Applied Sciences

applied
sciences
Article
Research on the Internal Thermal Boundary
Conditions of Concrete Closed Girder Cross-Sections
under Historically Extreme Temperature Conditions
Jianhui Lin, Junqing Xue * , Fuyun Huang and Baochun Chen
College of Civil Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350108, China; jianhui.lin@foxmail.com (J.L.);
huangfuyun@fzu.edu.cn (F.H.); baochunchen@fzu.edu.cn (B.C.)
* Correspondence: junqing.xue@fzu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-138-5015-2456

Received: 29 November 2019; Accepted: 10 February 2020; Published: 14 February 2020
Featured Application: The temperature distributions on concrete closed girder cross-sections

can be accurately simulated by using the finite element models to establish air elements as
the internal thermal boundary condition. Using the finite element models to establish air
elements as the internal thermal boundary condition has a wide application range because it
does not require the field measurement of the temperature inside the cavity, which is cost- and
time-prohibitive. Moreover, this method can predict the temperature distributions on concrete
closed girder cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions.
Abstract: The accuracy of the finite element model (FEM) for concrete closed girder cross-sections is
significantly influenced by thermal boundary conditions. The internal thermal boundary conditions
can be simulated by inputting the convection heat transfer coefficient and the temperatures inside
the cavities or by establishing air elements in the FEM. In order to analyze the influence of different
simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions on temperature distributions for
concrete closed girder cross-sections, the temperature distributions on the cross-sections of a box
girder, small box girders, and adjacent box girders were monitored, and the corresponding FEMs
were implemented. By comparing the temperature data obtained from the field test and FEMs,
the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by using the measured temperatures inside the
cavities provide the closest agreement with the measured results; however, the measurements of the
temperatures on site are cost- and time-prohibitive. When there is a lack of measured temperatures
inside the cavities, the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by establishing air elements
in the FEM provide the closest agreement. The influences of different simulation methods for the
internal thermal boundary conditions on the highest hourly average effective temperatures and the
trends of the vertical temperature gradients for concrete closed girder cross-sections were small.
The FEM with air elements can be adopted to analyze the temperature distributions on concrete
closed girder cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions. It can be predicted
that the longitudinal thermal movement of concrete closed girders would be underestimated by
considering variations in the one-year measured average effective temperature of the cross-sections or
the Chinese-code-specified design effective temperature for the highway bridge structures, which are
thus unconservative for engineering applications. The Chinese-code-specified design vertical
temperature gradients are conservative for the bridge deck surface and unconservative for the
bottom flange.
Keywords: internal thermal boundary condition; concrete closed girder cross-section; air element;
finite element simulation; hourly temperature curve; average effective temperature; vertical
temperature gradient; historically extreme temperature condition
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274; doi:10.3390/app10041274 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 2 of 28
1. Introduction
Closed girder cross-sections, such as box girders, small box girders, and adjacent box girders,
are typically used worldwide for concrete bridges [1–13]. Numerous cases of recorded bridge damages,
such as severe cracking, deterioration, or even failure, particularly in bridges with closed girder
cross-sections, were caused by temperature-induced stresses and deformations [14–26]. Therefore, it is
particularly important to accurately predict the temperature distributions on closed girder cross-sections.
Moreover, thermal influence is considered to be a key parameter not only for bridges with expansion
joints but also for jointless bridges [7,13,22,27–39]. Finite element simulation is one of the most
commonly used and effective methods to analyze the temperature distributions on concrete bridge
cross-sections. The accurate input of external and internal thermal boundary conditions for the
closed girder cross-sections in the finite element model (FEM) has a great influence on the accuracy
of the calculated results. The Robin boundary condition can be used to simulate the external and
internal thermal boundary conditions. For the external thermal boundary condition, the temperatures
associated with solar radiation, convection, irradiation, and the temperature of the surrounding
fluid medium, as well as the overall heat transfer coefficient (which is the combination of the
convection heat transfer coefficient and the radiation heat transfer coefficient), should be taken
into account [7,13–17,22,23,25,36,39–46]. The internal thermal boundary condition is affected by the
temperatures inside the cavities and the convection heat transfer coefficient because it is not influenced
by solar radiation [7,13–17,22,23,25,36,39,40,42–46].
The ambient air temperature can be measured by a meteorological station. The temperature
variation inside the cavity is usually less than that of the ambient air temperature and has a time
delay [42,43] because there is no solar radiation inside the cavity and the thermal conductivity of
concrete is low. In order to accurately simulate the internal thermal boundary conditions for concrete
closed girder cross-sections, researchers have proposed different methods. Temperature sensors were
installed inside the cavities by some researchers during the girder construction process to measure
the temperature variation curve inside the cavity (hereafter referred to as the Measured Temperature
Method) [17,23,25,39,44]. The Measured Temperature Method can reflect the actual temperature
inside the cavity, but measurements on site are cost- and time-prohibitive. Therefore, the application
range of the Measured Temperature Method is limited. When the measured temperature inside the
cavity can not be obtained, the ambient air temperature was used to simulate the temperature inside
the cavity (hereafter referred to as the Ambient Temperature Method) [15,45]. Numerical methods
were used by some researchers to calculate the temperature variation curve inside the cavity, such as
the mean temperature over the previous two days (hereafter referred to as the Mean Temperature
Method) [27,28,41], using the following Equation [40]:
Tmean = 0.25 × (Tmax,i + Tmin,i + Tmax,i−1 + Tmin,i−1 ) (1)
where Tmean is the mean temperature over the previous two days, Tmax,i , Tmin,i , Tmax,i−1 , and Tmin,i−1
are the maximum and minimum temperatures of the ambient air temperature curves for the ith and
(i− 1)th days.
The temperature inside the cavity that is obtained or calculated by using the Measured Temperature
Method, Ambient Temperature Method, or Mean Temperature Method can be input as the internal
thermal boundary condition in the FEM. In addition, a method that established air elements in
the FEM of the closed girder cross-sections was adopted by some researchers to simulate the heat
conduction inside the cavity as the internal thermal boundary condition (hereafter referred to as the
Air Element Method) [7,13,25,36,39]. When there is no measurement on site to obtain the temperature
inside the cavity, the Ambient Temperature Method, Mean Temperature Method, or Air Element
Method can be used as alternative methods. These alternative methods can be used for all bridges;
however, their accuracy should be evaluated.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 3 of 28
The temperature effects on structures vary with time during the service periods of structures.
In order to ensure the safety and durability of bridges, it is necessary to analyze the temperature
Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, on
distributions x FOR PEER REVIEW
concrete 3 of 27
girder cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions.
The Measured Temperature Method, Ambient Temperature Method, and Mean Temperature Method
Method can only be used to simulate the temperature inside the cavity in a specific period based on
can only be used to simulate the temperature inside the cavity in a specific period based on the measured
the measured data. Therefore, it is difficult for them to predict the temperature distributions on
data. Therefore, it is difficult for them to predict the temperature distributions on concrete girder
concrete girder cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions. However, the Air
cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions. However, the Air Element Method is
Element Method is expected to be used to simulate the temperature distributions on concrete girder
expected to be used to simulate the temperature distributions on concrete girder cross-sections under
cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions.
historically extreme temperature conditions.
In this paper, three bridges with different kinds of concrete closed girder cross-sections,
In this paper, three bridges with different kinds of concrete closed girder cross-sections,
including a box girder, small box girders, and adjacent box girders, were chosen as case studies. The
including a box girder, small box girders, and adjacent box girders, were chosen as case studies.
temperature distributions on three kinds of concrete closed girder cross-sections were monitored.
The temperature distributions on three kinds of concrete closed girder cross-sections were monitored.
The corresponding FEMs of the concrete closed girder cross-sections were implemented by using the
The corresponding FEMs of the concrete closed girder cross-sections were implemented by using the
midas FEA software. Four methods were used to simulate the internal thermal boundary conditions
midas FEA software. Four methods were used to simulate the internal thermal boundary conditions
for the concrete closed girder cross-sections. The influences of different simulation methods on the
for the concrete closed girder cross-sections. The influences of different simulation methods on the
temperature distributions on concrete closed girder cross-sections were analyzed. The Air Element
temperature distributions on concrete closed girder cross-sections were analyzed. The Air Element
Method was adopted to analyze the temperature distributions on concrete closed girder cross-
Method was adopted to analyze the temperature distributions on concrete closed girder cross-sections
sections under historically extreme temperature conditions.
under historically extreme temperature conditions.
2. Finite
2. Finite Element
Element Simulation
Simulation
2.1. Box Girder

