COMPUTATIONAL MATHEMATICS AND ‘APPLICATIONS Series Eatars LR WHITEMAN and 1 DAVENPORT USES ecto cau ES eters cre iaiaioe corneum Computer Algebra and Differential Equations E.TOURNIER @® ACADEMIC PRESS. ‘omen Syonay Tokyo ‘Torontoss abo pte on de pper ‘or of thot may een fm, y Psat motin any her ean, without ween permasia om the pubis 4A T2€ Abit ae Contributors Ta Revere Dison, 1 Waton Reach Cone Yonksown Hepa, NY 138 Use Preset are Mec Unieraty 5 Sherroke Sree We ‘Monreal QC, HBA SKE, Canada’ 4. Mie ie Mamas Chive Lets Pon mt Seaton, Depenament de Matemats, Unent Lot Paster Depa of Mates Non Carling State Unversity, Falah NC 095905, Osanr dies ean have ily materi for 380 eas ‘Snag ft mon owt oer char Let Eulr, Bermoul, Fons ‘Siem ee constuct wb eon, The comibatons mae by Poiearand Sutoronaparcrlyngpndandrevan Aten e head be gig of e208 cnr hk wr and Oat of many te) ed (Sevan dein ack as 0p es, ileal Gas gs, ‘ionamin. 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Symbolic ota towards Pract Algo M Bronte “The Equivalence Problent Ele Catan, Dire EgeasomanaCompatr Alea. Raman PART2: Tore de Gali Direct Resonmation~ Ramat Monnet chapie 1: Gras, Chai? Polongemest AnatiquetResmimaion Chait: Les onchons Hypergeometgues Coneses Abas »[AN OUTLINE OF DIFFERENTIAL GALOIS THEORY Michal F Sige! Depart of Materates ‘Box 03 Nort Culisa State Univesity Wagh NC 27098 In this paper, I wil give an exposition ofthe differential gaois ‘theory oflnear dferential equations with the alm of tying 19 answer the following question: ‘When can we effecvely solve a linear diferent equation in terms of some “sine” class of functions? ‘To make this question more concrete, let us lok st some examples: Example 0.1, The equation °°" + @hny"” — ute?’ + dU y = (has a souton space thar is spanned by x,y, IVE. In general, one ‘can ask: when does linear differential equation with coefficients in (x) havea solution space spanned by factions algebra over C00, (€ isthe complex numbers)? Example 02, The equation y"” + (/2n)y’ —xy =O has a soltion Work on this paper war par ally spponed by NSF Gran DMS HuRSg Tad alorwoud ket ane Rech Insitute for Syl Compatabon (ISC-LINZ) fo hospitality 0 support ring the prepraon of hs paper4 MF Singer space spanned by e!1¥ and el. Functions that are bul up from x) using integration, exponentiation, algebraic. fictions and ‘composition are calle liouvilian functions. One can ask: when does 1 diferential equation with coefficients in C(x) (or more geneil coeticents that are lowvilian funtion) have a solution space tat is spanned by liouvilian fonctions? xamle 03. The gon” Any" = spanned by yy= 235 p= 2,2, ¥q=25, where 2, and 2p are linearly Independent slo of y"7 9 =0. One cn ak: wie an te sao of & lear Aili equnton be exe ita of ‘Sans of tcnd order Hew eel erin? Ia real ‘ten i tens of ne fea eqn exe a ony more compl em of solaon of lover re inet Air gues? Noe tat in tis example we hve Be aon rsa =O. In gr inet independ solos a net Aiea equnion sy sone henopecous placa euion doe singly a a solo he creel qo an be aged in emo alton of ler oer nea fen ‘atont ‘We shall show thatthe questions rised in these examples can be answered using the galls theory of linear differential equations and in many cases one can even give algorithms to answer these questions In section 1, we will describe the bales of this gulois theory. In section 2, we will discuss the question of when «linear different ‘equation has Hiouilian solutions, Section 3 i devoted tothe question of when a linear differential equation ean be solved in terms of second An Outine of Diferent Galois Theory s cer linear differential equstons, Section 4 is devoted to explaining the deepest fat in the galls theory: the comnetion between rational fonctions on the galois group and solutions of linear differential equations, This connection is used in section v0 describe when the solutions ofa liner difeenial equaon can be expressed in terms of solutions of linear differential equaons of lower order. Finally, in section 6, I will discuss the ramifications of a linear diferental equation having an algebraic relationship among is solodons. In all these section wil not aim at stating the most general resus or even ving complete proofs. My sim is always to give an overview of the subject rogether witha taste of the techniques used. All the results rmensoned here appear in print in her sources. The reader familiar with these sources will readily see how heavily I hve relied on them ‘especialy [KAPST] and [KOLT3 1, Differential Galois Theory. In this scton, I wll gve an exposition ofthe basi fais of the classical gales theory of homogeneous linear differential equations. “This theory was founded in the 19th century by Picard and Vessiot and ‘eneralized and given moder mathematical rigor by Kolehin in the ‘mide part ofthis centry. ‘This thery is enough for my purposes here, but there are ow alternative approaches that Iwill ot mention in eu. These ae primarily duet Deligne (DELO), Kate ((KATZ82], [KATZ87a}, (KATZ87H), (KAPIE7) and Ramis (RAMS, RAMBSb)), Their approaches have also been successful used in (DEH, [BEHEST] and [DUMISS] to compute gaois groups. In the ordinary gale theory of algebra equations, questions of6 MF Singer solvability of equations ae translated iato questions about fel and finite groups. For ciffrenal equations, the proper sting. is Aiferential fields and algeteac groups. The expostion here closely follows tha of Kaplansky [KAPST] Definitions, Let k bea field. A map D:k + kis called a dexvation if, {or alla € k, a+b) = D(a) + Db) and Diab) = Db + DO). We Shall usually denote a derivation by ’, Le a = D(a). A field witha designated cevivacon is called a gifeeaial fed. If is a ferent Field the set (ce | <= 0 ) is subfield called the fel of consans ‘of k and denoted by Const {A good example to keep in mind is the field C(x), where the esivation is dldx, The fel of constants is C In this paper all elds will be of eharcterisic zero. One could alo define 2 diferent field as afield with (posbly) several commtng derivations and the results that follow could be generalized wo this ease. We stick with one derivation to simplify the exposiion. If F cE are aifferenial fields and S is a sbset of E, we denote by FeS> the smallest diferential subfield of Econttining F and S. Note shat PeS> isthe field generated (over F by he elements of $ and ther derivatives of all orders. Inthe ‘iis theory of algebmic equations, one associates a spliting fed with an algebraic equation, The following definition gives. the nalogous object in his setng ‘ yo Definition. Let be diferent eld and LO) = +a, toc tayy with ajek Mis a Bicasl-Yesit etesin (or PY cexteasion) of k associated with L(y) = 0 if: ()M = keyg, a ag? An Outi of Deel Gali Theory 7 wheze = ty ae solutions of L(y) = 0 liner independent over Ct, an) Con) Ca ‘A set of inesry independent solutions yy, ofthe of order caution Lg) =O ed inane tf sens. well flew GRA, pa) oe dooms Fy ay oe Hee repeat ot he ene ld and ent fe ri Socainat Wy oy) = #0) #0 whew W = GO, 1, i-LOve can sw tt in ny Ae ld Khe sf ssn of Lg) = fara ys pce net Cot of Senin ce geum pan Whe Ow chriel euemer feos prunes tt conse, pea Cn igemeecetes ace re areata a ULUr—Lr——— ities dfteeaimmenin Definition, Let kc K, and k c Ky be difeeaial feds. A bijective field isomorphism o:K, +K, is a difersial k-isomorphism if (6(a))" = o(e’) for al a € Ky and ofa) = a forall ae Ky If Ky = Ky =K, GOW = (o|o isa differential k-automoephism of K) scaled the salois soup of K over k Let ke K be differenal feds with gulois group G = G(KA). ForkeL cK, define L = (a:G| o(a)=a Yee L}. For He G, define WT = (aek| of =a Vo H). Now that L i a subgroup of G and Gis a differential subfield of K. One can easily se that ((L")"Y" = Land YY =® MF Singer Definition, A diferental subfield ke L © K ora subgroup Hof the ‘los group is closed if it equals its double check, ie. L™~ = L or G =a ‘One easly has the folowing fundamental aspect of gals theory Proposiion 1, Any checked object is closed. Checking gives ‘one-to-one comespondence between closed subgroups and closed subields. To make this a wreful fact one must answer the ‘questions: Which subfields ae closed? and Which subgroups are closed? To do this we reset ourselves to P-V extensions K of a ferential field and assume that C = Const) is algebraically closed (Propostion 1.1 i valid for any differential fields ke K), IC K is the P-¥ extension of k associated with LQ) =O, let V= (yeK] L(y) = 0. [As noted before, his is & C-vectr space of dimension n. Ifo € G and Ve Vs then 0= ofL(0)) =L(ow)). Therefore, yy,» 9 isa bass of V, then o(y) ++) sels an isomorphism of onto subgroup ofthe group of iy for some in Cons), The idenifcason of lnverible x n matrices with constant coefficients, GL(n,C). We shall row describe a topology where the closed (in the above sense) subgroups of G are precisely the subgroups of G tat are topologically closed (se (ROSBO}, [SPR], and [HUMB1] for a fuller exposition of i material andthe material on linear algebra groups. Aw Ouse of Deron Galt Theory ° Detion Let C bea fel adm an neg X © Cis Za clos i re sabi $f Ch, yg] eH HAE ® C6 C™ | fie) =0 Fe 8) For example, if m = 1, the Zarisi closed sets are the empy set, Cand finite sete. If m = 2, the Zaki closed sets are the empty st, CA, finite sets, curves (zero sets of a single polynomial), and finite union ofthese. The arbitrary intersecdon and Snite union of Zariski closed sets are Zarek closed, x0 the Zarishi closed sets define a topology, called the Zariski topology. This topology has some stange features. For example, if Cis infinite, any two nonempty open sets imerseet, The Hilbert Basis Theorem implies that this topology has the descending chain condition on closed st (any chain X, 2X, >. of loved sets eventally stabilizes). This implies tht any closed set can ‘be writen as the disjoint union ofa fnte number of open and closed cones scaled he comet components ofthe clos set If wwe think of GLIn.C) as subset of C™ we see that it is open in the ‘avishl topology; GLia.