept of least
squares and its real-world application to survey data. Secondly, the class examines the
adjustment capabilities of Leica’s Infinity, MicroSurvey’s STAR*NET, and Carlson’s SurvNET
Least Squares adjustment module and the integration of these software solutions into a survey
workflow. The implementation strategy is to utilize the adjustment functionality of different,
and sometimes competing, software products to develop the most probable and realistic
location for control. Through the process of exporting the adjusted network, this data can be
utilized and imported into CAD software packages.
Part I of this class focuses on broad concepts and proper workflows to implement least squares,
configuring your workplace environment, and analyzing least squares results. Participants will
be exposed to real-world projects that are scrutinized through a general least squares
adjustment workflow applicable to software packages from Leica, MicroSurvey, and Carlson.
Least Squares – The Who, What, Where, When, Why?

The first utilization of modern form Least Squares dates back to the early 1800’s when Legendre
and Gauss disputed over who had found it. However, interest in the core concepts of Least
Squares date back to Galileo, 200 years prior, and Greek mathematicians before that.
Definition: An approach in analysis to approximate the solution of overdetermined systems

by minimizing the sum of the squares of the residuals.
Approximate the Solution: Adjustment of a model to best fit the data
Overdetermined Systems: More equations than unknown variables
Residuals: Difference between observed value and modeled value
11/07/2022 1.02 © Copyright (2021) CivilTraining, LLC – A Davey Company Do not reproduce without permission. 1
In other words….. The solution that provides the best fit for a data set AND utilizes
redundant observations AND minimizes the error between an observation and overall
functional model.
Surveying adapts Least Squares by weighting observations and constraining portions of the
functional model to develop the following definition:
Least Squares is applying an uneven distribution of errors throughout a properly

constrained project based on redundant observations - providing varying
degrees of freedom - with the attempt of finding the most probable and realistic
locations of points.
Ted Striker flying a plane, which is easier than understanding Least Squares sometimes…
Simplifying the Definition to Stop Sweating!
Uneven Distribution of Errors – We often have more confidence in some measurements
or positions than others. We can adjust ‘better’ measurements less and inferior measurements
more. The degree we allow measurements to be adjusted is controlled through weights.
Concept of Weighting Explained:
In a perfect world, we’d measure the above locations at their true values which is shown in the
chart above at a slope of 1:1.
When we Measure the Above Values:
Acquiring the exact location of a point is not practical. By utilizing a ‘best fit’ of the measured
values, we receive a slope of .97.
Weighting the Measurements with Errors:
When accounting for the varying errors in our measurements and weighting them, we receive a
slope of .99.
Properly Constrained – Tying the project to some form of control and holding values for
position and orientation. The project’s scope will determine how a system should be
constrained.
While holding the above control point’s position and shown azimuth, least squares will adjust the
system based on the weighted observations.
While holding the same position and orientation, least squares will adjust the system, but force
the network to fit the held control point in the bottom right corner.
While holding the same position and orientation, least squares will adjust the system, but force
the network to fit the held control points throughout the system.
Practicality is a necessity when it comes to constraining a network. Project constraints will

always vary with the scope of work, i.e., a network tying to existing control (that must be held)
will be constrained differently than a project that utilizes two static control points to establish
position and orientation.
Redundant Observations – Observations made beyond what is necessary, which are used to
refine our solution. For our purposes, we’ll define it as observations made minus unknowns.
Does your project scope (cost) allow for redundant observations?
Realistic Locations – Searching for truth in real-world applications with a ‘best fit’ solution that
utilizes all the data available in the network.
We can’t (shouldn’t) use least squares to fix bad data. Additionally, it is necessary to
understand project/instrument settings (more on this later) and what role these variables play
on the adjustment.
It is important to assess your solution and verify it is practical and not extraneous.
x + 2 = 0  x = -2
An extraneous solution is an answer to a problem that is not valid….
Multiply both sides of the above equation by 2. Same answer.
x + 2 = 0  2(x + 2) = 2(0)  2x + 4 = 0  2x = -4  x = -2
HOWEVER, What happens if we multiply both sides by 0 instead of 2?
x + 2 = 0  0(x + 2) = 0(0)  0 = 0
The expression is true, 0 = 0. However, if the goal was to solve for x, we failed and the solution
is not valid for means.
Compass vs Least Squares
Differences This Class Will Focus On:
o Compass is limited to a procedural method of adjustment. Least squares is capable of
adjusting all data simultaneously to provide the best estimated solution.
*Harder with redundant observations and as your figure becomes more complex
o Applying weights to your observations is much more difficult in a procedural method of

adjustment
o Least squares offers a more comprehensive and robust opportunity to analyze your
data.
Why Do We Perform Least Squares Adjustments?