One concrete
concrete bridge
bridgewith witha three-cell
a three-cell single
single boxbox
girder in Shenzhen,
girder in Shenzhen, ChinaChina
was chosen as the
was chosen
casethe
as study.
case The dimensions
study. of the boxofgirder
The dimensions the boxcross-section are illustrated
girder cross-section are inillustrated
Figure 1. in Twenty-one
Figure 1.
temperaturetemperature
Twenty-one sensors weresensors installed
werein the box girder
installed in theduring
box girderthe construction process, as shown
during the construction in
process,
Figure
as shown 1. These include
in Figure five sensors
1. These include in the
fivetop flangein(T-1
sensors thetotop T-5), three(T-1
flange sensors in the
to T-5), bottom
three flange
sensors in
(B-1bottom
the to B-3), flange
eight sensors
(B-1 to in the eight
B-3), exterior webs in
sensors (W-1 thetoexterior
W-4 in websthe left exterior
(W-1 to W-4 webinand
the W-7 to W-10
left exterior
in theand
web right
W-7exterior
to W-10 web), tworight
in the sensors in theweb),
exterior interior twowebs (W-5
sensors inin theinterior
the left interior
webs web(W-5and W-6left
in the in
the rightweb
interior interior
andweb),
W-6 inand thethree
rightsensors
interior (C-1 to C-3)
web), andinthree
threesensors
cells of the
(C-1box
to girder.
C-3) inItthree
can be observed
cells of the
fromgirder.
box the field testbedata
It can that the
observed fromdifferences
the field testbetween the the
data that temperatures
differencesinside
between thethe
cavities and the
temperatures
ambient
inside theair temperature
cavities and the wereambientlarge
air in the summer
temperature werebecause
large inofthe high solar because
summer radiation, whilesolar
of high the
temperature
radiation, whiledifferences were small
the temperature in the
differences werewinter.
small The
in thedaily
winter. measured
The dailytemperature responses
measured temperature
obtained at
responses different
obtained times oftimes
at different yearofhave been been
year have usedusedby researchers
by researchers to toanalyze
analyzethethe temperature
temperature
distributions on
distributions on cross-sections
cross-sections [13,22,24,25,39].
[13,22,24,25,39]. Due to space limitations,
limitations, the data from 13 August 2017
summer,which
in summer, whichisis a sunny
a sunny dayday with
with the highest
the highest ambient ambient air temperature
air temperature duringduring the monitoring
the monitoring period,
period,
as well as ashigh
wellsolar
as high solarand
radiation radiation
low wind andspeed,
low wind speed, were
were selected selectedThe
for analysis. formeteorological
analysis. The
meteorological
data, including data,
ambientincluding ambient air
air temperature, temperature,
hourly hourly
global solar global solar
radiation, hourly radiation, hourly
diffuse solar diffuse
radiation,
solar radiation, and wind speed, were measured using a movable
and wind speed, were measured using a movable automatic meteorological station at the bridge automatic meteorological station
site
at theabridge
with site withtime
measurement a measurement
interval of one time interval of one hour.
hour.
Figure 1. Layout of the box girder cross-section (unit: cm).
The midas FEA