©) = (Ae C™ | dewA) # 0). Sometimes iis ‘convenient to identify GLin,0) with a Zarisk closed subset of C *1 ‘To do this we identify A GL(n.C) with (Aa) where a-deu(A)« 1 We make this identification inthe following definition Definition, A linear alethric group is subgroup of GLn.C) that is Closed inthe Zarsh polo. For example, GL(n.©), SLin©) = ( A€ GLB) | det) = 1), and 1.0) = (Ae GLC) | A= Gy) where a =0if1> 5). IFGisw ME Singer linea algebraic group then the maps A+ A“! A+ AB and ‘Ay BA ae continuous maps (or fixed B). This is because if X is 8 ‘ariki closed set and F :X—+ C™ isa map given components by rational functions whose denominators are aowhere zero on X, then F {is continuous inthe Zarek topology. If Gis near algebraic group, then one of the connected components of G contains the identity. This connected component is denoted by G°. GP is, jn fact, a normal subgroup (of finite index) of G. To se this, note that (G9) is again 1 comected component of Gand contains the identity. Therefore, (G7 = GP, simiatly, for © « G°, eG? = G and for ae G, 20° at 20% Proposition 1.2. If K is a P-Y extension of k then G = G(KK) & GLnC) is Zaisl closed. If H isa closed subgroup of G, then H is Zavisk lore, ‘The second statement in Proposition 1.2 follows from the fst. since if 1 is closed then H = GOH’) and K is aga a P-¥ extension ‘of H’. Before proving Proposition 1.2 in a special ease, we will consider two examples Beample 12.1. Let Ly) =y' —ay with a6 k. The P-V extension of k corresponding to L(y) is ofthe form K = key> = ky), where y= 2y (ie. y= exp(Ja), 1f0 € G(K/K) = G then o(y’h) = 0(8) = 4 = y'W From this we ean conclude that ((9)4)" =O. Therefore (9) = cg¥ foc some € € C40] = C" = GLU,C) The only Zarsti closed subgroups of GLA(I,C) are finite o all of GL(,C). 1° Gis finite, then it rust be cyclic, This implies that "¢ k for some m. 1G is no nite then G = GLO. An atin Die ais Theory 0 Bxample 1.22, Le ef be in and Lg) «y"* ~ (hy. The PV ‘exetson of k cesponding 10 Lp) = Ofte form K = kel > = Ni) where" = For 0 ¢ GK) = G, (0) =3) =0, 390) = + ag fr sme cg € Cons) =C. Since a!) =I we san identify with the mais [4 fo]. The se of maces of te form [ J force C can be Serie withthe ave syrup of Therefore, Gis tier he vial mou or morphic WC. We wil prove Propoion 1.2 ander the asmpin that (G0, x = Ian ha Kis 4 PAY extenson oft sited wh 4 trond onder homogenet ier dileaial equton, Le. K = hoe, Y= C8 Yp Jp Ye HD We stall show tar G OK) €GLAO isthe inteneson of GLA. and he nr eof « colo of pty a four abies with cele a Afr ‘we make the identification A «GL, —+ (A(dex(A))~) « C, we ‘hat his pies that Gina alge grup. We flow the expan in (KOVSGD, Lt, ¥92 25 be em vals td et VER aN, %—2p23) 1K = 33 sbstiaion hanomorhiom. Let Phe ken ory. For A~= [22] © GUL, A ace on R by levig Ce) Me ad sen (pi 424.2) 1 BY Hg Ay By yh) Awl Induce an momo of K if and oly if A maps Pio elt We may wt P= (ps) whee he aie independent ovr 2/1 be he obvious Let m be the maximum ofthe degres ofthe p, A maps Vj, = (P € R | deg p Sm) to iself. Extend py. ~.9, 0 IS yy oy Of Vay ‘There exist polynomials P, (ae) such thatthe action of A on Vy, issven by A:p, = ZPy(abeddp,, We ten ste that A € G if and only if i Pyfabed) = Ofori» Boe Sand j=stle ast [Note tht the above proof isnot constructive. Given Lig) the Prof does not show us how to constet the polynomials defining ©. Tn fact its not known in general how to produce such a set and this is ‘tn important open problem in the galis theory. Many ofthe problems we discuss below could be easily shown tobe decidable if we eoald effectively solve this problem. To show thatthe closed subgroups of G are precisely the Zarski closed subgroups, we need 1 show the following Proposition 1.3 Let K be 4 P-V extension of k with gals group G. Any Zarisk closed subgroup of G is closed We shal foo (KAPITI, p37) and only prove tis oposton when Kis ascistd wth ie diferent equation of oder 2 be, K= key, 95>, 1s enough 0 show tha i H is a subgioup of G . 8 enough Yo show tat i Hs 8 subgroup of G C GLC.) then His Zrihi-dense in HT. Asse not tnd ve will wpe 10 4 commision. By aonption here 1s a polynomial abe) with cost costs vanishing on H But 20. So eT oat tat (| le vl by ad ie the diferent plyoria Fy) = ftayoBy' Abu’ CyDy'Cuobe'. Foco= [23] nC wesety= 00);) and 2 = 093). Werhen hve Ry) 203) = faded) = Ofor a ocH but not al OCH, Among. al init For new diferentil variables, y Aan Outi of ferent al Theory 8 polynomials in y and x with coeficients in K, let E(yz) have the Sst number of ters with this property. We can assume that some coefficient in E is 1. Fort ¢ H, let By be the polynomial goten by applying + 10 the coetfiiems of E. BAB, is shomer than E and ty) for vanish for y = (93) and 2 = o(j9) for all 6 in HW, IC EE, i not G6 H. Therefore it must vanishes for y= o(y) and identically nero, we can Sadan element K such that E —¥E —EQ) is shorter than E and bas the sme propery aE. This conradison Shows tht the coefficients of FE are Jt ivan by H. Therefore E has coeficients in HY and these coefficients must be left inerant by He, For 8 eH, Elly), 92) = #10" Kou).8 019.9) = 693) = 0. This conrad the fact Hat ECO). # 0 fr some 0 ¢ Had tes the proof of Proposion 22. We now tum to the problem of characterising the closed subfields of K, Its «fat thatthe closed subfields of Kare precisely te differential subfields F with k ¢ Fc K. The key step in showing ‘hiss the folowing proposion: Proposition 14, Let K be a P-V extension of K and assume that © ‘Constk) is algebraically closed. If a € K —K then there is a 0 « GK) such hat a) # We only give a rough sketch ofthe proof of this result The roof proceeds in two steps. The frst step is 10 show that for any Aiferetial fields K ¢ K and a € K-, there isa differential eld E containing K and k-isomorphism K —E such that ylo) # Theproof of this fact relies onthe fact that one can consist differential ‘deals not containing certain elements and requies a cenain amount of Aiferential teal theory (KAPST], 13-17). The second step is 0 use this result when K is a PL extension of k,n this case the fsomorphism w is determined by its effect on ¥4, py Where K = 2, is given by a marx (4) in GLinCons(E). The fact that y 8 an isomorphism and yla) # & saisying a system of polynomials (8) = 0, (4) =0, 4 #0. Since this system is consistent (it has the solution (2), and Cons is key, auivalent 10 10 (4) lebracally closed, we can find in Cons satisfying his sytem, (@j define an element 6 « GL{o,Const(0) withthe desired proper. Proposition 14 implies that any diferent subfield E of K containing k is closed since K is a P-V extension of E. Combining Proposions 1.1, 12, 1.3 and L4 we have “Theorem LS. Let kc K be differen fields with K a P-V extension of k and Const) algebraically closed Let G = O(Khk) c GL,Coasi). Then G is a linear algebmic group and the comespondence described above is a bijective corespondence between Zariski closed subgroups of G and diferent] subfields B with ke Ec K us as inthe gulois theory of algebraic equations, one is able 1 ‘Wentfy those subfields conespoading 10 normal subgroups of the alos group, An Outing of Diferetia Galis Tears s Definition. Let k € K be diferent fields. We say tha K is gonna ‘aut if for any 0 € K- there exits 40 « O(K/k) such that o(a) + ‘Theorem 1.6. Let K be PV extension of k and assume Const) is algebraically closed. A Zarishl cloted subgroup H of G = (Kk) is mal in G if and only f His normal over K. In this ease, GH) is isomorphic to GI Assume that H 8 somal in G. Since Kis nommal over , given any ae H” there Isa 646 G such