Ultimately, we use Least Squares to remove random errors (NOT MISTAKES) in our work to
refine our data, which reveals the most likely location of our points.
 Effective at adjusting your data when utilizing or tying into existing control
 Meeting obligations (contractual or regulatory)
Once fully integrated into your survey workflow, least squares can be an invaluable tool that is
cost-effective. It can provide confidence in the work you do and assist in finding blunders when
they do occur.
Types of Errors (Keeping It Short)
All measurements have error. Some can be eliminated, and some can’t.
Least squares only addresses random errors. Therefore, we need to eliminate the source of all
others the best we can.
– Systematic and Gross (mistakes) errors can ideally be eliminated from your survey
o Systematic Errors tend to propagate throughout your survey in a consistent
manner.
 Instrument Error (EDM)
 Scaling Error
 Temperature/Pressure Readings
 Did you get your pressure from the news’ weather report?
o Gross Errors or Mistakes will typically cause significant blunders that are obvious.
 Flipped Setup/BS
 Wrong Prism
 Incorrectly Measured HI or HT
How do we fix/prevent errors?

Systematic errors can normally be prevented with calibrations and appropriate field
procedures. When they are still present, we can sometimes fix them with calculations or
through processing software.
Gross errors tend to be caused by mistakes during field collection. Appropriate field procedures
can prevent most mistakes, but not all of them. Due to the magnitude, typical of gross errors,
they need to fixed or all measurements effected must be removed from your survey.
Random errors cannot be avoided and will propagate through your surveys
Common Mistakes:
Precision vs Accuracy (Simple Definitions)
Precision – How close measurements are to each other
Accuracy – How close measurements are to a specific value
The Math Behind Least Squares
Standard Error and Standard Deviation
– Standard Deviation
o Measurement of how spread-out values are in a dataset.
1) Calculate the mean (average)

2) Calculate the difference of each value against the mean
3) Square each difference
4) Calculate the mean of the squared differences
5) Square root the mean
It’s easier to just use excel…. So just do that!
– Standard Error
o The standard deviation of the mean.
Normal Distribution
M.W. Toews - Concept Drawing of Jeremy Kemp's Original Figure
Normal Distribution or a Gaussian Distribution is symmetric around the mean. Data closer to
the center of the bell curve is found more frequently than values further from the mean.
The probability of finding a random value within 1 std dev (σ) about the mean is 68.2%
Confidence Interval
Defined as a range of estimates for an unknown parameter. We’ll apply the concept of the
confidence interval such that:
We are 95% confident that a measurement will be within ~2σ. (More on this later!)
We won’t dig into the z-value really being 1.96…
Chi-Square Test (Simplified)
A statistical test applied to a set of observations to evaluate how likely it is that any observed
differences arose due to RANDOM errors.
Lower/Upper Bounds
Without beating a dead statistical horse too much longer….. The Chi-squared probability
distribution is a lopsided bell curve that will vary in shape based on the number of degrees of
freedom in your system.
For our understanding, the lower and upper bounds of the chi-square test will be less than 1
and greater than 1 respectively. The more degrees of freedom (redundant observation you
made), the tighter the lower and upper bounds will be to 1. We’ll discuss the Chi-Square test
further when analyzing our systems, but for now accept the following:
If you surpass the upper bound – there is likely some form of gross/systematic error in your
network OR your project settings and instrument errors are not realistic.
If you surpass the lower bound – the system needs to be evaluated to verify it is practical and
reasonable. However, this is not a cause for alarm. It roughly means your observations were
better than your system predicted.
Least Squares General Workflow (Field & Software)
 Create Project
 Setup Project Options and Settings
 Import Data
 Create Adjustment Model
 Performing Adjustment
 Review and Analyze
 Export Data
Create Project – Simple enough from a software standpoint. However, a least squares
project really begins in the field. We previously discussed redundancy – observations made
beyond what is necessary. This needs to be planned in advance and implemented properly
during field work.
Examining the figure:
1) If you ran only the outer loop, you would essentially be limited to performing a
Compass Rule Adjustment. Legs of the figure would absorb error equally (relative to
length).
2) Running through the center creates two supplemental loops and provides additional
Degrees of Freedom. A least squares adjustment will utilize all available information
simultaneously to refine the network with the most practical and realistic values.
Project Options & Settings – Determining the factors and defining the variables that will
be utilized in your adjustment
 Coordinate System, Grid vs. Local