The midas FEAsoftware
softwarewas
was chosen
chosen to establish
to establish the the
FEMFEM forbox
for the thegirder
box girder cross-section.
cross-section. Two-
Two-dimensional plane strain elements, which can be used for steady-state or transient analyses,
dimensional plane strain elements, which can be used for steady-state or transient analyses, were
used, as shown in Figure 2. Each node has a single temperature degree of freedom. The measurement
time interval in the FEM was set with the same as that for the field test. For the thermal parameters
of the concrete, density, heat conductivity, and specific heat values of 2500 kg/m3, 1.5 W/(m·°C), and
900 J/(kg·C), respectively, were used [14,15,17,47]. Based on the measured ambient air temperature,
wind speed, and solar radiation obtained from the movable automatic meteorological station at the
determine the initial temperature distribution [13,14,17,25,39]. A 120-h period with the same
environmental conditions imposed cyclically was considered in the analysis.
The four simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions summarized in
Section 1 were considered in the FEMs of the box girder. The internal thermal boundary condition
was not influenced by solar radiation. Therefore, the internal thermal boundary condition with
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274
a
4 of 28
convection heat transfer coefficient of 3.5 W/(m ·C) was set in the FEMs by using the Measured
2
Temperature Method, Ambient Temperature Method, or Mean Temperature Method. For the
were used,Temperature
Measured as shown in Figurethe
Method, 2. measured
Each node hourlyhastemperature
a single temperature
curves insidedegree
each cellof offreedom.
the box
The measurement time interval in the FEM was set with the same as
girder (13 August 2017) obtained from the temperature sensors C-1 to C-3 were chosen, as shown that for the field test. For the
by
thermal
the hollow parameters
points inofFigure
the concrete,
3. For the density, heatTemperature
Ambient conductivity,Method,
and specific heat valueshourly
the measured of 2500 kg/m3 ,
ambient
1.5 W/(m·◦ C), and
air temperature 900 (13
curve J/(kg· ◦ C), respectively, were used [14,15,17,47]. Based on the measured ambient
August 2017) was used, as shown by the solid line in Figure 3. For the Mean
air temperature,
Temperature wind speed,
Method, the mean andtemperature
solar radiation obtained
(30.7 C) over from
thethe movable
previous twoautomatic
days (12 meteorological
and 13 August
station at the bridge site, the parameters associated with solar radiation,
2017) was calculated, as shown by the dashed line in Figure 3. The mesh size of the FEMs usingconvection, irradiation, and the
the
temperature of the surrounding fluid medium were used as the external
Measured Temperature Method, Ambient Temperature Method, or Mean Temperature Method was thermal boundary conditions
for
set the
as 20box girder
mm. Theintotal
the numbers
FEM. Theofinfluence
nodes and of solar radiation
elements were on different
37,017 parts ofrespectively,
and 35,659, the box girder as
was considered by using the following rules and assumptions: (a) the external
illustrated in Figure 2a. For the Air Element Method, the heat conduction between the air and girder surface of the top
flange is influenced
cross-section can be by both theby
simulated beam and diffuse
establishing thesolar radiation;
air elements (b) the
inside theexternal
cavitiessurfaces
withoutofthe theinput
two
exterior webs in thecurves
of the temperature shadow andduetheto convection
the top flangeheataretransfer
influenced by the inside
coefficient diffusethe
solar radiation
cavities. Theandair
ground reflection; (c) the external surfaces of the two exterior webs not in
elements were also two-dimensional plane strain elements with the thermal parameters of air under the shadow are influenced
by
20 the beam
C and one solar radiation,
standard diffuse solar
atmospheric radiation,
pressure and heat
(density, ground reflection; and
conductivity, and (d) the undersides
specific heat of 1.205 of
the
kg/m top and bottom
3, 0.0259 W/(m·flanges
C), andare 1005influenced
J/(kg·C),byrespectively)
the ground [48].reflection alone.
The mesh The
size environmental
of the air element and was
climatic conditions existing on previous days must be considered to accurately
set as 20 mm, which is the same as those of the girder cross-section. The total numbers of nodes determine the initial
and
temperature distribution [13,14,17,25,39]. A 120-h period with the
elements for the FEM using the Air Element Method were 52,458 and 51,669, respectively, as same environmental conditions
imposed
illustratedcyclically
in Figurewas 2b. considered in the analysis.
(a)
(b)
Figure 2. Finite element model (FEM) of the box girder cross-sections: (a) FEM without air elements;
(b) FEM with air
air elements.
elements.
The four simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions summarized in
Section 1 were considered in the FEMs of the box girder. The internal thermal boundary condition
was not influenced by solar radiation. Therefore, the internal thermal boundary condition with
a convection heat transfer coefficient of 3.5 W/(m2 ·◦ C) was set in the FEMs by using the Measured
Temperature Method, Ambient Temperature Method, or Mean Temperature Method. For the Measured
Temperature Method, the measured hourly temperature curves inside each cell of the box girder
(13 August 2017) obtained from the temperature sensors C-1 to C-3 were chosen, as shown by the
hollow points in Figure 3. For the Ambient Temperature Method, the measured hourly ambient air
temperature curve (13 August 2017) was used, as shown by the solid line in Figure 3. For the Mean
Temperature Method, the mean temperature (30.7 ◦ C) over the previous two days (12 and 13 August
2017) was calculated, as shown by the dashed line in Figure 3. The mesh size of the FEMs using the
Measured Temperature Method, Ambient Temperature Method, or Mean Temperature Method was set
as 20 mm. The total numbers of nodes and elements were 37,017 and 35,659, respectively, as illustrated
in Figure 2a. For the Air Element Method, the heat conduction between the air and girder cross-section
can be simulated by establishing the air elements inside the cavities without the input of the temperature
curves and the convection heat transfer coefficient inside the cavities. The air elements were also
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 5 of 28
two-dimensional plane strain elements with the thermal parameters of air under 20 ◦ C and one standard
atmospheric pressure (density, heat conductivity, and specific heat of 1.205 kg/m3 , 0.0259 W/(m·◦ C),
and 1005 J/(kg·◦ C), respectively) [48]. The mesh size of the air element was set as 20 mm, which is the
same as those of the girder cross-section. The total numbers of nodes and elements for the FEM using
the Air
Appl. Element
Sci. 2019, Method
8, x FOR were 52,458 and 51,669, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 2b.
PEER REVIEW 5 of 27
Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 27
Figure 3.
Figure Comparisonof
3. Comparison ofdifferent
different simulation
simulation methods
methods for
for the
the temperature
temperature curves inside the cavities.
Figure 3. Comparison of different simulation methods for the temperature curves inside the cavities.
2.2. Small Box Girder
One prestressed concrete bridge with a cross-section consisting of seven small box girders in
One prestressed concrete bridge with a cross-section consisting of seven small box girders in
One China
Handan, prestressed concrete
was chosen as bridge
the casewith a cross-section
study. consisting
A Portland cement of seven
concrete small
overlay boxagirders
with in
thickness
Handan, China was chosen as the case study. A Portland cement concrete overlay with a thickness
Handan, China was chosen as the case study. A Portland cement concrete
of 12 cm and an asphalt concrete overlay with a thickness of 10 cm were used. The dimensions overlay with a thickness
of 12 cm and an asphalt concrete overlay with a thickness of 10 cm were used. The dimensions of the
of 12
thecm and an
small boxasphalt
girderconcrete overlayare
cross-sections with a thickness
illustrated in of 10 cm4.were
Figure Sixused. The dimensions
temperature sensors of the
were
small box girder cross-sections are illustrated in Figure 4. Six temperature sensors were installed in
small boxin
installed girder
the topcross-sections
flanges (1-Tareandillustrated
7-T), websin Figure
(1-W and4. Six temperature
7-W), and bottom sensors were
flanges installed
(1-B in
and 7-B)
the top flanges (1-T and 7-T), webs (1-W and 7-W), and bottom flanges (1-B and 7-B) of the small box
the topsmall
of the flangesbox(1-T and 7-T),
girders webs
#1 and #7,(1-W and 7-W),
as shown and bottom
in Figure 4. Due flanges (1-Blimitations,
to space and 7-B) ofthe
the data
smallfrom
box
girders #1 and #7, as shown in Figure 4. Due to space limitations, the data from 17 July 2015 in
girders
17 #1 and
July 2015 #7, as shown
in summer, whichinisFigure
a sunny 4. day
Duewith
to space limitations,
the highest the air
ambient data from 17 July
temperature 2015the
during in
summer, which is a sunny day with the highest ambient air temperature during the monitoring
summer,
monitoring which
period,is as
a sunny
well asday
highwith
solarthe highest
radiation andambient
low wind air speed,
temperature during for
were selected theanalysis.
monitoring
The
period, as well as high solar radiation and low wind speed, were selected for analysis. The field test
period,
field testaswas
wellcarried
as highout solar radiation
after bridge and low wind
opening. speed, there
Therefore, were was
selected for analysis. gauge
no temperature The field test
placed
was carried out after bridge opening. Therefore, there was no temperature gauge placed inside the
was
insidecarried out of
the cells after
thebridge
small opening. Therefore,
box girders. there was
The Measured no temperature
Temperature Methodgauge placed
was inside the
not considered
cells of the small box girders. The Measured Temperature Method was not considered in the analyses
cells
in theofanalyses
the smallof boxthegirders. The Measured
temperature Temperature
distributions Method
on concrete wasbox
small notgirder
considered in the analyses
cross-sections. The
of the temperature distributions on concrete small box girder cross-sections. The meteorological data,
of the temperature
meteorological data,distributions on concrete
including ambient small box girder
air temperature, hourlycross-sections.
global solar The meteorological
radiation, data,
hourly diffuse
including ambient air temperature, hourly global solar radiation, hourly diffuse solar radiation, and
including ambient
solar radiation, andair temperature,
wind speed, were hourly globalusing
measured solararadiation, hourly diffuse
movable automatic solar radiation,
meteorological and
station at
wind speed, were measured using a movable automatic meteorological station at the bridge site with
wind speed,
the bridge were
site with measured using a time
a measurement movable automatic
interval meteorological station at the bridge site with
of one hour.
a measurement time interval of one hour.
a measurement time interval of one hour.
Figure 4. Layout of the small box girder cross-sections (unit: cm).