that o(@) # @ Since H is normal in G, any @ € G leaves H” jnasiant and so induces an automorphism of HL, Therefore H” i normal over k "Now assume that His normal over k, One first shows that any ‘-wutomorphism y of H” can be extended 0 a k-isomerphism y of K {nto difeentil eld E containing K. This done in way similar to that deseribed in Proposition 14. AS in Propostion 14, y is determined by a matix (4;)¢ GLin.Cons(E) and the fact that extends y and is an isomorphism is equivalent 10 2 system of egutions. Since this system is consistent we can find a solution (6) € ‘Const tht defies a k-automorpism that extends y. We now let i be the normalier of H in G. One can show that Hy is Zarski coved, Hy contains any automorphism of K that leaves H” invariant Since H is normal over k and all euromorpisms of H” extend to K, Hj =k Theorem 15 now implies thar Hy = G. ‘The fil statement comes from the observation tht restricting any 0G to H” induces a homomorphism from G(KUk) 10 GCH Me) whose kere is H6 MF Singer “The usual glois theoretic arguments (KAPS7) p. 18-20) for algebra exensons and algebraic equations can be generalized to show ‘Theorem 1.7, Let K be a P-V extension of k and assume that Const(k) is algebraically closed. Let H be a Zaki closed sabgroop of G GG(KM). H has finite index in © if and oaly if His algebrae over k In this cae [GH] = [1° 2, Lioovilian Solusons of Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations. Recall tht the novon of "solvability in terms of radials" for tlgebrai equations can be formalized in terms of towers of fells and that necessary and sufficient conditions can be given in terms of the fils group. An analogous sition bolés for linear diferent equations and “solvability in temas of exponentials, integrals and algebracs". We start with the Definition. Let k cK be diferent felts, Kis luvin extension bk if there exists a tower k= K, € Ky © ..¢K, = K such that for 1K, = K,_(t) where eter (9 algebraic over K, 00 COUN Ge. (ee forsime ye K, or ie eK, 4 Ge. = for same 9, €K, 9. For examnple y = 7 ties in a liowilian extension of Cox) An Outline of Diforetia Galois Theory a since y« Cie! ‘The gales theoretic ertevion for suai in term ofthese furetios is ‘Theorem 2.1. K be 4 P-V extension of k with gos group G = GeKik) and assume that Conse) is algebially lowed. K is ‘contained ins lowilian extension of kif and only if the connected component? of the Seni solvable 0p. We stam by assuming that K is contined in a liouilian ‘extension E of k with Const(E) = Const) (in general one can show ‘hati Kis contained in a iowvlian extension of then it i contained in one wit the same constants (KOLT3] p. 408). Let E be defined by the tower k=B, 6.8, =E, We proceed by Induction on m. Let Ey = kez Kea is a PLY extension of kep, 30 by the indveton hypothesis GiKez>/hez>) has 1 solvable component of the identity. Reswiting any oe GKemnke) to K gives a ‘automorphism of K. This gives ‘an isomoxphism of G(K/k) onto the subgroup H = (ke> 0K)” of GCKMR). We now consider the thee posibiliies for 2 If x is algebraic over, then Theorem 1.7 implies that [GH] <=. In this case |G°.H?| ) is abelian. Theorem 1.6 applied to the P-V extension ‘keo> fk then implies that kex> 0 Ks @ normal extension of k with" MF Singer abelian galois group. Therefore H is normal in G and G/H is abelian ‘We now get the desired concusion from the following group theoret fact IG isa linear algebraic group and H isa Zarsk closed subgroup sch that His normal in ©, G/H is abelian and His solvable, then G? is solvable, We refer to (KAPST] p25) fra proof ofthis fact. Now Jet us assume that the connected component G° of G is solvable. The proof that K lies in 2 liowvillian extension of k relies heavily on the following group theoretic result (be reader is refered 0 QKAPST p. 30) or (ROSBO) for a prot of tis result: Lie ~Kolchin Theorem. Let C be an alebccally closed field and G € GLC) 4 solvable linear algebaic group that is connected in the ariski topology. Thea there exists an A ¢ GL(n,C) such that AGA? Tin), ie. the elements of G can be putin simultaneous tlangular form ‘To show tht lies in owillian extension of , we can fist replace k by (G°)". This isa finite algebraic extension ofk and allows 1s to assume that the galois group G is connected and solvable. We now specialize wo the case where K is 2 P-V extension of k associated with @ second onder linear dffreaval equation L(y) = (the general ‘ase follows ina similar fashion), G acts on the solution space V of 1Liy) = 0 and, by the Lie -Kolehin Theorem, we may assume that V has bass yj, yo s0ch that forall 6 € G there exists ay € G such that fn K. Therefire Ki) « Huovilin exesion of k, Let W = Hvyayy. For ©€G, OW) = Get 0) W.. Therefore WAV is et fixed by G and so His ink, (¥y/¥3)" =Wiyy? 0 ty, Wiyply,) is & x» This implies that y{/y, is eft xed G and so ies An Oulincof Diferentil Galois Theory » Jiowvilian extension of k that contains K. ‘Theorem 2.1 gives necessary and sufficient conditions for all solutions of a linear differential equation tobe liouilian, bu it oes not tell us how one can effectively decide this question. We will use ‘Theorem 2.1 t0 show tha if a linear diferenal equation has a Nuvian solution then it has one ofa very special form. We will then describe an algorithm to find such soluon. We first need a ‘more effective version of the Lie — Kolchin Theorem, Note that the [Le ~Kolchin Theorem implies that if Gis a connected solvable linear algebeaic group in GLia,©), then G hasan invariant one dimensional subspace in C™ Proposition 22. Let C be an algebraically closed field. There is function In) such that if G is a subgroup of GL(n,C) and His anormal subgroup of finite index that leaves one dimensional subspace of C® invariant, then thee exists a subgroup H of G of index = 2G, = fe} such that G is « somal linear An Quine of ifr Cale Teory ” algebraic subgroup of G,, and G,, 6, I isomorphic to one of the towing (0a ate por aewavepmncs [4] }+4e) (i he mbipteave poop C2 GLLLO, in sta0, (orsua.o ssvacnt: (Jo) | Note that if we define a linear algebraic group G to be Houvilian if there is # rower as above where each quotient is isomorphic 10 i). cor (i), one can show that the Houvilin groups are precisely the _roups where Gis solvable, ‘Theorem 31, Let K be a P-V extension of k where C = Const) is algebraically closed. K lies ln an SOS exteasion of k if and only if (G(kii is an SOS group. ‘A complete proof ofthis is given in (SINGSS]. If K lies in an SOS extension of, one shows that G(Kik) is an SOS group by induction on the length of the tower defining the SOS extension contining K, This is very similar to showing that GR) has solvable component ofthe deny i Klis in aouvlian extension of k and is comited. If G(K/k Is an SOS group, one shows tha K lies in an SOS ‘extension of kby induction on the length ofthe tower of groups. The ey sep here i to show that if GOK) is isomorphic wo finite group, 6, C*, SLC), or PSLI2C), then K lis in an SOS extension of Before we oun the proof ofthis fact, we give the following» SF Sgr Defiions. (1) A map p : C® — Cs polynomial map if pt) = ©4@.-- y(, Whee ys By ae Ply in variables @ For Gc GLa) © Cand m an iteger, we my & Z homomorphism p:G—GLimc) ¢ C™*! is a polynomial 2, representation if p isa polynomial map from Co c™ + ) A poy teeter 9.6 — Lin is imsae ste only p() invariant bmpces of C™ ae (0 and (@) Two poyoomial represenaions py:G — GLomC) and PyG —+ GLimo) ae isomorphic if thee is a near isomorphism 20 — C™ such that 0 py(B) © @XY) = py(8h) forall ve C™ and g 6, We wil eed the fellowing fact tht willbe proved in the next, Proposition 32. Let K be « PV exeason of kan algebraiiy los fel with constants Cand G = GK. (Ol pG — Gime) ism ineducte —poleonil representation of G then there exis homogeneous near diferent equation L) = 9 + hy ve tay =O wih hea ead & fundamental st of sltions (fl of L) = in K such hat he sono G 0 the Cs of 4. 8 omic op ()IEG = C, the additive group, then K = kg) for some y ¢ K with yeK. Proposition 32 says that any reducible polynomial An Onin of feet Glos Theory » representation of G(Kik) already occurs in K. This result can be proven without the assumption tht is algebmicaly closed, but we ‘will nly ned this weaker form The importance of his fact cannot be ‘overestimated and Iwill eur to it several times in the next sections. 