 Units
 Confidence Level/Iterations
 Instrument Settings
 Ground Coordinates
 Cluster Detection
 List goes on and on…
The majority of these settings will vary from project to project, and we’ll look at specific settings
to do a basic adjustment in each of the three software packages. However, the Instrument
Settings requires additional attention.
Instrument Settings
We can utilize our manufacturer settings to propagate the initial fields.
The above values represent the predicted standard errors for the distance, angles (vertical and
horizontal), direction, bearing, and centering errors of the instrument and target.
It is absolutely crucial to be practical when entering the instrument settings.
A more detailed analysis of Instrument Settings and how to assign these values will be provided
in Part II of this class. In Part II we will walk through the steps necessary to manually determine
these values for real-world applications and examine the value/benefits of performing this task.
Review & Analysis – Once you’ve created your adjustment model (established Constraints)
and performed the adjustment, Least squares allows the user to thoroughly review the data.
IS THIS VALID? IS IT PRACTICAL? WHY DID IT PASS? WHY DID IT FAIL? WHAT HAPPENS IF I DO
THIS? DID IT GET BETTER OR WORSE? WHY (again)? NOW WHAT? AM I DONE?
These are some of the questions you’ll begin to ask yourself as you start performing least
squares…. We’ll try to answer some of those questions in part II of the class…. For now, let’s
begin the process of running through the workflows on each software title.
MicroSurvey STAR*NET – STAR*NET is an extremely powerful least squares
software solution. Once accustomed to its unique interface, most users can effortlessly
implement adjustment strategies for their projects.
Creating a Project
Within the STAR*NET software, you can either select the ‘New Project’ option from the project
manager, or you can click ‘File’  ‘New Project’. Alternatively press Cntrl + N.
Select ‘Options’  ‘Project Options’
Adjustment Type (2D or 3D)
Units
Coordinate System
From the ‘General Tab’
Error Propagation – Be sure it is checked and set to 95% for the Confidence Level.
North-East
At-From-To
Importing Data
As seen in the figure above, Select ‘Input’ from the main menu and navigate to your
manufacturer’s data type. Star*NET licenses each module separately.
Converter – These modules are called converters, and it brings your field data into STAR*NET.
Two Notes Before Going Any Further
 I recommend creating a separate directory to keep your files

organized. This is especially important if you will have multiple
import events or plan to addon to this project in the future.
 STAR*NET utilizes various records to manipulate data. For the

purposes of this class, we will mostly work with M Records. This
concept will become easier to understand once we import some
data into STAR*NET.
STAR*NET Converters
At first glance, the STAR*NET converters are a little overwhelming. However, we will go through
the necessary settings to get up and running.
 Select the file to import with the ‘Browse’ button at the top right
o The name of the job will appear in the window
 Select the export location with the second ‘Browse’ button (below the first)
 You need to provide STAR*NET your Geoid (.gem file)
 Select appropriate Units under ‘Unit Settings’
 Data Source Options
o Average Shots or Include All Shots in Sets
o GPS Coordinate or GPS Vectors
o Disable/Enable/Hide Coordinate Records
o NE Coordinates
o Write ‘M’ Records
o Select Relevant Data Sources

 Traverse
 Sets of Angles
 Stakeout
 User Entered
 Reference Line
 Measure Foresight
Once finished with the converter settings, click ‘Import’ at the bottom left of the window. Upon
completion, a dialogue box will appear confirming the data that has been imported.
Where’s the Data?
Once you close the confirmation box – nothing appears on the screen. We have to load the data
into the active STAR*NET session.
In the default layout, the ‘Data Input File Manager’ is in the top left of the interface. Click the
second button in from the left with the plus sign. This is the ‘Add File’ button. Click it and
navigate to the file you just imported. The data will load into the main screen where we can
manipulate the inline data.
STAR*NET Input Types (Reduced)
Input Description
C Coordinates for a Station
M All Measurements to Another Station
M (3D Format 1) M At-From-To Angle Slope Dist Zenith [Std Errs] [HI/HT] ['Description]
BM Bearing and Measurements to Another Station
BM (3D Format 1) BM From-To Bearing Slope Dist Zenith [Std Errs] [HI/HT] ['Description]
DV Distance and Vertical Measurement to Another Station
DV (3D Format 1) DV From-To Slope Distance Zenith [Std Errs] [HI/HT] ['Description]
# Comments out current line
.data off Turns the data below the line off
.data on Turns the data back on (leaving everything after ‘.data off’ toggled off)
STAR*NET Standard Error Inputs

Input Description
& Applies standard error settings from the instrument settings
* Float – Provides initial input value, but has no effect on adjustment
! Fixed – Observation is held – not adjusted
Value Std Dev – Error value for one specific observation
Blank Applies standard error from the instrument settings
Examples:
C 102 6920868.175878 11625298.147226 513.093466 !!! '400 NAIL GPS
C tells STAR*NET the coordinates for point 102

N: 6920868.175878
E: 11625298.147226
Z: 513.093466
!!! tells STAR*NET to hold the values fixed.
‘400 NAIL GPS is the description of the point
C 102 6920868.175878 11625298.147226 513.093466 &&! '400 NAIL GPS
&&! tells STAR*NET to apply the standard errors from the instrument settings for the N, E and
hold the Z value fixed.
Metadata
The converter lists the metadata in the initial lines of the dataset.
Inline Project Settings
o Units FEETUS
o .Units DMS
o .Order NE AtFromTo
o .Separator -
o .Delta Off
o .3D
o .SCALE 1.000000000000
Job Descriptions
o Job #
o Date
o Time
o Description
Instrument Models and Details
o Calibration Date
o Compensator
o Horizontal/Vertical Indices
Setup Dates are listed throughout the data as new points are occupied. The occupied
point is automatically commented out to allow it to be adjusted.
Create Model & Perform Adjustment