Figure 4. Layout of the small box girder cross-sections (unit: cm).
The midas FEA software was chosen to establish a FEM of the small box girder cross-sections by
The midas FEA software was chosen to establish a FEM of the the small
small box
box girder
girder cross-sections
cross-sections by
using two-dimensional plane strain elements, as shown in Figure 5. The three simulation methods
using two-dimensional plane strain elements, as shown in Figure 5. The three
two-dimensional plane strain elements, as shown in Figure 5. The three simulationsimulation methods for
methods
for the internal thermal boundary conditions summarized in Section 1, except the Measured
the internal
for thermal
the internal boundary
thermal conditions
boundary summarized
conditions in Sectionin1, Section
summarized except the
1, Measured
except theTemperature
Measured
Temperature Method, were considered in the FEMs of small box girders. For the Ambient
Method, were Method,
Temperature considered in the
were FEMs of small
considered in theboxFEMs
girders.
of For thebox
small Ambient Temperature
girders. Method,
For the Ambient
Temperature Method, the measured hourly ambient air temperature curve (17 July 2015) was used,
the measured hourly ambient air temperature curve (17 July 2015) was used, as shown
Temperature Method, the measured hourly ambient air temperature curve (17 July 2015) was used, by the solid
as shown by the solid line in Figure 6. For the Mean Temperature Method, the ◦ mean temperature
lineshown
as in Figure 6. For
by the the line
solid Meanin Temperature
Figure 6. ForMethod,
the Mean theTemperature
mean temperature (27.1theC)mean
Method, over temperature
the previous
(27.1 C) over the previous two days (16 and 17 July 2015) was calculated, as shown by the dashed
line in Figure 6. The mesh size of the FEMs using the Ambient Temperature Method or Mean
line in Figure 6. The mesh size of the FEMs using the Ambient Temperature Method or Mean
Temperature Method was set as 20 mm. The total numbers of nodes and elements were 34,020 and
Temperature Method was set as 20 mm. The total numbers of nodes and elements were 34,020 and
32,462, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 5a. For the Air Element Method, the total numbers of
32,462, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 5a. For the Air Element Method, the total numbers of
nodes and elements for the FEM were 45,632 and 44,786, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 5b.
nodes and elements for the FEM were 45,632 and 44,786, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 5b.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 6 of 28
two days (16 and 17 July 2015) was calculated, as shown by the dashed line in Figure 6. The mesh
size of the FEMs using the Ambient Temperature Method or Mean Temperature Method was set as
20 mm. The total numbers of nodes and elements were 34,020 and 32,462, respectively, as illustrated in
Figure 5a. For the Air Element Method, the total numbers of nodes and elements for the FEM were
45,632 and 44,786, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 5b. Other detailed information was the same as
the
Appl.FEM of the
Appl. Sci. 2019,
Sci. 2019, 8, x box
8, x FORgirder, as reported in Section 2.1.
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FOR PEER REVIEW
6 of 27
6 of 27
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure5.5.FEM
Figure FEMof
FEM ofthe
of thesmall
the small box
smallbox girder
boxgirder cross-sections:
girdercross-sections: (a)
cross-sections:(a)
(a)FEM
FEM
FEM without
without
without airair
air elements; (b)(b)
elements;
elements; (b) FEM
FEM with
FEM air
with
with air
elements.
air elements.
elements.
Figure6.
Figure
Figure 6.6.Comparison
Comparisonof
Comparison ofdifferent
of differentsimulation
different simulationmethods
methodsfor
forthe
thetemperature
temperaturecurves
curvesinside
insidethe
thecavities.
cavities.
2.3. Adjacent
2.3.Adjacent
AdjacentBoxBox Girder
BoxGirder
Girder
2.3.
One
One concrete
concrete girder
girder with
with aaacross-section consisting
cross-section consisting
consisting of of three
of three adjacent
three adjacent box
adjacent box girders
box girders
girders inin Fuzhou,
in Fuzhou,
Fuzhou,
One concrete girder with cross-section
China was
Chinawas chosen
waschosen as
chosenas the
asthe case
thecase study.
casestudy. The
study.The thickness
Thethickness
thicknessof of the Portland
ofthe
thePortland cement
Portlandcement concrete
cementconcrete overlay
concreteoverlay was
overlaywas 10 cm.
was 10
China 10
The
cm. dimensions
The of the adjacent
dimensions of the box girder
adjacent boxcross-sections
girder are illustrated
cross-sections are in Figure 7. Eight
illustrated in temperature
Figure 7. Eight
cm. The dimensions of the adjacent box girder cross-sections are illustrated in Figure 7. Eight
sensors were sensors
temperature installedwerein the top flanges
installed the(1-T
inthe topand 3-T),(1-T
flanges webs and(1-W3-T),andwebs3-W),
(1-Wbottom flanges
and3-W),
3-W), (1-B
bottom
temperature sensors were installed in top flanges (1-T and 3-T), webs (1-W and bottom
and 3-B),(1-B
flanges andandcells3-B),
(1-Candandcells
3-C)(1-C
of the
andadjacent
3-C) of of box girders
adjacent#1
the adjacent andgirders
box #3 during
#1 andthe #3
and construction
during the
the
flanges (1-B and 3-B), and cells (1-C and 3-C) the box girders #1 #3 during
process, as shown
construction in Figure
process, as shown 7. Due
in to space
Figure 7. Duelimitations,
to space the data from
limitations, the 24 July
data 2017
from 24 in
Julysummer,
2017 in
construction process, as shown in Figure 7. Due to space limitations, the data from 24 July 2017 in
which is a
summer, whichsunny day with
which isis aa sunny the
sunny day highest
day with
with theambient
the highest air
highest ambienttemperature
ambient air during
air temperature the
temperature duringmonitoring
during the period,
the monitoring as
monitoring
summer,
well as high
period, as solarasradiation
well high and radiation
solar low windand speed,low were
windselected
speed, for analysis.
were selectedTheformeteorological
analysis. The
period, as well as high solar radiation and low wind speed, were selected for analysis. The
data, including ambient
meteorological data, air temperature,
including ambient hourly
air global solar
temperature, radiation,
hourly global hourly
solar diffuse solar
radiation, hourlyradiation,
diffuse
meteorological data, including ambient air temperature, hourly global solar radiation, hourly diffuse
solarradiation,
solar radiation,andandwind
windspeed,
speed,were
weremeasured
measuredusing usingaamovable
movableautomatic
automaticmeteorological
meteorologicalstation
station
at the site with a measurement time interval
at the site with a measurement time interval of one hour. of one hour.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 7 of 28
and wind speed, were measured using a movable automatic meteorological station at the site with
aAppl.
measurement timePEER
Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR interval of one hour.
REVIEW 7 of 27
Figure 7. Layout of the adjacent box girder cross-sections (unit: cm).