1 will now show that if GOK is isomorphic to one ofthe five types of ‘roups mentioned above, then K lis in an SOS extension of k I deal With each ease separately. Geka Site, For any a € K, let £408) = Me-of) here this later product is overall 6 « G(K/K). f(x) is coefficens in k and fa(@) = 0 50 ais algebraic over k. Therefore K is an algebraic extension of kan so isan SOS extension of k i) GORI) 3 C. If we replace kby its algebraic closure, then G(K- ff) = GEKA), since G(KM) is connected. It i enough 10 show ‘hat Kole is contained in a SOS extension of & since this will imply that K is contained in an SOS extension of K. We therefore can assume that kis algebraically closed. Applying Proposition 3.20), we have that K = ky) with y’ € This clearly implies that K isan SOS extension of (Gi) Gok) = C*. We again can assume tat kis algebmicaly closed. Applying Proposition 3.2 t the representation of G(K/k) 8 GLU.C), we see that there is a fst order homogeneous linear ferential uation with coetficiens ink and solution yin K such that for each 6 € G(KiL), 9) = cgy for some eg ¢ C. This implies yy € ie and so key> isan $OS extension of k. key> € K and one ses that key)" isthe val subgroup. Therefore the glois theory implies that key> Gv) GOK) = SL2,C). Again, we may assume that k is gebracally closed. One shows as above that there i a second arderhomoge oar dierent euton with coef nk and ‘sons yy sh ht R= ky 9p Tie mete th en SOS esxersion ok (©) OC) 2 FBLC), Tee of ie consnton nha cus isthe folowing. FSUC.C) des ote a penton 2 22 tmavies bu eri ate map SLC) PSL.) and of come SU2G hs 2 32 matic epson, This ls cot an grate exentin of ta generated by slo of etd tric new diferent quan We agin ase tht ks tira cowed Now that SLAC) ace on the mie of polos in wo whe xy via binon x — assy, 7 — tatu. This aon haves ach ce V, of homage port of dee & inva, The epesenon of SLAC) em Vy wih respect othe basis 32, xy, is given by 2b 8 }- i atte 4 Baye This indices an tomas p of SLA ino SLAC. Apeyiog Prpotion 32 w ths p we se tm hex erat a hid ner ce ion einon Li) = O with atin in and slats yp, ¥9 mK sch that he eon of KI) one (C-span of (yy. ¥p: 73) given by p. AS before, the glo theory amples that K = key, yy ¥_>. Fill ow show that key, Yo, ¥52 lies in a P-V extension ofan algebraic extension ofk corresponding 10 1 second onder homogeneous linear differeaal equation. Let a, and be indeterminaes and consider the expesions 2, = ay, + by + 6y/” whose for i= 1.2.3, The expression 2125 ~23 isa polynomiat in An une f Dero Gali Tory u coefficients are left invariant by G(K/k). Therefore we can select adhe in an algebraic extension ky of such that 2323 —2} = 0. Let wy Af and w «A, tnd let te sgt tat 2) = wy, On can show that any rismarpism o of ky.) io ay diferia fed Feds was an © ems wr a2 J = Hand abed € Conn, This impes tat 146) = Wty Wty,99) ita second oer ier diferent equaon Whose coefficients are left Fixed by any such isomorphism. A ‘enerlizaton of the glois theory shows that L() has coefficients in ky, wil now show that K ies ++ yf, the ction of the gals group Gtk<¥4. yp ¥5p/Ky) 08 the span of (2, 2,23) i6 the same asthe action on the span of (3). ¥3- gewyng>. Since 2, = ay, + byl yh Therefore, kye2y, 2p, 23>)" Hs this group and K Ce. Yor Ye hye AP CHM WP: We now specialize these results 10 solving third order ‘homogeneous linear difeenial equations in terms of second order linear differential equations. We fist need some sharper group theoretic satements. Proposition 3.3 Let C be an algebmically closed field and G an SOS linear algebraic subgroup of SLG,O). Then ier (@ Gis fie, or GG? leaves 2 one dimensional subspace of C?(Gi) G teases a 40 dimensional subspace of CP invariant, oF Ge) OP leaves 0 nontivial subspaces invariant and 0? is conjugate to p(SL(2.O), p as above ‘This is proven in (SINOBS), a 6 the following application Proposition 34. Let k be a dfferemisl field with algebraically closed field of constants. Let LQ) = y'"" —p y’ ~qy =O bea linear Aisfremial equation with pq € i and let K be the associated PV cextension. K lies in an SOS exenson of k if and only if one of the following holds: (all soltons of Ly) =O ar algebraic over kor GLY) = Ly (LG) where Lal) = y+ ay" + by and LyW)=y' +e y. where band cae algebraic over k, ot (i Lig) = Ly.) with Ly(9), Lg) as with ab, and cink, or (Go) there exist ga), by algebraic over k such that for some fundamental set of solutions (uy} of LyQ) = y"" + by! + © 9 = 0, (ypupy5) forms a fundamental set of solutions for Li) = 0, where yy nage) + a0’ +07 yp = (09) + aC’ + alos”? Py sayy. ygzage say? ‘This result follows fom Theorem 3.1 and Proposition 3.3 ‘Ax Outinof Difco Gals Theory » Conclusions () and (i) fellow from () and Gi) of Proposition 3.3 for the reasons. given in the discussion following Theorem 3.1. CConelisions (i and (i) flow from Gi) and (i) of Proposition 3:3 sing the following result Proposition 3. Let K be a P-V extension of k comesponding to an nl ender homogeneous linear differential equation Ly) = 0 and assume that Const) is algebraically closed. Let V be the solution space of LQ) = 0 in K If G(K/ leaves an m dimensions subspace of Vinvaran, then LO) #1, (p(9) WHET Li y() Ad L(y) have coefiients in k and are of order m-a and m. To me why his sey gy Ba Bai of he variant sobspact, The linear diferenial equation Ly) = Wry. yy. IVY oy) BES coeticets hat are Hed by GK) and 50 rust i ink, I we formally vide 1) by Ly) (inking of ese 2s ferential operators in K{DD, We have L= Ly (lg() + RO, here the order of RC) i estan m. Since LG,) = LG) = 0, we have Ry) =O fori = I,m. This implies hat RG) #0. Proposition 3.4 ie the heart of « decision procedure given in SINGS). This procedure allows one 10 decide if gen tind onder homogeneous linear differential equation with coefficients in (x) c4n be solved in terms of second onde linear differential equations. A related open problem isto give decision procedure to decide if third ‘order homogeneous liner diferent equation can be solved in terms ‘ofa restricted class of secon order ines differential egutions uch asthe equations defining the Bese! functions. 4, Picard-Nessit Extensions and Rationl Functions on the Galois Gow. In this section I will show how soluions of homogeneous linear kG) such tha for any 6 € Go, snd 2eK, t= See ‘The condition that k be algehrically closed can be removed but this leads to several complications. Fst of all G(KIk) need not be ‘connected and we must define k(G) in different manner. Secondly, K is not necessarily isomorphic to k(G), but is isomorphic to the function field ofa principal homogeneous space for G (iis reslt was originally An Outi Dire ls hey » proved by Kolchin and Lang, e¢ [KOLASS},(BIA62), or [SINGS8a), 1a his book [KOLT3}, Kolehin develops a theory of diferent galois ‘cohomology tha gives the machinery to understand the comespondence ‘between P-V extension (or more general, songly nomal extensions) and principal homogeneous spaces ofthe galois group. We will only rove the above result (Following {SING8Ba) since it wil be sufTicient for ou purposes. We fs need the following result, Proposition 42. (a) Let k CK be diferent fields with the same fields of constants and assume that K = kG, ty) Where xfs; € forim Tyan Wty eK and y'fy 6; then there exists a d€ k and 3, integers such that y = ls, () Lek eK be differentia felis with the same Fld of constants and ely generated (as a fel) over kc TE = (y¢K | 4'Iy € k) and X" is the st of nonzero elemens of ky then Ee is a finely generated abelian group. sssume that Kis fin To prove a), we fist show that if 2), ements of K such that 27a © K and 2/€ far ij then Ts, # 0. ‘Assume this is not tue and Jet N be the smallest integer for which N x py BE nonzero there are such elements with 2 ei (2a, jf = 0. By minimal, tis would imply tat ze, — We then have E 2/ =0,s0 3, Bile, = 0 for im 2, .. JN, and therefore that (3/2,)" = 0. This ‘contradicts the fac that 2/2) € k Now lety © K say y"fy © k We may choose a k-basis (4)* MF Sir of Kx, og] sch hat eachu i6# nomial in yy = Aye HE mE rt y= yyy with 9, hen Bas, 33 that for i, ay = 4 € and ny «sive he wae Note linearly independent over k. ‘Therefore the discussion inthe preceding paragraph implies that for sme i andj, we mast have ay € 90 ye ati “To prove (b), note that K(E) i finely generated over k and so can be writen as KEE) = Kj, fy) for sme Ay ow oy € E “Therefore pst a) implies tat ik” is generated by. We now proceed 1 prove Theorem 4.1. Let K-= key typ dg 9s oP, LAE = EK Ly) Prpoion 42 dope ha ere eg Ba ete : fe) Se Ba Three Re Rye PE ange AT ag fly geen neal agen Let RY. VP wee P is pine eal. P= 10) for some Za out V. Fo any Oc dg, @indces an asomorton oR Sice Ge i ese a ©, this implies tht for any o € G, 6 acts on V and we denote this ction by o-y for v ¢ V. K will show that for any vj, ¥p in V thee is nique @ € G sich that @:¥, = vy- Assuming tha his is shown, we fix an clement v of V. Note that we can find sach an element with coeticients in k since we are assuming that k is algebraically closed. “The map 6 — @-v s then an isomorphism of G onto V. This induces ‘a map WER — KIG), which in tur gives the desired map WK — k() ‘An ulincof Dire Gal Theory since Kis the quotient fled of R Fit we show that for any v, and v, in V there exists a 0 in G such