Constrain Your Model
In the below scenario, we will hold two GPS points to generate our initial location and
orientation. As seen in the figures below, we use !!! in order to hold our coordinates fixed of
Points 100 and 102. Once done, click ‘Adjust Network’ from the top toolbar.
The above figure has no crossties and lacks the necessary redundancy to properly perform a
least squares adjustment. However, lets examine the adjusted coordinates below from the
report.
The processing summary reveals an

analysis where the network passes the
Chi-Square Test.
Realistically though, there is not much

value in this. The test is only seeing if
the traverse closed within acceptable
error per the instrument settings we
provided.
Enabling some additional observations will yield a more thorough result.
As seen in the above figure, the network has been strengthened through crosstie observations.
The improved network exceeds the Lower Bound of the Chi-Square test. If we find our network
to be free of errors and our project/instrument settings reasonable, we can accept this is okay.
Continue reviewing your network, make additional adjustments if necessary, and export your
data if acceptable.
Output
Per the output window below, you can access the coordinate file from the coordinates tab at
the bottom. Alternatively, there is a ‘Ground’ tab if you wish to have your data in that format.
o You can select how you want your file delimited in the Project Settings.
In Part II of the class, we’ll dig into some of the more powerful features STAR*NET offers. For now, we’ll
advance to Leica Infinity.
Leica Infinity – Per Leica’s description, Infinity is a user-friendly geospatial office software
to manage, process, combine, analyze, and quality check data from various sources (total
stations, digital levels, GNSS, UAVs, and LIDAR) all in one package. It just so happens to be able
to perform a decent least squares adjustment as well.
We’ll quickly run through the procedures of creating an Infinity project and establishing your
project settings to begin the least squares workflow.
Creating a Project
Upon loading Leica Infinity, you’ll be met with the above screen. Click ‘New Project’
(highlighted yellow) to begin.
The above (outlined in black) contains mostly superficial options. However, there are a few
portions worthy of mentioning.
Template – Developing a template will make creating new projects more efficient.
Project Name – Necessary to properly identify the project
Storage – Where the Leica Infinity project files will be saved.
-Checking ‘Create Project Subfolder’ will keep your directory organized.
Units & Coordinate
System
Implement your Project

