Biome

A biome (/ˈbaɪ.oʊm/) is a biogeographical

unit consisting of a biological community that
has formed in response to the physical
environment[1] in which they are found and a
shared regional climate.[2][3][4] Biomes may
span more than one continent. Biome is a
broader term than habitat and can comprise a
variety of habitats.

While a biome can cover large areas, a

microbiome is a mix of organisms that coexist
in a defined space on a much smaller scale. One way of mapping terrestrial (land) biomes around the world
For example, the human microbiome is the
collection of bacteria, viruses, and other
microorganisms that are present on or in a human body.[5]

A 'biota' is the total collection of organisms of a geographic region or a time period. From local geographic scales
and instantaneous temporal scales all the way up to whole-planet and whole-timescale spatiotemporal scales.
The biotas of the Earth make up the biosphere.

Contents
Etymology
Classifications
Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones
Allee (1949) biome-types
Kendeigh (1961) biomes
Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types
Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types
Biome-types
Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types
Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes
Schultz (1988) eco-zones
Bailey (1989) ecoregions
Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200
Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)
Biogeographic realms (marine)
Biomes (terrestrial)
Biomes (freshwater)
Biomes (marine)
Summary of the scheme
Other biomes
Marine biomes
 Anthropogenic biomes
Microbial biomes
Endolithic biomes
Effects of Climate Change
See also
References
Further reading
External links

Etymology
The term was suggested in 1916 by Clements, originally as a synonym for biotic community of Möbius (1877).[6]
Later, it gained its current definition, based on earlier concepts of phytophysiognomy, formation and vegetation
(used in opposition to flora), with the inclusion of the animal element and the exclusion of the taxonomic
element of species composition.[7][8] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it
ecosystem.[9][10] The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[11]

However, in some contexts, the term biome is used in a different manner. In German literature, particularly in
the Walter terminology, the term is used similarly as biotope (a concrete geographical unit), while the biome
definition used in this article is used as an international, non-regional, terminology—irrespectively of the
continent in which an area is present, it takes the same biome name—and corresponds to his "zonobiome",
"orobiome" and "pedobiome" (biomes determined by climate zone, altitude or soil).[12]

In Brazilian literature, the term "biome" is sometimes used as synonym of biogeographic province, an area
based on species composition (the term floristic province being used when plant species are considered), or also
as synonym of the "morphoclimatic and phytogeographical domain" of Ab'Sáber, a geographic space with
subcontinental dimensions, with the predominance of similar geomorphologic and climatic characteristics, and
of a certain vegetation form. Both include many biomes in fact.[7][13][14]

Classifications
To divide the world into a few ecological zones is difficult, notably because of the small-scale variations that exist
everywhere on earth and because of the gradual changeover from one biome to the other. Their boundaries must
therefore be drawn arbitrarily and their characterization made according to the average conditions that
predominate in them.[15]

A 1978 study on North American grasslands[16] found a positive logistic correlation between evapotranspiration
in mm/yr and above-ground net primary production in g/m2/yr. The general results from the study were that
precipitation and water use led to above-ground primary production, while solar irradiation and temperature
lead to below-ground primary production (roots), and temperature and water lead to cool and warm season
growth habit.[17] These findings help explain the categories used in Holdridge's bioclassification scheme (see
below), which were then later simplified by Whittaker. The number of classification schemes and the variety of
determinants used in those schemes, however, should be taken as strong indicators that biomes do not fit
perfectly into the classification schemes created.

Holdridge (1947, 1964) life zones

In 1947, the American botanist and climatologist Leslie Holdridge classified climates based on the biological
effects of temperature and rainfall on vegetation under the assumption that these two abiotic factors are the
largest determinants of the types of vegetation found in a habitat. Holdridge uses the four axes to define 30 so-
called "humidity provinces", which
are clearly visible in his diagram.
While this scheme largely ignores
soil and sun exposure, Holdridge
acknowledged that these were
important.