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Layout of the adjacent box girder
cross-sections (unit:
(unit: cm).
The midas FEA software was chosen to establish a FEM of the adjacent box girder cross-sections
The midas FEA software
software was chosen
chosen to establish a FEM of the adjacent box girder cross-sections
by using two-dimensional plane strain elements, as shown in Figure 8. The four simulation methods
by using two-dimensional
two-dimensional plane strain
plane strain elements,
elements, as
as shown
shown in in Figure 8. The four simulation methods
for the internal thermal boundary conditions summarized inFigure
Section8.1 were considered in the FEM
for
for the
the internal
internalthermal
thermalboundary
boundaryconditions
conditionssummarized
summarizedininSection
Section 1 were
1 wereconsidered
considered in in
thethe
FEMFEMof
of the adjacent box girders. For the Measured Temperature Method, the measured hourly
the
of adjacent
the box girders.
adjacent box For theFor
girders. Measured
the Temperature
Measured Method, the
Temperature measured
Method, the hourly temperature
measured hourly
temperature curves inside the cell of the adjacent box girder (24 July 2017) obtained from temperature
curves inside the cellinside
temperature of the adjacent
cell of box girder (24 July 2017)(24
obtained from temperature sensors 1-C
sensors 1-C curvesand 3-C werethe chosen, the adjacent
as shown box
by girder
the hollow July
points2017)
in obtained
Figure 9.from temperature
For the Ambient
and 3-C were
sensors 1-C andchosen,
3-Caswere
shown by theas
chosen, hollow
shown points in Figure
by the hollow 9. For the in
points Ambient
Figure Temperature
9. For Method,
the was
Ambient
Temperature Method, the measured hourly ambient air temperature curve (24 July 2017) used,
the measured hourly
Temperature Method, ambient
the air temperature
measured hourly curve (24air
ambient July 2017) was used,
temperature curve as(24shown
July by thewas
2017) solidused,
line
as shown by the solid line in Figure 9. For the Mean Temperature Method, ◦the mean temperature
in
as Figure
shown9.byFor thethe Mean
solid lineTemperature
in Figure 9. ForMethod, the mean
the Mean temperature
Temperature (35.7 the
Method, C) mean
over the previous
temperature
two
(35.7days (23 and
C) over the 24 July 2017)
previous twowasdayscalculated,
(23 and 24asJuly
shown
2017)bywasthecalculated,
dashed line asin Figureby9.the
shown The mesh
dashed
line in Figure 9. The mesh size of the FEMs using the Measured Temperature Method, Ambient
size
line of the FEMs
in FigureMethod, using
9. The meshthe Measured Temperature
sizeTemperature
of the FEMsMethod Method,
using the Ambient Temperature Method, or Mean
Temperature or Mean wasMeasured
set as 20 mm.Temperature
The total Method,
numbersAmbient
of nodes
Temperature
Temperature Method Method,was set asTemperature
or Mean 20 mm. TheMethodtotal numbers
was setof asnodes
20 mm. andTheelements were 4,459
total numbers and
of nodes
and elements were 4,459 and 4,211, respectively, as illustrated in Figure 8a. For the Air Element
4,211,
and respectively,
elements were as4,459
illustrated
and in Figure
4,211, 8a. For theasAir
respectively, Element Method,
illustrated in Figurethe8a.total
For numbers
the Air of nodes
Element
Method, the total numbers of nodes and elements for the FEM were 4,954 and 4,868, respectively, as
and elements
Method, for the
theintotal FEM were
numbers 4954 and 4868,
of nodes respectively, as illustrated inand
Figure 8b. respectively,
Other detailed
illustrated Figure 8b. Other detailedelements for the
information wasFEMthe were
same4,954as the 4,868,
FEM of the box girder as
information
illustrated inwas the same
Figure as the detailed
8b. Other FEM of the box girderwas
information reported in Section
the same as the2.1.
FEM of the box girder
reported in Section 2.1.
reported in Section 2.1.
(a)
(a)
(b)
(b)
Figure8.8.FEM
Figure FEMof
ofthe
theadjacent
adjacentbox
boxgirder
girdercross-sections:
cross-sections:(a)
(a)FEM
FEMwithout
withoutair
airelements;
elements;(b)
(b)FEM
FEMwith
with
Figure 8. FEM of the adjacent box girder cross-sections: (a) FEM without air elements; (b) FEM with
airelements.
air elements.
air elements.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 8 of 28
Figure9.9. Comparison
Figure Comparison of
of different
differentsimulation
simulationmethods
methodsfor
forthe
thetemperature
temperaturecurves
curvesinside
insidethe
thecavities.
cavities.
3.3.Influence
Influenceof
ofDifferent
DifferentSimulation
SimulationMethods
Methodsfor
forInternal
InternalThermal
ThermalBoundary
BoundaryConditions
Conditions
Figure 9. Comparison of different simulation methods for the temperature curves inside the cavities.
3.1. Box Girder
3.1. Box Girder of Different Simulation Methods for Internal Thermal Boundary Conditions
3. Influence
3.1.1. Influence on the Hourly Temperature Curves
3.1. Box Girder
Due to space limitations, the measured hourly temperature curves obtained from the temperature
Due
3.1.1. to spaceonlimitations,
Influence the measured
the Hourly Temperature Curves hourly temperature curves obtained from the
sensors installed in the right part of the box girder cross-section (T-5, T-4, W-7, W-9, and B-3 as
temperature sensors installed in thethe
right part of hourly
the boxtemperature
girder cross-section (T-5, T-4, W-7,
the W-9, and
illustrated Due to space
in Figure limitations,
1) were selected formeasured
comparison with the numerical curveshourly
obtained from
temperature curves
B-3 astemperature
illustratedsensors
in Figure 1) were
installed in theselected
right partfor comparison
of the with the numerical
box girder cross-section (T-5, T-4, W-7,hourly temperature
W-9, and
calculated by the FEMs considering different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary
curvesB-3calculated byinthe
as illustrated FEMs
Figure considering
1) were selected fordifferent
comparison simulation methodshourly
with the numerical for the internal thermal
temperature
conditions,
curves
ascalculated
shown inbyFigurethe
10. considering
FEMs
The solid points
different
denote the measured
simulation methods
data,
for the
and the thermal
internal
solid lines with
boundary conditions, as shown in Figure 10. The solid points denote the measured data, and the solid
hollowboundary
points denote the calculated curves. The root-mean-square error (RMSE)
conditions, as shown in Figure 10. The solid points denote the measured data, and the and mean
solid absolute
lines with hollow points denote the calculated curves. The root-mean-square error (RMSE) and mean
percentage error
lines with (MAPE)
hollow pointsweredenoteused to checkcurves.
the calculated the agreement between the
The root-mean-square measured
error (RMSE) and and
meancalculated
absolute percentage
absolutecurves
percentage
error (MAPE) were used
usedtotocheckcheck the agreement between the measured and
temperature [49].error
The(MAPE)
RMSE wereand MAPE of thethe agreementhourly
numerical between the measuredcurves
temperature and of the
calculated temperature
calculated temperature curves [49].
curves [49]. The
The RMSE and MAPE of the numerical hourly temperature
box girder cross-sections obtained from theRMSE
FEMs and MAPE
with of the simulation
different numerical hourly
methods temperature
for the internal
curvescurves
of the of box girder
the box girder cross-sections obtainedfrom
cross-sections obtained fromthethe
FEMs FEMs
with with different
different simulationsimulation
methods methods
thermal boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 11.
for theforinternal
the internal thermal
thermal boundaryconditions
boundary conditions areareillustrated in Figure
illustrated 11. 11.
in Figure
(a) (b)
Figure 10. Cont.