tat o-vy = vy) To do this its enought show tha the Zarit closure of Gv, is all of V Gf we seleet vy such hat the Zarsl closure OV of G-v, has minimal dimension, ten =v ~G'vy must be empty, 50 V = Gv, for this vy and oo for all vy € V). To show thatthe Zariski closure of G-v, = Vs itis enough to show that tne only G-invariant ideals of R are () and Ro Let T# 0 be a GG-invaran ideal of R. Since the gereratrs of R satisfy homogeneous linear diferenial equations with coefficients in k, a nonconstrctive ‘version of Proposition 24 shows thatthe same is uve fr all elements in R. Therefore any clement v of R les ina Gc-invarant finite dimensional C-spice W. Ifv « Tihen we can asume that W C1. Let ys og € Tbe a bass of sacha space, Since 1 is a Seal, = Wty on 8 i Ce ee ti by expanding w asng ions of the fst rom). Furthermore, for any 6 € Ge StH) = cgi for some cg tC. Theor, w’)w €k, Thismeans that we Bw We BCR Asin, since Lean dea, 1= ww €1,501= R 1 will now show that there sat most one © G such that 0-¥y = vy, To do this iti enough 1 sow tat for any ve Vand h« G such that h-v « vs we have h = 6, the identity element of G. Let v = (gem gg —- and Ht A Be the ar) formed frm be fiat x? ensies of v. For any h¢ G thre isan xn mati S such that the fist a entries of h-v aze gotten from the entries of AS. SinceWy 8 9g) Re me hve dP) 4 1. Siete assy al rents thr he sty, we ve etd) #0, Since AS = A, we have $= te ideniy mati § Setines he son af hen V0 ‘We shal deduce many corlaies from Theorem 4.1 CCovollry 43. Let K be a P-V exteosion ofk and assume Cons) is slpebraclly closed. The wanscendence degree of K over k equals the dimension of G(KMR?. To see this, not that if we replace by algebra closure we have that KR a PV exenson of weg) = de 0K-) and. G(K-i) = GKHS®, Therefore we can assume that ie lgehraically closed. Theorem 41 pis that K = X(G) where G = GKKA). Since G is a Closed set and C is algehacally closed ‘This result means thatthe dimension of G(K/K) measures the algebraic dependence among solutions y,, -- Yq Of & homogeneous linear diferenil equston and their derivatives. For example one can Show that the alos group of y"” —xy = 0 over C(x) is SL2.0. This implies that fr (y+ fundamental set of solitons, yy. and yi ae algebraically independent over C(x). Note tht y,¥3 —y{99 €€ Coralary 44. Let K be a PLV extension of kan algebraically closed Field with constans C, and G = G(K/). An Oni Dieta ois hoy 4 (WG — GLimC) is an indie polo representation of G then hr exists» homogeneous linear ifrental equation £3) «0 ag yD aay =O with ac kand a fundamental tof slain (4, gl f= Oia se at he action of G onthe C-span of {y+ jg) is somerpic to p. () IEG = Cth adve group, then K = iy) fr some y © K with eK. ‘This cola i jut Proposition 3.2, To prove pat (0 we fist. oe that our assumptions imply tat K = K(G). Let gC —C be & rorzero linear map, Define @ : C — KIG] by (Gio = PK. We have pxGOID) = GONE = GLOLHM) = GEoAHIIGD. This ‘implies that the kernel of @ is an invariant subspace of C” and so @ is injective. Therefore is an isomorphism of representations. Let V be the imag of ae ety. CCK). Theos he coetclens of 1) = Wal Yr yy yy) 8 “To prove pu) recl from example 41.2 that if G = C, then yo some indeterminate y. For 0 € Go. pas) = + Gy ot py Be basis of V. Vis left invariant by KG) some cg in C. Therefore, o(y') = y’ for all 6 © G(KR). The galois theory implies that y" k Corollary 45. Let K be a PAV extension of an algebsicaly closed field k and let G = GcKihy € K sates » homogeneous linear ferential equation wih coefficients i kif and only ify € KG}Here we are implicily using Theorem 4. to identify K with AGG). Corollary 45 appears in [BIAG2). To prove this result, I will first show that K{G] = {y © K(G) | the orbit of y lies in finite dimensional k-space). Let K{G] = ley, y) Since foreach € G, thee ei ch a fl) = ys ey 0 0 for any y € MG), te obi of y tes Ina fe dimen pace. Convery astue € O), We sal we theft KG oss rst of ose eens f(t wet eer on, eye Mol iad enly if foray «ye ext tv ¢ HO) sic ay = ad vg) #0. Ase tae fy Tes in Ai dinensnl pce W. Tis ples tle i oper Ze cht sbet Hof Gch to g¢ © =T alee of te obit tv dfn at eH = ao et of he deo of bat W) (On eee and ify « HG) hes y it dined ae pig « ‘isin ay Ne 9 =) ee a When G-—H, we get a conuadicin, showing dat y€ KI. Since Gg is dense in G, w prove the above result it is now enough 1 show thatthe set of yin KG) that satisfy a homopensous linear differential equation with coefficients ink is precisely the set of 1 such thatthe orbit of y under the ation of the galis group spans a finite dimensional C-space. Clearly, if y satisfies such a linear ferential equation L(y) =O, then is orbit es in the solution space of Ly) = O and so spans a finite dimension C-spuce. Conversely, if the ‘orbit ofy spans afte dimensional space V, then Vise invariat by GORI EY 15-4 BaIS OF V, LO) = WHY on HY, .¥q) bas coeicients that are left fined by and s i in ‘An Ontincf Differential Gals Theory 2 Corollary 46, Let K be a P-V extension of an algebnically closed field i with with galois group G = GK). IF isa normal subgroup of G the H” isa P-V extension of k with galas group GA. FH is nna in G, the theory of linear algebraic groups tells os that GH is sguin a linear algebric group (MUMB1], p82). One can show that H” =K(G/HD,. KIGIH) = Ky. gl for Some x AS noted above the G/H obits of yj, yg He in finite dimensional vector space. 12). 2, form a basis of this space then His the PV ‘extension of kasociated with Ly) = Wey 2, BV Welty Using the next cooiary, I will give & proof of the fact that although sn x satisfies a linear differential equation aver C(x), sin oes nat. Definition. Let k bean algebesicaly closed field 2G a linear algebraic group. 1 € KEG) isa character if 16g) = x()20) forall gh € G and x= 1 Note that ify is a character then z{g) # 0 forall g € G. ‘Conversely itis known [ROS6!}, that iF K{G) and fig #O forall g 6G, then f = any where & is a character and a ¢ k. The following ‘rginlly appears [HASIBS] and agin in [SPERS6] and (SING86}, (Corollary 47. Let K be a P-V extension of an algebraically closed Field k If y, and yp € K satisfy homogeneous linear diferential ‘equations ove Kandy, -y3 * 1, then yi/yy = 99/49 €&“ MF Ser We may wite K = KG) where G = GaN. Coan 45 liplies that yy ¥_ € RIG). Sine yy-yy = 1 ¥y(Q) #0 forall g€ . Therefore, by the above ema, 8 = a) er ome chante 2 € WO} and € For any @ € GOR) a)» ole) = ORE sxiox(0) Tener 9) 6 sctualy in Const). To se tis et Ly) = 96+ a5, gy +, gy bef minimal order sch dat Liy,) = 0 and a, € ke Since Uo) =O 9a ites 39 + ay ge magy™D «= 0. Teale gig = Sine 4g € Const, 00) = {fy 6 1 for Some Gg € k. Tels that eg is 86+ By 4% «Ths implies that 2 = 0. I Ihsin x satsied a homogeneous linear differential equation with coefficients in (x), then sin x and Wsin x would Wie i & PV extension K of (9). The above corollary implies that we could then ‘conclude that (sin 2)inx = cot x would be algebraic ver €(3). This is a contradiction since the only periodic functions algebraic ver (x) 5. Solving Homogeneous Linear Diffeetal Equations in Terms of Linear Differential Equations of Lower Order. In sections 2 and 3, 1 discussed the problems of solving homogeneous linear diferent equations in terms of fst and second ‘order tinea éifferenia) equations, Iam now ready to discuss the ‘general problem mentioned in the tie, Anne of iol als Thr “6 Definition, Let k bes dferenial fed with algerialy closed Cons. We ay that LG) = 90 +, 9D + a agy witha € canbe sled ia os of near ifn equine of ons nit the associated P-V extension K of is in a tower of fields k= hy © Algebra over iy where for each i ky = h(t) where cor saisties yO + a, and mo im BO +t aay =O for some a et us tok at some cases when tis can happen, We may ically closed and by replacing y by yet Ya, 992) + Hayy 5 Leno yA) term appears in LQ). This doesnot effect the property of being tolvable in terms of lower order linear differenial equations. If (ype = op) 8 8 fandamental set ofsausons of Ly) = 0, then L(y) = Wa. yp. Sq VWs fg) Expanding thi we se that O = 3, WIN, where W = Witj,. Jy) Therefore We k. Since W = CW) = deo) W for allo € G(K), we have that det) = 1 ‘Therefore G = GK) € SL(e,C) where © = Const). Let V be the Solution space of Ly) =O ia K. IC G leaves 2 nonwivial subspace of V invariant, then Proposition 35 implies that L()) = Ly lg()) for Some linear ‘operators of onder lower than n. If 23, then tis implies tat Ly) = 0 is solvable in tems of lower onder linear differential equations (de n23, ‘requirement is due othe fact that finding solutions of Li) = 0 ffom Solutions of La g()) = 0 and Ly) = 0 requires us 10 ae“6 ME Ser integrate certsin element. An integral satisties «fist order linear iffeenial equation, but only & second der homogeneous linear Aiferenial equation). ‘Assume that G leaves no nontvial subspace of V invariant, Le, G sexs iredcibiy. From lie theory (HUMT2], . 