Allee (1949) biome-types

The principal biome-types by Allee

(1949):[18]

Tundra
Taiga
Deciduous forest
Grasslands
Desert Holdridge life zone classification scheme. Although conceived as three-dimensional
High plateaus by its originator, it is usually shown as a two-dimensional array of hexagons in a
triangular frame.
Tropical forest
Minor terrestrial biomes

Kendeigh (1961) biomes

The principal biomes of the world by Kendeigh (1961):[19]

Terrestrial
Temperate deciduous forest
Coniferous forest
Woodland
Chaparral
Tundra
Grassland
Desert
Tropical savanna
Tropical forest
Marine
Oceanic plankton and nekton
Balanoid-gastropod-thallophyte
Pelecypod-annelid
Coral reef

Whittaker (1962, 1970, 1975) biome-types

Whittaker classified biomes using two abiotic factors: precipitation and temperature. His scheme can be seen as
a simplification of Holdridge's; more readily accessible, but missing Holdridge's greater specificity.

Whittaker based his approach on theoretical assertions and empirical sampling. He had previously compiled a
review of biome classifications.[20]
Key definitions for understanding Whittaker's scheme
Physiognomy: sometimes referring to the plants' appearance; or the
biome's apparent characteristics, outward features, or appearance of
ecological communities or species - including plants.
Biome: a grouping of terrestrial ecosystems on a given continent that is
similar in vegetation structure, physiognomy, features of the environment
and characteristics of their animal communities.
Formation: a major kind of community of plants on a given continent.
Biome-type: grouping of convergent biomes or formations of different
continents, defined by physiognomy.
Formation-type: a grouping of convergent formations.
The distribution of vegetation types
Whittaker's distinction between biome and formation can be simplified: as a function of mean annual
formation is used when applied to plant communities only, while biome is temperature and precipitation.
used when concerned with both plants and animals. Whittaker's convention
of biome-type or formation-type is a broader method to categorize similar
communities.[21]

Whittaker's parameters for classifying biome-types

Whittaker used what he called "gradient analysis" of ecocline patterns to relate communities to climate on a
worldwide scale. Whittaker considered four main ecoclines in the terrestrial realm.[21]

1. Intertidal levels: The wetness gradient of areas that are exposed to alternating water and dryness with
intensities that vary by location from high to low tide
2. Climatic moisture gradient
3. Temperature gradient by altitude
4. Temperature gradient by latitude

Along these gradients, Whittaker noted several trends that allowed him to qualitatively establish biome-types:

The gradient runs from favorable to the extreme, with corresponding changes in productivity.
Changes in physiognomic complexity vary with how favorable of an environment exists (decreasing
community structure and reduction of stratal differentiation as the environment becomes less favorable).
Trends in the diversity of structure follow trends in species diversity; alpha and beta species diversities
decrease from favorable to extreme environments.
Each growth-form (i.e. grasses, shrubs, etc.) has its characteristic place of maximum importance along the
ecoclines.
The same growth forms may be dominant in similar environments in widely different parts of the world.

Whittaker summed the effects of gradients (3) and (4) to get an overall temperature gradient and combined this
with a gradient (2), the moisture gradient, to express the above conclusions in what is known as the Whittaker
classification scheme. The scheme graphs average annual precipitation (x-axis) versus average annual
temperature (y-axis) to classify biome-types.

Biome-types
1. Tropical rainforest
2. Tropical seasonal rainforest
deciduous
semideciduous
3. Temperate giant rainforest
 4. Montane rainforest
5. Temperate deciduous forest
6. Temperate evergreen forest
needleleaf
sclerophyll
7. Subarctic-subalpine needle-leaved forests (taiga)
8. Elfin woodland
9. Thorn forests and woodlands
10. Thorn scrub
11. Temperate woodland
12. Temperate shrublands
deciduous
heath
sclerophyll
subalpine-needleleaf
subalpine-broadleaf
13. Savanna
14. Temperate grassland
15. Alpine grasslands
16. Tundra
17. Tropical desert
18. Warm-temperate desert
19. Cool temperate desert scrub
20. Arctic-alpine desert
21. Bog
22. Tropical fresh-water swamp forest
23. Temperate fresh-water swamp forest
24. Mangrove swamp
25. Salt marsh
26. Wetland[22]

Goodall (1974–) ecosystem types

The multi-authored series Ecosystems of the World, edited by David W. Goodall, provides a comprehensive
coverage of the major "ecosystem types or biomes" on Earth:[23]