(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 9 of 28
(c) (d)
FigureFigure 10. Comparisons(c)

10. Comparisons of of
thethe hourly temperature curves of the box girder cross-sections
hourly temperature curves of the box girder obtained
(d) cross-sections obtained
from the field test and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary
from theFigure
field 10.
testComparisons
and the FEMs of with
the different
hourly simulation
temperature curves methods
of the box for thecross-sections
girder internal thermal boundary
obtained
conditions: (a) T-5 in the top flange; (b) T-4 in the top flange; (c) B-3 in the bottom flange; and (d) W-
conditions:
7 from (a)
the T-5
and W-9 field in
in the the
test top
and
web. theflange; (b) different
FEMs with T-4 in the top flange;
simulation (c) B-3
methods in the
for the bottom
internal flange;
thermal and (d) W-7
boundary
and W-9conditions:
in the web. (a) T-5 in the top flange; (b) T-4 in the top flange; (c) B-3 in the bottom flange; and (d) W-
7 and W-9 in the web.
(a) (b)
Figure 11. The root-mean-square

(a) error (RMSE) and mean absolute percentage (b)error (MAPE) of the
numerical hourly temperature curves of the box girder cross-sections obtained from the FEMs with
Figure
The11.
Figuredifferent
11. The root-mean-square
root-mean-square
simulation theerror
methods for error (RMSE)
(RMSE)
internal andboundary
and
thermal mean
meanabsolute
absolutepercentage
percentage
conditions: error(b)
(a) RMSE; (MAPE)
error of the of the
(MAPE)
MAPE.
numerical hourly temperature curves of the box girder cross-sections obtained from the with
numerical hourly temperature curves of the box girder cross-sections obtained from the FEMs FEMs with
Indifferent
Figuressimulation methods
10a and 11, it canfor
be the internalthat
observed thermal
the boundary
influenceconditions: (a) RMSE;
of the different
different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions: (a) RMSE; (b) MAPE.
(b) MAPE.
simulation methods
for the internal thermal boundary conditions on the numerical hourly temperature curves of T-5 is
In Figures 10a and 11, it can be observed that the influence of the different simulation methods
Innegligible.
Figures 10a Thisandis because T-5 be
11, it can wasobserved
in the flangethatoverhang
the influence and faroffrom the cavities.
the different Therefore, methods
simulation the for
for the internal
temperature thermal boundary
distributions on the conditions
flange on thewere
overhangs numericalnot hourly temperature
influenced by the curvesthermal
internal of T-5 is
negligible. Thisboundary
is because conditions
T-5box in on
wasgirder. thethe numerical
flange overhang hourly
and fartemperature
from curves
the cavities. of T-5 isthe
Therefore, negligible.
boundary conditions for the The RMSE and MAPE in Figure 11 indicate that the
This is because
temperature T-5distributions
was in the flangeon the overhang
flange and far
overhangs from
were not the cavities.byTherefore,
influenced the internalthe temperature
thermal
differences between the measured and numerical hourly temperature curves were very small (the
distributions
boundary
RMSEs were on the allflange
0.5 C, overhangs
conditions for the boxwere
and the MAPEs
girder.notThe
were allinfluenced
RMSE and
1.2%). byMAPE
the internal
in Figure thermal boundary
11 indicate that conditions
the
differences
for the boxIn girder. between the
The RMSE measured and numerical hourly temperature curves were very small (the
Figures 10b–d, and 11, itandcan be MAPEobserved in Figure 11 indicate
that the trends that the
and the times differences
at which the maximum between the
RMSEs were all 0.5 C, and the MAPEs were all 1.2%).
measured and numerical
temperatures occurred are hourly
similar temperature
for the measured curves were very
and numerical small
hourly (the RMSEs
temperature curveswereof T-4all 0.5 ◦ C,
and In Figures
W-7 (which 10b–d, and 11, it can be observed that the trends and the times at which the maximum
and the MAPEs werewas all installed
1.2%). in the web near the top flange). For B-3 and W-9 (which was installed
intemperatures
the web near occurred are similar
the bottom flange), foritthe
canmeasured
be observed and numerical
that the trendshourlyfor temperature
the numerical curves of T-4
hourly
In and
Figure
W-7 10b–d,
(which andinstalled
was Figure in11,the itweb
can be
near observed
the top thatFor
flange). theB-3trends
and W-9and the times
(which was at which the
installed
temperature curves calculated by the Measured Temperature Method, Air Element Method, and
maximum temperatures
in the web near the occurred
bottomare are similar
flange), forobserved
the measured and numerical hourlyhourly
temperature
Mean Temperature Method similarit tocanthebemeasured that theWhen
curves. trends thefor the numerical
Ambient Temperature
temperature
curvesMethod
of T-4 and was W-7 curves
used,(which calculated
wasfor
the trends by
installedthe Measured
in the curves
the numerical Temperature
web near of B-3 theand Method,
topW-9 flange). Air Element
For B-3
are similar Method,
andmeasured
to the and
W-9 (which was
installed Mean
in the
hourly Temperature
web near
ambient Method
the bottom
air temperature are similar
flange),
curve. to
This is the measured
it because
can be observed curves.
the temperature When
that the the
trends
change Ambient
in the Temperature
forhourly
the numerical
ambient hourly
Method
air was used,
temperature curvethewas
trends
muchfor the numerical curves in of
theB-3 and W-9 are similar to the measured
temperature curves calculated by the larger
Measured than Temperature
those measured
Method,curves inside
Air Element the cavities.
Method, and Mean
hourly
Compared ambient
with air
the temperature
measured curve.
hourly This is
temperature because the
curves, temperature
the numerical change
curves in the hourly
calculated ambient
by the
Temperature Method are similar to the measured curves. When the Ambient Temperature Method was
air temperature curve was much larger than those in the measured curves inside the cavities.
Measured Temperature Method provided the closest agreement (the maximum RMSE was 0.6 C,
used, the Comparedfor
trends withthethenumerical
measuredcurves hourly of B-3 and W-9
temperature are similar
curves, to the curves
the numerical measured hourly
calculated byambient
the air
and the maximum MAPE was 1.3%). When there is a lack of measured temperatures inside the
temperature
Measured
cavities,
curve. This is because
theTemperature
numerical hourly
the
Methodtemperaturetemperature
provided the change
closest
curves
in the
agreement
calculated
hourly
by(the
themaximum
ambient
Air Element
air
RMSE temperature
was 0.6
Method C, curve
(the
was much andlarger
the maximum
than those MAPE wasmeasured
in the 1.3%). When curvesthere inside
is a lack theofcavities.
measuredCompared
temperatures inside
with the the
measured
cavities, the numerical
hourly temperature curves, the hourly temperature
numerical curves curves calculated
calculated bybythe theMeasured
Air Element Method (theMethod
Temperature
provided the closest agreement (the maximum RMSE was 0.6 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was 1.3%).
When there is a lack of measured temperatures inside the cavities, the numerical hourly temperature
curves calculated by the Air Element Method (the maximum RMSE was 1.1 ◦ C, and the maximum
MAPE was 2.8%) provided a closer agreement with the measured curves than the curves calculated by
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 10 of 28
the Ambient Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 2.0 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was
5.9%) and the Mean Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 1.4 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE
was 4.1%).
The measured hourly temperature curves of all temperature sensors installed in the box girder
cross-section were compared with the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by the FEM
using the Air Element Method as the simulation method for the internal thermal boundary condition,
as shown in Figure S1. It can be observed that the trends and the times at which the maximum
temperatures occurred are similar for the measured hourly temperature curves and numerical curves
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method for all temperature sensors installed in the box girder
cross-section (the maximum RMSE was 1.3 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was 3.8%).
3.1.2. Influence on the Temperature Contour Plots