102),We Know that, such a subgroup of SL(n.C) is semisimple, This means ((HUMS!}9. 16) tha there exist normal Zaiski closed simple subgroups H, such that G = Hy --+ H, (simple means no normal subgroups of postive dimension), Let ws assume for 8 moment that G is iself simple. If ‘here exists a nontrivial representation piG —+ GL(m.C) with m 1, and foreach i, there isa linear algebraic group HY and a fnite-to-one homomesphism 9,H — H, sch that H has # nonuvial imeducble representation of dimeasion less than n (SAMO), p 109). IE we let G, = Hy>--H, H.-H then Gis @ normal subgroup of G and Gj is a P-V extension wit ‘lois group G/G,, ‘This later group is a quotient of Hy and 30 is Simple, We have a map 9 :H{ — GIG, o by the discussion above G; is generated by solutions of linear ifferenal equation of order less than a Therefore, L(y) = 0 is solvable in terms of linear Aisferetial equations of lower order “The above discussion oulines a proof of haf ofthe following (a complete proof is contained in (SINGSS)) ‘Theaem 51. Let k be fen fel wit hey close field of consants C and tet LG) = 9+ 4, 90) + tagy« ME Siner with a; € k L(y) = is NOT solvable in vers of linear diferental equations of lower onder if ard only if the associated P-V extension has gals group G whose connected component G° of he idem is (@ simple, and Gi there doesnot exist linear algebraic group H with ‘nite-t0-one homomorphism @: H — G® such tha H has a ontvil representation of dimension less than m “There is a cleaner sttement of this result if one uses the language of lie algebras. Given a linear algebraic group G, one can associate 19 Ga lie algebra, the tangent space atthe identity of G. “There is a map A>—+ exp(A) sending g 10 a neighborhood of the Idenity. For example, the group SLin.C) is associated with the lie algebra (nC) = (1300 matices A | tA) =O). Zarski closed ‘connected normal subgroups of G camespond 0 ideals ing. Therefore simple groups have simple He algebras. If gH — G is «nite to one ‘tp then H and G have the same Bie algebra. If p:G —- GL(n.C) is ‘ational represetation then p induces ie algebra homomorphism Pg = sll.) =the Hie algebea of all wen matrices. Conversely, if is simple and if p:g — ll) isa i algebra hornomerphism, then there ‘exists a linear slgebaic group H, a fiiteto-one homomorphism it = GLin.C) and a representation p: H+ GLinC) soch that p is induced by p. Using this later fact, we have ‘Theorem 5.1 (bis). Let k be a differenish Held with algebraically closed field of constants C and let Ly) = 3 + 4, 9°) + #059 with 4, €k,L{y) = 0 is NOT solvable in terms of linear iterential ‘equations of lower order if and only ifthe associated P-¥ extension An Quine of Differential Gall Theory * has galas group G such that G° has a ie algebra that i simple and such thai: g —sgln,C) is He algebea homomorphism wih m <1, the p=. For future reference, we list the simple le algebras. There ate the following infinite families: 6 sta)={A4 gWO | 18}=0) 022 Gi) spn) = [A € gl@n,©) | A'T+JA=0) 022, where re 4a ite iy as Gi) o(0)= (Ae gli) | AL + A= 0), 027. ‘There are 5 more exceptional simple lie algebras and these appear as algebras of mon matrices for certain n> 7. We shall not need ‘hese later. In (i) above, the condition that n 2 7 is given because (0) is abelian, o(8) = sf), o(4) #12) @ 2), (8) 5 spt) and o(6) = sa, 6 Algebraic Relations Among Solutions of Homogeneous Linear Ditferedial Equations, In this section I shall assume thatthe reader i failiar with the Aefntion of projective space F(C) and the base properties ofits arsk closed subsets (see [HUMS1], Ch. 1) In 1883, Fuchs considered the following station. Let Ly) =O be homogeneous linea differential equation with coefficients in x). In neighborhood 0 of say noasingular point, there exist analyticfunctions 9,(99, y9(8) and ¥360 forming & fundamental set of solutions of L(y) = 0. The assignment x —+ (68) ¥_00 930) defines a map Y: 0— (0. Fuchs showed ‘ere 61 Ife image of es on an algetnic cane in PO, tener (0a solutions of U9) =O ae Hovian ove Co (Gy er ia second eer near feel euon gree By’ # 0) = 0, PQ CG), and len lndependen fons yay such ht (2 2p 2) i inden et ‘of solons of Lg) = 0. Motivated. by this result, Faro (FANOOO] considered the following situation. Given Lg) = y+ 4, 9°) +o Hay = 0 with a, ¢ C0), there exist funedons y4(0)-- gC) analytic in the neighborhood 0 of a nonsingular point, such that (9,0 .¥q) 18 a fundanenal se of solutons of Lg) = 0. We cn define » fonction YE) = 400. 94600: 0 PHO, He sowed “Theorem 62. If the image of¥ lis ona algebai cue then eter {0 al soluions of Lg) = 0 loan over, (i tee ia second oer dierent equation YT +BY #0y=0, PQ, € Cl), And Hoey independent folios 22, sh that (al aPlay fundamental of soars of) = 0. An OutneofDieit Gao Toy s ‘These results suggest tat oe coud ask he lowing queso: 1f the image of ¥ les on a proper algebraic subset V of PC), can Ly) = 0 be solved in ems of ea ferential equations of lower nde? Fao investigate in [FANOOO] hs question and showed thai 11=3,4,0r5 then the answer i es. He logo some psi paral results when a= 6. Futermore, he wis abet show thatthe answer was yes forall nif the dimension of V8 1 or 2 and partial postive reuls if the dimension of Vis 3. In (SIN88}, 1 sowed ht he answer is es for all m6, but for all» 27, there exists an! erder homogenzaus near diferent equation Ly) = 0 wih coetlet in (Gx) shat Lf) = 038 abe in ts of eaten autos of lowe oa har same fofanent st of sotions toy dgh webae ype esye=0. Using thea of etn 3.1 wil prove hs blow. Nace that we ned only conden 23 sce nay independ solains of scowl rer homnpon inet tee eqon an sever att ahomegereone quan £495) ih otic in Proposion 6&3. Let n be a positive integer $6 Let k be a diferent field with algebraically closed field of constants C and let Li) be a homogeneous linea differential equation wit coefficients in k. IF L49) = 0 isnot solvable in terms of lowe oder linear differential equations, then for any fundamental set of solutions (yy, yg) and homogeneous polynomial 0# Pe CIYy, a) +0, ql we have Poy, ‘Using Theorem 5.1 (bis), enough to show that, for n= 6,2 MF Singer the le algebra go the connected component ofthe galois group G of the P-V exteason associated with L(y) = 0s () simple, and Gi) g has ‘ho nontrivial ie algebra repesenation of dimensionless than , then G leaves invariant no proper algebmaic subset of P™1(Q, We list below {he li algebras and coresponding groups sting () and (i) a Lic Algebra Group 3 18.0 SLG.O 4 514,050(60 SLELOSPEO, s 55.0 SLO 6 516.0.50160 SL6OSH6O sr2n0 ihe poup on 2a mains siting A923 Ja Lear =[ i is wel a [Ba etee= [1] wien oe onc 93a me 374) that SL(a,0) and SPC2n,0 act transitively on €" and C2" respectively and so have no invariant algebraic subsets of P10, Note that on des net appear on this it Because the st ops before 9 =7. O60 = [A | A'A =) eaves the st of + + Yiqvaint, This obsewation is ri the following Proposition 64. For all n> 7, there exiss « homogeneous linear 2 (otherwise D is aleady marie). Let then V = Dy and = 2. since gea(U",V) = 1, me me the extended Bucidenn got to nd B,C € else that Buviscv =A. We then have iS , [ems aame ae" a ore ‘This proces is then repeated stil the denominator is squareree ‘We will allthis process the Hermite red in the rest of this stele, Symbolic Integration towards Pace Algor “ to Hermite’s (One should mention a cis point that an alterna eciction is Horowita's algorithm (1971) which aso reduces the in tegrand to one with » squarefe denominater. ‘Trager's algorithm. Using the above section, we ase now reduced to an integrand Aleg(A) < deg(D) and D aqueretre. From (x) we know that Ph = evlog(us) +2++-+ ea lle) where the e's ae the residues of Ihab ite Bite poles (over K). The problem is then to compute those tesides without spiting D. Trager (1976) and Rothstein (1677) ve the following algorithm: # Tet s bea new indeterminate and compute (2) = resultont,(4 ~ 2D',D). 4s Factor R over its splitting Held. = Then, Sek “They also proved thatthe roots of f(z) aze exactly the residves of ‘hand thatthe spiting Bed ofthe minimal algebraic extension (of K necessary to express the integral. Teager alo uotced that the “aguimenis of the logarithms ean be computed without fnetoring (2) log(ged( ~ 2D’, D)). from the remainders appearing ia the computation of R(2) by the subresuitnnt algorithm. See (Lazard & Rishoo 1986) for details on {hat last point or example for b= Ewe find eel" Rls) = resultant (I — 262" +1) 2" += +1) = —3981(2 —1)° to no algebraic extension ie needed, and the integal is log( +241).Liowvinae’s Treonma ‘We now present the basic principle that allows the previous tech ues to apply to larger clases of functions. We have sen thatthe integral of 21 al fonction can always e expressed as a rational fonction plus « Hnoar combinations of logarithms of rational fine other clases of functions (e. f), Liouville principle loosely tales that if Lis a eld of characteristic 0, and f € [-has an elemen- then it has one ofthe form 9+5°2. 