I. Terrestrial Ecosystems
A. Natural Terrestrial Ecosystems
1. Wet Coastal Ecosystems
2. Dry Coastal Ecosystems
3. Polar and Alpine Tundra
4. Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen, and Moor
5. Temperate Deserts and Semi-Deserts
6. Coniferous Forests
7. Temperate Deciduous Forests
8. Natural Grasslands
9. Heathlands and Related Shrublands
 10. Temperate Broad-Leaved Evergreen Forests
11. Mediterranean-Type Shrublands
12. Hot Deserts and Arid Shrublands
13. Tropical Savannas
14. Tropical Rain Forest Ecosystems
15. Wetland Forests
16. Ecosystems of Disturbed Ground
B. Managed Terrestrial Ecosystems
17. Managed Grasslands
18. Field Crop Ecosystems
19. Tree Crop Ecosystems
20. Greenhouse Ecosystems
21. Bioindustrial Ecosystems
II. Aquatic Ecosystems
A. Inland Aquatic Ecosystems
22. River and Stream Ecosystems
23. Lakes and Reservoirs
B. Marine Ecosystems
24. Intertidal and Littoral Ecosystems
25. Coral Reefs
26. Estuaries and Enclosed Seas
27. Ecosystems of the Continental Shelves
28. Ecosystems of the Deep Ocean
C. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
29. Managed Aquatic Ecosystems
III. Underground Ecosystems
30. Cave Ecosystems

Walter (1976, 2002) zonobiomes

The eponymously-named Heinrich Walter classification scheme considers the seasonality of temperature and
precipitation. The system, also assessing precipitation and temperature, finds nine major biome types, with the
important climate traits and vegetation types. The boundaries of each biome correlate to the conditions of
moisture and cold stress that are strong determinants of plant form, and therefore the vegetation that defines the
region. Extreme conditions, such as flooding in a swamp, can create different kinds of communities within the
same biome.[12][24][25]
 Zonobiome
ZB I. Equatorial, always moist, little
temperature seasonality
ZB II. Tropical, summer rainy season and
cooler “winter” dry season
ZB III. Subtropical, highly seasonal, arid
climate
ZB IV. Mediterranean, winter rainy season
and summer drought
ZB V. Warm temperate, occasional frost, often
with summer rainfall maximum
ZB VI. Nemoral, moderate climate with winter
freezing
ZB VII. Continental, arid, with warm or hot
summers and cold winters
ZB VIII. Boreal, cold temperate with cool
summers and long winters
ZB IX. Polar, short, cool summers and long,
cold winters
Zonal soil type
Equatorial brown clays
Red clays or red earths
Serosemes, sierozemes
Mediterranean brown earths
Yellow or red forest soils,
slightly podsolic soils
Forest brown earths and grey
forest soils
Chernozems to serozems
Podsols
Tundra humus soils with
solifluction (permafrost soils)
Zonal vegetation type
Evergreen tropical rainforest
Tropical seasonal forest, seasonal dry forest,
scrub, or savanna
Desert vegetation with considerable exposed
surface
Sclerophyllous (drought-adapted), frost-
sensitive shrublands and woodlands
Temperate evergreen forest, somewhat frost-
sensitive
Frost-resistant, deciduous, temperate forest
Grasslands and temperate deserts
Evergreen, frost-hardy, needle-leaved forest
(taiga)
Low, evergreen vegetation, without trees,
growing over permanently frozen soils

Schultz (1988) eco-zones

Schultz (1988, 2005) defined nine ecozones (his concept of ecozone is more similar to the concept of biome than
to the concept of ecozone of BBC):[26]

1. polar/subpolar zone
2. boreal zone
3. humid mid-latitudes
4. dry mid-latitudes
5. subtropics with winter rain
6. subtropics with year-round rain
7. dry tropics and subtropics
8. tropics with summer rain
9. tropics with year-round rain

Bailey (1989) ecoregions

Robert G. Bailey nearly developed a biogeographical classification system of ecoregions for the United States in a
map published in 1976. He subsequently expanded the system to include the rest of North America in 1981, and
the world in 1989. The Bailey system, based on climate, is divided into four domains (polar, humid temperate,
dry, and humid tropical), with further divisions based on other climate characteristics (subarctic, warm
temperate, hot temperate, and subtropical; marine and continental; lowland and mountain).[27][28]