The temperature contour plots (15:00, 13 August 2017) obtained from the FEMs considering
Appl.methods for
Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEERthe internal thermal boundary conditions are compared
REVIEW 10 of 27 in Figure 12.
It can be observed ◦
that the highest temperature (39.5 C) was located on the external surfaces of
maximum RMSE was 1.1 °C, and the maximum MAPE was 2.8%) provided a closer agreement with
the top flanges and the lowest
the measured curves temperatures (30.3
than the curves calculated by to 30.7 ◦ C)
the Ambient were located
Temperature Method (theon the undersides of the
maximum
RMSE was 2.0 °C, and the maximum MAPE was 5.9%) and the Mean Temperature Method (the
top and bottom flanges in all FEMs. The influence of different simulation methods for the internal
maximum RMSE was 1.4 °C, and the maximum MAPE was 4.1%).
thermal boundary conditions on the highest and lowest temperatures of the box girder cross-section
is negligible, because the locations of the highest and lowest temperatures are far from the cavities.
The temperature ◦contour plots (15:00, 13 August 2017) obtained from the FEMs considering
The temperature range
different(32 to 33methods
simulation C) was drawn
for the internal with
thermallight blue
boundary in Figure
conditions 12. The
are compared ratio of the light blue
in Figure
12. It obtained
area to the total area can be observed that the
from thehighest
FEM temperature
calculated(39.5 °C)
bywas
thelocated on the external
Measured surfaces of
Temperature Method was
the top flanges and the lowest temperatures (30.3 to 30.7 °C) were located on the undersides of the
25.7%, which is larger than the areas calculated by the Ambient Temperature
top and bottom flanges in all FEMs. The influence of different simulation methods for the internal Method (15.4%) and Mean
thermal boundary conditions on the highest and lowest temperatures of the box girder cross-section
Temperature Method (15.2%) and is smaller than that calculated by the Air Element Method (35.7%).
is negligible, because the locations of the highest and lowest temperatures are far from the cavities.
The temperaturesThe ontemperature
the bottom flange
range (32 to 33 °C)near the cavities
was drawn calculated
with light blue in Figure 12. by the ofMeasured
The ratio the light Temperature
blue area to the total area obtained from the FEM calculated by◦the Measured Temperature Method
Method and Air Element Method were approximately 32 C, which is close to the measured value
was 25.7%, which is larger than the areas calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method (15.4%)
(32.3 ◦ C) and larger thanTemperature
and Mean the values Method calculated
(15.2%) and isby thethan
smaller Ambient Temperature
that calculated by the Air Element Method and Mean
Method (35.7%).
Temperature Method (31 ◦ C).The temperatures o Method are similar.
It can be concluded that the temperature distributions calculated by the
Measured Temperature Method and Air Element Method are similar.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 12. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 11 of 28
(d)
Figure 12. Temperature contour plots of the box girder cross-sections at 15:00 on 13 August 2017: (a)
Figure 12. Temperature contour plots of the box girder cross-sections at 15:00 on 13 August 2017:
Measured Temperature Method; (b) Ambient Temperature Method; (c) Mean Temperature Method;
(a) Measured Temperature Method;
(d) Air Element Method. (b) Ambient Temperature Method; (c) Mean Temperature Method;
(d) Air Element Method.