6 Jo) where © € L, the 6 er algebraic over the field of constants of L, and w € B(et,-+- se): In order to we this principle in an algorithm, indefinite inter we ned some tol fom elementary diferent algebra 1 igeenil fed ina eld with a given map a a from Into By staying (2+ 8 = a! +H and (a) = wb +a. Such « snap is called derivation on B. Anchen a € k which satin = O's called content The constants off forma mb of 2, For example, ony fold F can be made diferent Sed with "nO, Bis then is orm constant fll, A. more wef example ie QV Ae lot2)) with = The constant feld of Fs then VA). b= Glos) i a erential Sel with ether" = 2 or i = 1 = Zo the same fl can be given several derivations. A diferential field K igo diferential extension of ECE CK, and ‘the derivation on K extends the one on b. Let KC be a differentia extension off, and 8 € KC. We ay that # ian elementary monomial over by fis transcendental over k,K(8) and khave the same subd of constant, ond there exits 9 € k auch that either Symbol hrrstion-omards rca Algoitont ° (9 @ = in which cane we ay tht @ is logarithmic over, and sited = lala) ot (i) 0 = 976,40 which ease we say that # is exponential over, exp) [A diferential extension Koff is an elementary extension off AF ther exist By. q € K such that KC = Qs, 8m) and for ach im 1m iter (in aigebraie over 0, 8-1, oF i) ‘We can now state Live's theorem, an proven by Risch (19606): and write isan elementary monomial over B(0, Tueonen. Let F bo a diferent old of characteris 0, K bo the constant subi of F, and € F. I thor ea lement yi some clementary extension of Fsnch that y= 0, then there exis WEF, tyes. eu © Ky, and tty,... 5ty € KP such that eave dat Sc Rosen (1972) fran elementary prot ofthis et Elementary exensos are wil or modeling any foetion as rmsionl (or algebraic) faction of one main vail ve theater variables, Given an elementary integrand fz, an integration algo- sith cous feta eld K contig al th onsen apeneng tin etd K(a) and Sally bila tower nf, them the rational E = K(z)(61,- 8m) where the 8 inl and algebraic functions needed to expros f- ‘The derivation ane all the elementary mono- ved at every step in" = 2. TF the tower contains only tnnscen ental steps above K (2) (he. care ii) abore), then J i called a“ MBean purely muscendentalclemertary function, Sine integrating pute Ironseradental clemveataey fanetio ix easing Shan when algebraic fonctions peesea,they ae tent hy separate agithins Examples. Wl 4 goadaT To fidfeon(eby we rere ont fell K = Qt 4 eT ex STs the co fad the ower ise = K(2}(@) where eet ial over K(z). The iiogemn is then © K(z). Th Hie then SE, which i pty temnserneta To fnd I ne) + ylonil + Vat Fat 7 sel the tiner fe he constant lis (2,9) where 8 log) i gait et (2), ay ashi ver Ki 0) sotiyingy!— 242-4670 = 0, Th ng in mt prey trasacendntal be then Y4, sehen PEE which Pan Y Transecrnpey rat, Fuse sis Wem ‘onder integrands ail wp fr the rational Sanctions ro Vins. This ersteetion exeldesfentins Fike 8) whieh i ab lay suceestive additions of tansrenlental ons aad expen ehraie er Q(a.lig(s)). Tet f be sich sn inegrand, Fra the Alsen athe prow so my wr are git a pce tenner K (2). fo) sich that f € Leon isthe constant field of E with respect to = 7, It = 0, then £€ K(2) in rational fetion so the previo squats apply Otherwise lot 8 = By and = Ky y00-met)e laine a lesser numer of tranacondentals than Le ea sentsivey cr F con Symbol aeration towards Pra Algorithms o cepply the integration algorithm to elements of k. This recursion will in K(z). Since 8 is transcendental Conia nt ened Tee eve Joven emt of Ht + ert Sha fname 0 Wie f= P+ 4 whe 2s 4,D © Hd Gena) doi). nthe spol nen ow Pt be Hoo wean etme that pl(,0) = Ie To ou cal Ae Antal Det where ‘The main point where tasscendental functions dif fom eational functions i for computing J P. Risch (1969) proceeds as follows: Logarithmic eases # = log() for 9 € b Write Pm AsO ++ AlO-+ Ap whore Ay RIF f has an clemen tary integral, then there exist Boys Bas € such that [rir ent dam Bese eo BO | Bo Diflerentinting and comparing coeficints of #, we get Buss and 7 Ay = Bes (06 Baas Recursive integrating, Aa, we either ud that this equation has ro solution, in which eate f has ao elementary integral, of we get ‘he constant Bus and By up to an ative constant. Wie then 2B, = Br+h, where By Chis known nd by € Fv an undetermined constant. Compatingcoficets of °° yes Aya =a = Bas! 7 7 Recurivly integrating the left hand sie computes By and Bay up to an additive constant, Repeating this procees gives al the By» 1M. Bromin Exponential case: 9 Write P= Agi oA + At A A: € kf has on elementary intogtal, then esch 4,0" must have fa elementary integral 0 Jom [Saw J Ao is computed ereursivey, while for 0, A hasan slemeniary integral if and only i here exits Bi, € ksh that looks more complicated than g/ = f, itis actually simpler than en Integration problem sine we look for solations By in & only. This eqation ean be solved in azbitary elementary extensions (Risch 19 » Bronsicin 1987}, and there ae ficient rational algorithms for purely trarscondental elementary fanetinns (Rothstein 1977, Daven ‘ort 1986, Bronscin 1988) For our example f = cos{2) wet foe e= 41 mich that ws have tid R, € Q(Y=T)le) Bi +eV=IB, « wt acy the integral Symbotc egiton wards Pra Agri 1H We ae nowt with integrating wth deg() < det) nt in the exponential cae” Risch wed Hermit’ reduc factorization of D inorder to reduce the problem to one where D is sqnrtrer. At this point he factors D linesly cover E: D=T1fay(@~ by). If & has an elementary integral, it mast ave one ofthe form Ff og(9—b), where c € verifier = 0 Exyanig 4 no pn tony, we can compte the i they ots lenis. Tet inl ton i a i er see snes ov ten KR (197) on eee fon hep prt oft nen hn Hees sentinel of he denmiter e. Goth pen [4 where 2 ih da) ce) {640,0)~1 einen nA is pth ren ‘iin ob apd tral tne wih foi leat aremptng ) = ret) we Chek wera eto avec th peo. "Thscam be dn ion tig ying ine hg tet ali isnt cnn I sie te se D over F ean be even more impractical than in the x earn, olerwite we have then 2 has no element A fu=4— YX oogigcd(A ~od!,D)) eRe wioreo soe ate rece to integrating fo rrenrsivly. Using this algorthen, the factoring in done over K rather Bn 1M Bronstein Auornnate Functions ‘Aa alyebraic fonction over a field K ise rational function in two O where Fe Kis.) function in Q(2,4) variables 2 andy saitying a relation FY, 9) in irreducible. For example, ys an algebra ving? etter ny tae be eed ee Stn te crt ree t= 2 en sae of Ra ae ae Algebraic fonctions, ‘We need a canonical representation for alge At) i rater a to AE) to cational fonctions, Using fo,9) = BE i cient as shown by the V example where + ina vector apace of dimension m = dey(R) over K(), with bata spat) 90 we can eniy (ey) with K(e)* and wte f€ K(ey9) a8 E) (he a over «common denominator D € Kiel and write 2. However, Key) ch aiyt where a € K(z). We can also put dot Ay bt Ang Z D where Ay € K[o] and ged(DyAiy.+- Ax) = 1. Wethen view K(e,4) ‘a (K[e])"« X[e] 20 we call D the denominator of f and DIS Ai! Now thet we havea structure the numerator of f (with respect to). ‘similar to rational fonctions, we can generalize the local approach to algebraic futon. sch's algorithm. ‘The local approach frst computes local series expansions at the poles ofthe integsund on the Riemann surface defied by y, then Integrates the principal part of thove series, end then interpolates Symbol ngratn: towards Praca Alport n for e. Chevalley (1961) gives the necessary mathematical tools, ee ‘seatially a precise definition of « point on the Riemann surface (a ‘place of K(z,y) over K), and » local series expansion of elements of K(2,9) at those points. Those series, called Pavens expan ore similar to Laurent series with the exponents being of the form ifr for = a..20, and #« ven positive integer (the ramiction inde ofthe point). Those expensons can be computed asing the gorithm in Bliss (1966), bat their coeicente at algebraic over Ky -rhich makes a general implementation impractical By Liouville’ theorem, the integel off K(z,3) must be ofthe form 2+ Selon) Puisewx expansions off at all its poles, incleding at # = 2 where the principal pais ofthe sere corzesponds to the “polynomial past” of f. The term of order les thas =I can be integrated, yelling all the principal pars of. Interpolation e harder han for rational functions however: tho principal parts give us all the seus and Doles Fy yPm of 0 and the order of at thoe points, The formal sum D2, WP, is aled a divisor of K(z,y)- Using the Ble Conte