specific settings.
Pay special attention to

‘Coordinate Order’
Importing Data
Select ‘Import’ from the top left (highlighted in yellow) and navigate to your data of choice.
Leica Infinity provides some valuable information during the import phase. Key areas of note:
Details – The job details section provides the following:
Job Name
Description
Creator and Date Created
Last Modified/Start and End Dates
Coordinate System
Importing Deleted Points – Infinity can import points deleted from the Job file that would not
typically appear inside of an FBK or ASCII.
Filter by Date/Time – Leica DBX Job files include all the data in a job. Using the ‘Filter by
Date/Time’ option allows users to strictly import new information when bringing data into an
existing Infinity project.
Click ‘Import’ at the bottom right once you’ve finished reviewing your data. The data will
appear within the Infinity interface.
Perform Adjustment
Select ‘Traverse’ from the top menu, which can be seen in the image below.
The ‘Traverse’ window will appear in the center of your screen, as seen in the figure above. Begin by
naming your traverse at the top of your screen
Take notice that your window is split into two sections. The portion on the left lists your available setups
from the data you imported. A closer look reveals what point was used for the backsight while
occupying the point and the date/time of the setup. Build your traverse by selecting the first setup and
clicking the right-pointing arrow button in the center. This will transition the setup to the right portion of
your screen, and will function as the beginning of your traverse. Continue adding setups until you’ve
completed your traverse.
As can be seen in the figure above, the traverse window lists your start and ending point (shown in the
black box above). By clicking the pencils next to the points, you can select the appropriate value of the
point (GPS, Control Value, Averaged Value, etc.). Once satisfied, click Next.
Additional Note: Per the Leica Infinity Manual, the following Point Roles can be found:
Understanding these point roles are extremely important as Infinity will handle points differently based
on their role.
Per the figure above, Infinity gives you the ability to review your observations and dig into each one.
Infinity will automatically highlight any observations that are outside of the tolerances you set. You can
disable observations, which is especially useful if you’ve taken multiple sets and only one is
troublesome.
Clicking the ‘Distances’ tab at the top allows users to review the measured distances between
observations. Again, observations will be highlighted in red if out of the assigned tolerance values.
Once finished reviewing the observations, advance to the ‘Processing Parameters’ by clicking Next.
As seen above, in the ‘Processing Parameters’ screen, we’ll determine the factors surrounding the
adjustment that are specific to the project and instruments used.
o 2D vs 3D
o Confidence Levels
o Instrument Errors
o Setup/Target Errors
Once satisfied, Click ‘Next’. Infinity advances to the ‘Traverse Result’ screen (seen in the figure below).
Chi-Square lower/upper bounds and test value are available for review on the right side of the screen.
In the main portion of the screen the ‘Adjustment Results’ and ‘Adjusted Observations’ are available.
At the bottom left of the screen, there is a checkbox to display the ‘Traverse Report’. The report will
appear when you click Finish.
The ‘Traverse Report’, seen below, is extremely detailed and an ideal product to save as a record of your
adjustment.
After running the Traverse adjustment, Infinity will display the traverse and its connections. The
‘Traverse Report’ can be reopened by right clicking on the traverse now listed in the
‘Navigator’ window.
In Part II of this class, we’ll highlight some of the user-friendly features Infinity provides users to
make easy changes and adjustments to your data. For now, we’ll advance to Carlson’s SurvNET.
Carlson SurvNET – Carlson’s SurvNET is a convenient title that builds out a
straightforward, yet robust, least squares adjustment module directly into your CAD package.
SurvNET is capable of handling imports from various Data Collectors and manufacturers and
provides an efficient means of handling your data.
I suggest creating your drawing and establishing your project settings with your appropriate
templates before beginning. When ready, click the ‘SurvNET’ button under Survey or type
‘SurvNET’ in the command line.
Creating a Project
Upon opening, the SurvNET project window will open (seen above). Here, you can either
navigate to an existing project or create a new one. For our example, we’ll create a new project.
I suggest navigating to a new directory/folder that you’ll create this work in. Ideally, to a
job/project specific subfolder to keep yourself organized.
Once in your chosen directory, type a name for your project and click Open at the bottom left.
After clicking Open, the SurvNET interface will appear by default on the left side of your screen
(seen above).
Converting Data
At this point, you’ll need to add your data. However, you may have to convert your data into a
useable format before taking this step. If necessary, transfer and convert your data using the
‘Data Collectors’ button shown below from the Survey menu.
The ‘Data Collector
Program’ selector
window appears after
clicking the ‘Data
Collectors’ button seen
in the previous figure.
Select your manufacturer of choice. In our demo, we’ll choose Leica. Navigate through the
dialogue box by choosing ‘DBX’, ‘Import From Leica’, and ‘Import Measurements with Points’.
The Converter window will appear (seen below). Navigate to your project directory and name
your file. The first file you are converting and saving is the coordinate file. Click Save at the
bottom left when done. A second window will appear, and it will look very similar to the
previous. Perform the same procedure to convert and save the raw data file.
Upon completion, you’ll receive a notification dialogue box confirming you have successfully
converted your files.
Importing Data
To import your data, click the Red Plus Sign seen in the image below within the SurvNET
interface. A window will appear asking what type of data you’d like to add. Select Raw Data File
As seen in the figure above, navigate to the appropriate directory and find your ‘Raw Data’ file.
You’ll see a data preview window at the bottom right of the screen. Click open at the bottom
left when you’ve found the correct file you wish to import.
The imported ‘Raw Data’ file can be seen in the image to

the left. Double click the file to open it for edit.
Project Settings
Click the blue cog to open the ‘Project Settings’ window (seen below). Here, you’ll navigate
through a series of tabs that will define your project’s characteristics – Including the coordinate
system, units, tolerances, standard errors, adjustment preferences, and output options.
Pay special attention to the standard errors tab (seen below), where you’ll set your distance,
angle, and centering errors.
Setup & Perform Adjustment
Open the ‘Raw Data’ file by double clicking the raw file. The below window will appear. Here
we can review the data after it has been converted. With any data that has gone through a
conversion process, I recommend reviewing your data for any obvious errors.
Carlson encourages users to follow a number of suggestions when collecting data for use in
their least squares adjustment module.
One in particular that is worth mentioning is:
o Some data collectors do not allow the surveyor to shoot the same point twice using the same
point number. SurvNET requires that all measurements to the same point use a single point
number. The raw data may need to be edited after it has been downloaded to the office
computer to ensure that points are numbered correctly.
As with the other adjustments, we need to hold a portion of our network fixed. Similar to
STAR*NET’s inline options, we’ll define our fixed constraints in SurvNET by adding commands.
These commands can be found from the ‘Add’ menu dropdown as seen above. The last four
options are:
o Reference Azimuth – Constraint to provide orientation
o Control Standard Error (CSE) – Holds any control points following the command fixed
with the designation of ! – similar to STAR*NET. Utilization of a # will allow a control
point to float.
o Setup Standard Error (SSE) – Changes Centering Errors and Instrument/Rod Height
Errors from the default settings for all setups following the command. Another SSE is
needed to change it again.
o Measurement Standard Error (MSE) - Changes Instrument Errors from the default
settings for all measurements following the command. Another MSE is needed to
change it again.
In our situation, I utilized CSE with !!! to hold our starting control points.
In the figure seen above, under the ‘Process’ menu, you’ll find the ‘Least Squares’ option. There
are three submenus, and each is important to the adjustment.
Prepare Least Squares Data
The least squares processing options