100 Polar Domain

120 Tundra Division (Köppen: Ft)
M120 Tundra Division – Mountain Provinces
130 Subarctic Division (Köppen: E)
M130 Subarctic Division – Mountain Provinces
200 Humid Temperate Domain
 210 Warm Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dcb)
M210 Warm Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
220 Hot Continental Division (Köppen: portion of Dca)
M220 Hot Continental Division – Mountain Provinces
230 Subtropical Division (Köppen: portion of Cf)
M230 Subtropical Division – Mountain Provinces
240 Marine Division (Köppen: Do)
M240 Marine Division – Mountain Provinces
250 Prairie Division (Köppen: arid portions of Cf, Dca, Dcb)
260 Mediterranean Division (Köppen: Cs)
M260 Mediterranean Division – Mountain Provinces
300 Dry Domain
310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division
M310 Tropical/Subtropical Steppe Division – Mountain Provinces
320 Tropical/Subtropical Desert Division
330 Temperate Steppe Division
340 Temperate Desert Division
400 Humid Tropical Domain
410 Savanna Division
420 Rainforest Division

Olson & Dinerstein (1998) biomes for WWF / Global 200

A team of biologists convened by the World

Wildlife Fund (WWF) developed a scheme
that divided the world's land area into
biogeographic realms (called "ecozones" in a
BBC scheme), and these into ecoregions
(Olson & Dinerstein, 1998, etc.). Each
ecoregion is characterized by a main biome
(also called major habitat type).[29][30]

This classification is used to define the Global

200 list of ecoregions identified by the WWF
as priorities for conservation.[29]
Terrestrial biomes of the world according to Olson et al. and used by the
For the terrestrial ecoregions, there is a WWF and Global 200.
specific EcoID, format XXnnNN (XX is the
biogeographic realm, nn is the biome
number, NN is the individual number).

Biogeographic realms (terrestrial and freshwater)

NA: Nearctic
PA: Palearctic
AT: Afrotropic
IM: Indomalaya
AA: Australasia
 NT: Neotropic
OC: Oceania
AN: Antarctic[30]

The applicability of the realms scheme above - based on Udvardy (1975)—to most freshwater taxa is
unresolved.[31]

Biogeographic realms (marine)

Arctic
Temperate Northern Atlantic
Temperate Northern Pacific
Tropical Atlantic
Western Indo-Pacific
Central Indo-Pacific
Eastern Indo-Pacific
Tropical Eastern Pacific
Temperate South America
Temperate Southern Africa
Temperate Australasia
Southern Ocean[32]

Biomes (terrestrial)
1. Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, humid)
2. Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
3. Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (tropical and subtropical, semihumid)
4. Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests (temperate, humid)
5. Temperate coniferous forests (temperate, humid to semihumid)
6. Boreal forests/taiga (subarctic, humid)
7. Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (tropical and subtropical, semiarid)
8. Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands (temperate, semiarid)
9. Flooded grasslands and savannas (temperate to tropical, fresh or brackish water inundated)
10. Montane grasslands and shrublands (alpine or montane climate)
11. Tundra (Arctic)
12. Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub or sclerophyll forests (temperate warm, semihumid to semiarid
with winter rainfall)
13. Deserts and xeric shrublands (temperate to tropical, arid)
14. Mangrove (subtropical and tropical, salt water inundated)[30]

Biomes (freshwater)

According to the WWF, the following are classified as freshwater biomes:[33]

Large lakes
Large river deltas
Polar freshwaters
Montane freshwaters
Temperate coastal rivers
 Temperate floodplain rivers and wetlands
Temperate upland rivers
Tropical and subtropical coastal rivers
Tropical and subtropical floodplain rivers and wetlands
Tropical and subtropical upland rivers
Xeric freshwaters and endorheic basins
Oceanic islands

Biomes (marine)

Biomes of the coastal and continental shelf areas (neritic zone):

Polar
Temperate shelves and sea
Temperate upwelling
Tropical upwelling
Tropical coral[34]

Summary of the scheme

Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (terrestrial) (8)
Ecoregions (867), each characterized by a main biome type (14)
Ecosystems (biotopes)
Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (freshwater) (8)
Ecoregions (426), each characterized by a main biome type (12)
Ecosystems (biotopes)
Biosphere
Biogeographic realms (marine) (12)
(Marine provinces) (62)
Ecoregions (232), each characterized by a main biome type (5)
Ecosystems (biotopes)

Example:

Biosphere
Biogeographic realm: Palearctic
Ecoregion: Dinaric Mountains mixed forests (PA0418); biome type: temperate broadleaf and mixed
forests
Ecosystem: Orjen, vegetation belt between 1,100 and 1,450 m, Oromediterranean zone, nemoral
zone (temperate zone)
Biotope: Oreoherzogio-Abietetum illyricae Fuk. (Plant list)
 Plant: Silver fir (Abies alba)

Other biomes

Marine biomes

Pruvot (1896) zones or "systems":[35]

Littoral zone
Pelagic zone
Abyssal zone

Longhurst (1998) biomes:[36]

Coastal
Polar
Trade wind
Westerly

Other marine habitat types (not covered yet by the Global 200/WWF scheme):

Open sea
Deep sea
Hydrothermal vents
Cold seeps
Benthic zone
Pelagic zone (trades and westerlies)
Abyssal
Hadal (ocean trench)
Littoral/Intertidal zone
Salt marsh
Estuaries
Coastal lagoons/Atoll lagoons
Kelp forest
Pack ice

Anthropogenic biomes

Humans have altered global patterns of biodiversity and ecosystem processes. As a result, vegetation forms
predicted by conventional biome systems can no longer be observed across much of Earth's land surface as they
have been replaced by crop and rangelands or cities. Anthropogenic biomes provide an alternative view of the
terrestrial biosphere based on global patterns of sustained direct human interaction with ecosystems, including
agriculture, human settlements, urbanization, forestry and other uses of land. Anthropogenic biomes offer a way
to recognize the irreversible coupling of human and ecological systems at global scales and manage Earth's
biosphere and anthropogenic biomes.

Major anthropogenic biomes:

Dense settlements
 Croplands
Rangelands
Forested
Indoor[37]

Microbial biomes

Endolithic biomes

The endolithic biome, consisting entirely of microscopic life in rock pores and cracks, kilometers beneath the
surface, has only recently been discovered, and does not fit well into most classification schemes.[38]

Effects of Climate Change

Climate change has the potential to greatly alter the distribution of Earth's biomes.[39][40]
Meaning, biomes around the world could change so much that they would be at risk of becoming new biomes
entirely.[41] General frequency models have been a staple in finding out the impact climate change could have on
biomes.[42] More specifically, 54% and 22% of global land area will experience climates that correspond to other
biomes.[39] 3.6% of land area will experience climates that are completely new or unusual.[43][44] Average
temperatures have risen more than twice the usual amount in both arctic and mountainous biomes.[45][46][47]
Which leads to the conclusion that artic and mountainous biomes are currently the most vulnerable to climate
change.[45] The current reasoning surrounding as to why this is the case are based around the fact that colder
environments tend to reflect more sunlight, as a result of the snow and ice covering the ground. Since the annual
average temperatures are rising, ice and snow is melting. As a result, albedo is lowered.[48][49] Keeping a keen
eye on terrestrial biomes is important, as they play a crucial role in climate regulation.[50][51] South American
terrestrial biomes have been predicted to go through the same temperature trends as arctic and mountainous
biomes.[50][52] With its annual average temperature continuing to increase, the moisture currently located in
forest biomes will dry up.[50][51]

See also
Climate classification – Systems that categorize the world's climates
Ecotope – Smallest ecologically distinct landscape features in a landscape mapping and classification
system
Life zone – Concept was developed by C. Hart Merriam in 1889
Natural environment – Living and non-living things on Earth

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Further reading
Ritter, Michael E. (2005). The Physical Environment: an Introduction to Physical Geography (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20110228054041/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/biomes/outline.html).
University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point.

External links
University of California Museum of Paleontology Berkeley's The World's Biomes (http://www.ucmp.berkeley.e
du/glossary/gloss5/biome/)
Gale/Cengage Biome Overview (https://web.archive.org/web/20110711070312/http://www.galeschools.com/
environment/biomes/overview.htm)
"Biomes" (http://www.eoearth.org/topics/view/51cbfc84f702fc2ba812bc2d/). Encyclopedia of Earth.
Global Currents and Terrestrial Biomes Map (http://www.theglobaleducationproject.org/earth/global-ecology.p
hp#3)
WorldBiomes.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20110222001659/http://www.worldbiomes.com/)
Panda.org's Major Habitat Types (https://web.archive.org/web/20170706065633/http://wwf.panda.org/about_
our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/)
NASA's Earth Observatory Mission: Biomes (http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Experiments/Biome/)
World Map of Desert Biomes (https://databayou.com/world/deserts.html)

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