algorithm (Bliss 1965, Davenport 1981), we geass forthe finite R-vectrspece L(D) of ostions having order grater than ot aval to at P, and no pole a ay other point. Computing the Paisenexpansins af a gene lent of L(D) at Py. P ad Js elementary. Rich (1968) computes the ‘equating with the expansion of yields a nystern of liner equations ‘over K. It haw no soltion, then f hax no elementary integel, otherwise we ge» upto an editive constant "The residues of th integrand are the coeficlents of the terms of order =1 in its Puivenx expansions. From a basi (gy. fh) fo” M Brontein ‘the Zmordnle generated by thore residues, Risch (1968) computes + diviors Dj... ,Dj- Using the Blis-Coates algorithm, we can test whether for 9 given positive integer a there exits a snetion sw € R(eyy) whone poles and zeros are described exactly by aDi, in which case we say that aD, is the divisor of wy and that aD, i principal. If aD, is not principal fr any @ > 0, then Dy is called 1 point of iaftnite order and f has no clementary integral. If we find a; end uw such that a:D; isthe divisor of uy fr each i and ‘The problem is now to determine whether a divisor D is of ‘order, Risch (1970) completes his algorithm by desril reducing the curve to curves over finite feds determines x bo ing how a such that if jD is not principal for j = 1....B, then D has infite onder Davenport (1981) independently discovered similar algorithm, for which he bas partial implementation (for nested square sts onl). ‘Trager’s algorithm. A key property of rational fanetions is that all the 2106 o denominator ae its fite pos, and all ts finite poles are revos offs denominator, A basis for K(2,3) over Ke) for whieh this property remains true called an integral Bais over Ke. F Merron egal bs cen f= B shar Ten ttedoomir st trope FE P40 hae pole at 2 =0. However, (2,4) always has an integral basis Symbol gratin: wards Prova Alerts % ‘Trager (1084) proceeds in theee steps: the frst i to compute an integral basis = (wy... 94), the second then wses a general ‘on of Hermite'sreduetion inorder to reduce the integrand to one with a squarefce denominator, and the thd uses generalization of Rothstein's resultant ia order to ind the minimum algebraic ex tension of K needed to express the integral, and compute a divisor for ch logan First ofall the “polynomial part” of the inegreud ean be elim nated by an appropriate change of variable: if f(2,9}de is not locally integeal at 2 = 00, then pick am integer 0 which isnot rero ofthe Aeorinatr of fot the dein of Fe») sco co Ween Alton ensures that #= ais uazamified), and set flat tty) 2 then integeate — and substitute back after computing the integra. ‘The Hermite reduction: Trager genezalirod Hermite's algo stegral basis ( needs and compate wy for = 1... Write then rithm as follow: let (ls ta) be an to be normal at = ‘och win Lerma ofLet D = DD? Dmgi™™™ be a squaseiee factorization of D. fm = 0 then D is squatetre. Otherwive, let V = Dass and = eer Maly Dand the Ae by Sarge yy nme that BIUV. In order to emulate Hermite's reduction, Trager asks whether ‘here exist Byy.-. sBayChy--ssCy € Ka] such that [oie Diflerentiating both sides, equating the coricients ofeach wy clea ing denominators and reducing modulo V, we get the following linear system for By. By " ws 1) Avs movi, 2S MB, omod¥) [een Bo3 FS Mass (mod ¥) wy ; Aes omov'es ES Mas) (wd) ‘Trager proves that (5) always has» sation when m > O and the condition on EU, and ¥ are sted. Aer slvng (S) forthe Bs, the Gis ae given by emu c= Ma HER Ma + vB! We repeat this process antil D ie squarelion. At that point, we have gyh € K(2yp) such that f= g! +h, and A has a squacefiee denominator. Symbolic Inegraten-towards Prac Algor 7 ‘The logarithmic part: We can aseuie that the initial integrand {de was locally inlegral at 2 = 20. If hdz has pole at 2 = 20, then {de does not have an clementary integral. Otherwise, the integral of de mst bea linear combination of logarithms with constant co- efficients, Trager then generalized Rothstein's aor 1 Express h in terms of ie 1m as follows and write Dil, Aas = G, where G € Kley] and J € Kile} + Let Fe Hasa be the defining polynomial for K(z,9) 2 be a new indeterminate, end compte R{s) = resultant (prim, (reeuttants(G ~ 211D!,),D) where prim, means tke the primitive pat with respect to =. # Foctor R over and compute « bass (q,--: 4) for the Zmodale generated by the roots of R- 1 For cach root 04 of R, write sag tot ete where ay € Zand let Dj = 5,9i,P; whore Py isthe points) where hd has resi IE heze exist integers mye te mich tha my.Dy i the divisor of «function ny € R29), and FS geeM.Brontin YM toate). Otherwise, has presses the integral, when elementary, withthe smallest por: sible numberof logarithms, 19 elementary integral. This algorithm ex Example. Consider [tte [SREP 1 € Ql) with Flay) = = Ino hsieand ferent = 2st We then compute Band he Mes (3) -ara(6 at) (Ss): A nquarefice factorization of 27 +229 +2 in (a4 + 1)? so we let 84 Land the sytem (5) ie t (mod 2841) (mod 2+ 1) [SEB aha | Brae ee Haren) * Symbol tgration towards Praca Alors » Our new integrand h = y/(a? + 2) hos aquaretre denominator, and we have G(e,y) =, (2) 1, D(z) = 2+, and Fleyy) = y= 281, po Trager’ resultant is H(z) = resultant (prim (resuttanty ~ 2(92* + 1),F)),D) = NoMa +1) ‘where Wis. large integer. The nonzero rots of R(2) are a and basis for the vector space they generate over Q is (a) = (). Let P be the point (2 1), and @Q be the point 9 = 1). fds has residue oy at P and ay at Q, so let d e bbe the divisor P—@. To ask whether dis principal isthe same as aking whether there exists w € Q(2yy) sich that w has a pole of ovder 1 at Q, rero af order 1 at P, and no other rero or poe, No such fincion exists in Q(x), s0 dis not principal. In thin case, 2d and 3d are also not principal, but 4d isthe divisor of w= =? iy ‘Tins, Teva [on ji [OE Ok tg 8 eT eae ye ave A ere By mined fection enon lena fein whan twee Cece sai eee sentry soe (hem > 2). 1 8g i nse ener = (o,f) then we we the rnncenental se ith Aerie ets t rdae the poem to ne ner Frm we een0 MBronatin assume thot y = fq is algebeaie over B. By the primitive fement theorern, we ensure that @ = Bm. i transcendental over = (26, Btls So we have scendentallogsithm or exponential over fy and y is algebraic over (0), satisfying F(@,3) = 0 where Fe #@,x). We view fe L as en algebraic function over Bin the sare way than we viewed @ purely transcendental elemertary funtion asa rational funtion over 2,0, given a (bayo+- sa) for (89) over KP), we can tite f € Ky) ax CfLs(As(@)A/D()), defising in this way the numerator and denominator of f. Since # has a xmaller degree of transcendence than Lover K, we can apply Uh integration algorithm ecursively to k or any finite algebraic extension of k Rinch’s algorithm. ‘The notions of points of the Riemann surface defined by y, and of Puiseux expansions at those points remain well defined over (Chevalley 1961). Ritch (1968, 1960) proceeds lke in the parly algebraic case, computing the Puiseux expansions of the integrand tall ite poles and integrating them tetzwise. Above @ = co, where ‘he principal pats ofthe Paiseux expansions ae polynomials in 6"!", integoatng them req Jn the purely transcendental case. If 4 + exponential over ky then we Integrating the coflcints recursively as have to solve Risch difereatial equation over F foreach cooficent. Divisors forth logads ate cbtaine fron the term of order 1 ke in the the prey algebraic ese, Alhongh «complete algorithm, this Acchniguehns not been helpful in solving actual integration problems, and no implementation has been ceporte. Sm nero mak Prd gia 8 Brontein's gorithm. Bronsen (1987) geerled Tage algorithm a allows: we we ‘eager algo to compat an ata bss B= (oy) for KG,s) oer MO), a Band the M's as inthe ply sige ctv. We then expen the inlgrand fa lero ae 1m the esponetal cas, we want ged(D,0) = 1 as in the purely teaacendetal et, n0 we at D = @°D and perform pt faction decmponton each in ner alent term ith # in denominated to pling ot poyaomil with eotve exponents inthe purely tancendesal exponen We now se the Hermite redaction with »sqarcticefactoretion of D to reduce f to an integrand with squareftce denominator, We ‘obtain the same systern (S) than in the purely algebraic care, and prove that () always has solution [At this point we have gy € K(Qy) such that f = g/ +h and ‘besa squarefree denominator. The majo diference with the purely algebraic cas is that we eannot do a change of viviale, so Adz moy lve poles at @= ce. Stil, the integral of Amt be of the form [b= tev Pan eve) eh) + fh here the yar polyno in (with negative exponents allowed in the exponential case) and hy € F. ‘Tages’ egorithin for finding ‘he logarithms can be appli with the following modifcatons * Compute the double esultont A(z) aa inthe purely algebraic