appear below. Select your Closing Point
(values will be filled in after you enter the
point number), if you want a combined scale
factor calculated, and vertical error
adjustment.
Edit Least Squares Data
Return to the menu and select the ‘Edit’ option.
As seen above, the control points are listed that we held. You can edit, add, or remove any of
the following options. Additionally, you can modify the distance/angle error at the bottom.
Process Least Squares Data
Finally, return to the menu and open the ‘Process’ option.
Choose if you want your elevations

calculated and the appropriate
decimals for your report. Click OK to
advance to the results.
As seen in the figure above, this gives us a quick report on the results of our preliminary
adjustment. Let’s save the file and close the ‘Raw Data’ editor.
Run the adjustment from the main SurvNET window using the ‘Network Adjustment’ button
(seen below).
As seen in the image below, you’ll find the adjustment results, report, and output tabs on the
SurvNET interface.
By clicking the red pencil (seen below), you can draw your traverse into your DWG (as seen
above).
In Part II of this class, we’ll highlight some of the more useful features SurvNET offers when
analyzing your adjustment within CAD.
Practical Workflows and Applications of Least Squares
Adjustments Part 2
Modern CAD packages are powerful applications for Civil Engineering and Survey firms. Despite
their abundant features, many titles, including Autodesk Civil 3D®, lack sufficient adjustment
functionality. This class, drawn on real-world experience in a medium-size survey and
engineering firm, focuses on two main areas: First, the class focuses on the concept of least
squares and its real-world application to survey data. Secondly, the class examines the
adjustment capabilities of Leica’s Infinity, MicroSurvey’s STAR*NET, and Carlson’s SurvNET
Least Squares adjustment module and the integration of these software solutions into a survey
workflow. The implementation strategy is to utilize the adjustment functionality of different,
and sometimes competing, software products to develop the most probable and realistic
location for control. Through the process of exporting the adjusted network, this data can be
utilized and imported into CAD software packages.
Part II of this class further examines how to properly construct a network solution, adapt an
adjustment to a specific project scope, recognize a correct solution, utilize supplementary data,
and detect and resolve blunders. Participants will examine the Chi-Square test in further detail
to understand its role on survey data analysis. Additionally, time is allocated to determine
instrument settings through field exercises and procedures.
A Correct Solution
What does a correct solution look like for your adjustment?
o Data free of blunders

o Redundancy
o Appropriate constraints
o Properly weighted
o Does it make sense?
Build your adjustment network with redundant and supplemental data.
Field Determined Instrument Settings
It is reasonable in most situations to use your manufacturer specifications. However, these
values are determined in a laboratory setting. They don’t necessarily reflect real-world
observations. Additionally, you’re required to use practical reasoning when entering centering
errors as seen in the image below.
Horizontal Instrument and Target errors are utilized to determine how accurately your
instrument and target are aligned over the point. The vertical error is how accurate you can
measure the height of both - the instrument and target.
Replicate Typical Scenario
o Your Equipment and crew
o Calibrate & adjust before starting
o Temperature/Pressure Settings
Side Note: This is a significant amount of effort, but it is a good exercise to verify your
equipment and crews are producing quality data and using realistic instrument settings in your
adjustments.
Reality Capture Example of Setup and Procedure
o Measure
o Knock out of level (Instrument, Backsight, and Foresight)
o Setup – Recenter and Relevel
o Repeat
Available for Distribution – Email JQuirin@wetlands.com and I’ll respond with spreadsheets.
We’ll utilize these measurements to calculate our instrument settings. Since we are knocking
the instrument, backsight, and foresight out of level – we can change our centering errors to 0.
Proper Judgement is Still Required…
Centering Error, Distances, and Prisms
Acquired from the Leica Geosystems Original Accessories Catalogue
(https://leica-geosystems.com/)
Some quick geometry and math yield the above chart…
At 200’, 5 seconds of error is less than .005’. How good are your setups? Are you consistently
setting up better than that? What about shooting a point that well? (More on that shortly).
Budget error accordingly – in the field and in the office during adjustments. When dealing with
short distances, your centering errors tend to dominate your angular error.
It is important to keep this in mind when applying constraints in your

systems. Be mindful when holding measurements or positions fixed.
Acquired from the Leica Geosystems Original Accessories Catalogue
(https://leica-geosystems.com/)
Leica defines their Centering Accuracy as the precision with which the optical center of the
prism coincides with the mechanical axes of the holder. Consider your Prism specs when
defining instrument settings.
Positional Error
We’ve been talking quite a bit about error and how good the data we can collect is within a
reasonable amount of time. We’re going to take a moment to talk about GNSS.
*TAKE THIS WITH A GRAIN OF SALT* (or a Handful!)

The below spreadsheet will give you a rough idea on the number of observations you can
expect to need to acquire a specific tolerance. This initial page excludes the PPM, which means
it will always be worse than this. The second sheet is a duplicate of this with a location to enter
your distance in miles.
Positional Error Calculator @ Confidence Level
The above spreadsheet gives you a value for the average horizontal and vertical positions based
on a set of observations (Static or RTK).
In the above chart, 7 observations were entered. After calculating the RMSE of the horizontal
and vertical positions, the expected error can be calculated for the point.
We will want to keep the above values in mind when constraining our network.
STILL USE YOUR BEST JUDGEMENT!!
What happens when you end up with more realistic values, and the calculator gives you an
expected error that is more similar to:
There’s no reason to exclude this data. It’s still valuable, it just needs to have the proper
standard errors assigned to the coordinate value.
With some of this information in mind, let’s transition to talking about

developing realistic survey strategies.
Developing a Realistic Strategy

As mentioned prior, it is important to perform your fieldwork in a method that provides quality
data within the budget you have for your job.
Unrealistic Scenario:
The figure above is about as unrealistic as we can get in real-world scenarios. We’re rarely lucky
enough to have clear line-of-sight between our points, and sometimes, crossties just aren’t an
option. Least squares allows you to be resourceful, and we can incorporate some of the topics
we previously discussed to refine our adjustment. Remember, the goal is to find a correct
solution.
Realistic Scenario:
Infinity Example – Project Examined in Infinity – BareKing.DBX
Key Topics:
o Southern Loop
 No Crossties
o Northern Portion
 Unable to Loop
o Supplemental Data
 GPS
 Cross Tie (105-117)
 Level
Only the large loop was required initially. As the scope evolved, additional data was required,
and two additional legs were added. How would you adjust this without least squares?
Let’s look at this closer with Leica’s Infinity
From the navigator tab (seen below), we can open the Traverse Reports that were generated in
the Data Collectors.
The traverse report is a great tool to review your field data and quickly check for any obvious
issues.
The ‘Computed Accuracy’ section (seen above) lists your misclosures, and 1D and 2D
accuracies.
As the user scrolls down the ‘Traverse Report’, the ‘Observation Review’ section will flag any
setups that had observations out of tolerance. An issue is marked at Setup 124.
Closing the report, and return to the Navigator,
Right Click the traverse and open ‘Traverse
Wizard’.
As seen above, the ‘Traverse Wizard’ appears and automatically loads the appropriate setups
from the field crew. This is due to the ‘Traverse’ app being utilized within Leica’s Captivate.
Advancing to the next screen, and scrolling down to review the observations, we find Setup 124
to be out of tolerance. Expand the setup to reveal the individual observations seen below.
Uncheck the box to remove the observation from effecting the rest of the traverse. At this
point, you can continue your adjustment as normal.
Infinity’s Inspector
The first time we utilized Infinity, we didn’t spend much time in the ‘Inspector’ tab. This is
where all the data about your observations is shown and can be manipulated.
 Review & Adjust

o Coordinates
o Target Type
o Target Height
o Atmospheric/Geometric PPM
o Offsets
o Accuracies
If you need to adjust an entire ‘Setup’, access it from the source window by right clicking the
location from the source window as seen below.
Editing a setup in the ‘Setup Wizard’ will
adjust all subsequent setups.
This is useful if you’ve found that the instrument height was entered incorrectly. Perform
adjustment and proceed through the interface. Upon completion, a confirmation box will
display the adjustment made and confirm it was distributed to subsequent setups.
Due to our limited time together, let’s advance to STAR*NET and continue
analyzing this same project.
Transition to STAR*NET
Although Leica’s Infinity and Carlson tend to have more friendly user interfaces, STAR*NET can
be utilized to get organized.
Comments & Organizing

I recommend using comments, notated by a # at the beginning of the line, to take notes
throughout your data. Additionally, you can utilize multiple .dat files to further organize your
project.
Interactive Exercise within STAR*NET
 Remove GPS Survey and create new .DAT

 Utilize GPS Spreadsheet to review point values
 Separate Trav Loops into Separate .DAT files
o Large Loop
o 2 Open-ended Legs
Creating new .dat files as seen to the left will help

you analyze and breakdown your project.
When the files have a checkmark next to it in the

beginning, it means the file will be utilized in the
adjustment.
This is easily demonstrated and understood through the following images.
Above: Legs 1 & 2 Unchecked
Below: Leg 1 Checked & Leg 2 Unchecked
Integrating Supplemental Data
Before Adding Data:
What do the error ellipses show? Exaggerated to 819 in the above image.
Let’s add another GPS observation and add a cross-tie.
What do the error ellipses show now? Exaggerated to 1214 in the above image.
STAR*NET adjusted the data to hold point 300 and shifted the error around it.
Questions:
 Should Point 300 be held fixed?

o Float?
o Assign error?
 What does this mean for our adjustment?
Let’s add some level data to the road from points 101 through 126.
Point 126 Elevations:
Before After
358.185’ 358.194’
STAR*NET adjusts the elevations of the other points to hold the integrity of the supplemental
level data.
How can we incorporate the additional legs of the traverse?
*if time permits, we’ll do this in class*
SurvNET Adjustment Tips/Tricks
Transitioning back to SurvNET , there are key features we should take some time to review.
Organization
We kicked off the STAR*NET portion by discussing the idea of being organized. The same can be said for
SurvNET (to an extent). You can keep your GPS, level, and control files separate from your RAW data.
Especially useful if using a converter or if not familiar with SurvNET editing style.
Processing Redundant Measurements
SurvNET utilizes redundant measurements as expected in its least squares adjustments.
However, some workflows and data collectors do not allow you to store a point number that
has already been used.
As seen in the figure above, in the ‘Project Settings’ window, there is a field at the top right
called the ‘Pt. Number Substitution String’.
In order to use this feature, you have to plan in advance. Discuss with your field crew a
particular character you’d like to use. How this particular feature functions is you place the
string in your point description with the point number.
Example:
Pt Number Substitution String: ?
In the field, the crew stakes out to Point 105 (previously stored) and stores a new point on it.
The crew codes the description ?105. SurvNET will recognize the string and consider the shot a
redundant measurement.
Blunder Detection
Blunder detection is a great tool when trying to verify your data looks good. One can argue it’s a
good place to start when evaluating any field data. It’s also beneficial when using data that
came through a converter that may have some errors due to the conversion process.
Search for the ‘Blunder Detection’ button (seen above) in the SurvNET menu seen below.
3 Methods of Blunder Detection: All 3 output to the Error Screen
Preprocess – Validates the raw data and compares observed values against computed
measurements. Searches for points in close proximity to each other and highlights them (as
seen below).
Float one observation – Works well at finding one blunder in the network.
Reweight based on residuals – Finds multiple blunders if there is significant redundancy

throughout the network.
Only the Preprocess method is useful if the network isn’t converging.
Report Comparison
A brief review of the reports from the three software titles and a comparison of them if time
allows.
o Leica’s Infinity Report

o SurvNET’s Report
o STAR*NET’s Report
“Did I Accomplish My Goal?”
Contact the Authors
The authors can be reached at jquirin@wetlands.com. Comments and corrections are welcomed.
Credits
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance and support of these individuals, without whom this
class and document would not have been possible:
Kyle Walker, WSSI

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Practical Workflows and Applications of Least Squares

Least Squares – The Who, What, Where, When, Why?

Definition: An approach in analysis to approximate the solution of overdetermined systems

Approximate the Solution: Adjustment of a model to best fit the data

Overdetermined Systems: More equations than unknown variables

Residuals: Difference between observed value and modeled value

Least Squares is applying an uneven distribution of errors throughout a properly

Concept of Weighting Explained:

Weighting the Measurements with Errors:

Practicality is a necessity when it comes to constraining a network. Project constraints will

Does your project scope (cost) allow for redundant observations?

Multiply both sides of the above equation by 2. Same answer.

o Applying weights to your observations is much more difficult in a procedural method of

Why Do We Perform Least Squares Adjustments?

How do we fix/prevent errors?

Accuracy – How close measurements are to a specific value

1) Calculate the mean (average)

It’s easier to just use excel…. So just do that!

M.W. Toews - Concept Drawing of Jeremy Kemp's Original Figure

We won’t dig into the z-value really being 1.96…

 Coordinate System, Grid vs. Local

We can utilize our manufacturer settings to propagate the initial fields.

It is absolutely crucial to be practical when entering the instrument settings.

Adjustment Type (2D or 3D)

Two Notes Before Going Any Further

 I recommend creating a separate directory to keep your files

 STAR*NET utilizes various records to manipulate data. For the

o Write ‘M’ Records

o Select Relevant Data Sources

M All Measurements to Another Station

BM Bearing and Measurements to Another Station

# Comments out current line

.data off Turns the data below the line off

STAR*NET Standard Error Inputs

* Float – Provides initial input value, but has no effect on adjustment

! Fixed – Observation is held – not adjusted

Value Std Dev – Error value for one specific observation

Blank Applies standard error from the instrument settings

C tells STAR*NET the coordinates for point 102

!!! tells STAR*NET to hold the values fixed.

‘400 NAIL GPS is the description of the point

C 102 6920868.175878 11625298.147226 513.093466 &&! '400 NAIL GPS

Inline Project Settings

Create Model & Perform Adjustment

The processing summary reveals an

Realistically though, there is not much

Project Name – Necessary to properly identify the project

Storage – Where the Leica Infinity project files will be saved.

-Checking ‘Create Project Subfolder’ will keep your directory organized.

Implement your Project

Pay special attention to

Details – The job details section provides the following:

Creator and Date Created

Last Modified/Start and End Dates

The imported ‘Raw Data’ file can be seen in the image to

One in particular that is worth mentioning is:

o Reference Azimuth – Constraint to provide orientation

Prepare Least Squares Data

The least squares processing options

Return to the menu and select the ‘Edit’ option.

Process Least Squares Data

Finally, return to the menu and open the ‘Process’ option.

Choose if you want your elevations

TAKE THIS WITH A GRAIN OF SALT (or a Handful!)

if time permits, we’ll do this in class