3.1.3. Influence on the Average Effective Temperatures and Vertical Temperature Gradients
The hourly average effective temperature (TAVG) of the box girder cross-sections can be estimated
3.1.3. Influence onusing
thetheAverage Effective Temperatures and Vertical Temperature Gradients
following rules. The temperature of each element in the FEM is multiplied by its respective
element area, and the results for all elements in the cross-section are added together. Then, TAVG can
The hourly average
be obtainedeffective
by dividing temperature
the sum by the total(TareaAVG ) of
of the the box[13,22].
cross-section girder Thecross-sections
highest T values can be estimated
AVG
of the box girder cross-sections for 13 August 2017, obtained

using the following rules. The temperature of each element in the FEM is multiplied from the field test and the FEMs with by its respective
different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, are listed in Table 1. It
element area, andcanthe results
be observed thatfor all elements
the influence of differentin the cross-section
simulation are thermal
methods for the internal added together. Then, TAVG
boundary
conditions on the highest T
can be obtained by dividing the sum was by small, with the maximum difference of 0.7 °C.
the total
AVG
area of the cross-section [13,22]. The highest TAVG
values of the box girder
Tablecross-sections for 13
1. Comparisons of the highest T August 2017,
of the box girder
AVG obtained
cross-sections from
obtained the
from the fieldfield
test test and the FEMs
and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions (unit:
with different simulation
°C). methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, are listed in Table 1.
It can be observed that the influence of different simulation
Measured Ambient methods Mean for the internal thermal boundary
Air Element
Methods T
conditions on the highest Temperature Temperature
AVG was small, with the maximum difference of Method
Temperature 0.7 ◦ C.
Method Method Method
Measured
34.9
Table 1. value of the highest T AVG of the box girder
Comparisons cross-sections obtained from the field
Numerical
test and the FEMsvalue
with different35.0
simulation methods
35.0 for the internal
34.6 thermal boundary
35.6 conditions
(unit: ◦ C).
The numerical maximum vertical temperature gradients of the box girder cross-section on 13
August 2017, which were obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal
Measured Ambient Mean
thermal boundary conditions, are compared in Figure 13. It can be observed that the influence of Air Element
Methods Temperature
different simulation Temperature
methods for the internal Temperature
thermal boundary conditions on the trends of the Method
Method
vertical temperature Method
gradients for the box girder Method
cross-section was small, with a maximum difference
of 0.4 °C. The maximum vertical temperature differences on the top flanges and bottom flanges
Measured value calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method and the Mean34.9 Temperature Method were slightly
Numerical value larger than those35.0 35.0
calculated by the Measured Temperature Method and the Air34.6
Element Method. The 35.6
maximum vertical temperature differences on the webs calculated by the Ambient Temperature
Method and the Mean Temperature Method were slightly smaller than those calculated by the
Measured Temperature Method and the Air Element Method. The numerical maximum vertical
The numerical maximum vertical temperature gradients of the box girder cross-section on
temperature gradient of the box girder cross-section calculated by the Air Element Method was close
13 August 2017, which were obtained
to that calculated from
by the Measured the FEMs
Temperature with different simulation methods for the internal
Method.
thermal boundary conditions, are compared in Figure 13. It can be observed that the influence of
different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions on the trends of the vertical
temperature gradients for the box girder cross-section was small, with a maximum difference of 0.4 ◦ C.
The maximum vertical temperature differences on the top flanges and bottom flanges calculated by
the Ambient Temperature Method and the Mean Temperature Method were slightly larger than those
calculated by the Measured Temperature Method and the Air Element Method. The maximum vertical
temperature differences on the webs calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method and the Mean
Temperature Method were slightly smaller than those calculated by the Measured Temperature Method
and the Air Element Method. The numerical maximum vertical temperature gradient of the box girder
cross-section calculated by the Air Element Method was close to that calculated by the Measured
Temperature Method.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 12 of 28

Figure 13. Comparisons of the maximum vertical temperature gradients of the box girder cross-
sections obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary
conditions.
Figure 13.Comparisons
Figure 13. Comparisonsofofthethe
maximum
maximum vertical temperature
vertical gradients
temperature of the of
gradients boxthe
girder
box cross-sections
girder cross-
obtained from the FEMs
sections obtained with
from the different
FEMs withsimulation methods for
different simulation the internal
methods thermal
for the boundary
internal thermalconditions.
boundary
conditions.
3.2. Small
3.2.1. Box Girder
Influence on the Hourly Temperature Curves
Due to space limitations, the measured hourly temperature curves obtained from the
3.2.1.Due
temperature to sensors
space
Influence onlimitations,
the Hourly
installed the
on measured
Temperature
the small boxhourly
Curves
girder temperature
#7 (7-T, 7-W, curves obtained
and 7-B, from thein
as illustrated temperature
Figure 4)
sensors installed
were selected for on the
comparison small box
with girder
the #7 (7-T,
numerical 7-W,
hourlyand 7-B, as
temperatureillustrated
curvesin Figure
calculated 4) were
by theselected
FEMs
for comparison
considering withsimulation
the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by the FEMsasconsidering
temperature sensors installed on the small box girder #7 (7-T, 7-W, and 7-B, as illustrated in Figurein4)
different methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, shown
different
Figure 14. simulation
The solid methods
points for the
denote the measured
internal thermal
data, boundary
and the solidconditions,
lines as shown
withcalculated
hollow in Figure
points denote14.
were selected for comparison with the numerical hourly temperature curves by the FEMs
The
the solid points denote
calculateddifferent
curves. The the measured
RMSE and data,
MAPEforand the
of the solid
the numericallines with hollow
hourlyboundary points
temperature denote the calculated
curves ofasthe smallin
considering simulation methods internal thermal conditions, shown
curves.
box girder The RMSE and obtained
cross-sections MAPE offrom the numerical
the FEMs hourly
with temperature
different curves
simulation of the small
methods for thebox girder
internal
Figure 14. The solid points denote the measured data, and the solid lines with hollow points denote
cross-sections
thermal boundary obtained
conditionsfrom the FEMs with
are illustrated different simulation methods for the internal thermal
the calculated curves. The RMSE and MAPEinofFigure 15.
the numerical hourly temperature curves of the small
boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 15.
box girder cross-sections obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal
thermal boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 15.
(a) (b)
Figure 14. Cont.

(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 13 of 28
(c)
(c)
Figure 14. Comparisons
Comparisons of of the
the hourly
hourly temperature
temperature curves
curves of
of the
the small box girder cross-sections
Figure 14.from
obtained Comparisons of and
the field test the hourly
the FEMstemperature curves
with different of the small
simulation boxfor
methods girder cross-sections
obtained from the field test and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal
boundary conditions: (a) 7-T in the top flange; (b) 7-W in the web; (c) 7-B in the bottom flange.thermal
boundary conditions: (a) 7-T in the top flange; (b) 7-W in the web; (c) 7-B in the bottom flange.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 15. The RMSE and MAPE of the numerical hourly temperature curves of the small box girder
Figure15.
Figure TheRMSE
15.The RMSEandandMAPE
MAPE ofthethenumerical
numericalhourly
hourlytemperature
temperaturecurves
curvesofofthe
the smallbox
boxgirder
girder
cross-sections obtained from theofFEMs with different simulation methods for thesmall
internal thermal
cross-sectionsobtained
cross-sections obtainedfromfromthe
theFEMs
FEMswith
withdifferent
differentsimulation
simulationmethods
methodsforforthe
theinternal
internalthermal
thermal
boundary conditions: (a) RMSE; (b) MAPE.
boundaryconditions:
boundary conditions:(a)
(a)RMSE;
RMSE;(b)
(b)MAPE.
MAPE.
In
In Figures
Figures 14 and 15,
14 and 15, itit can
can bebe observed
observed thatthat thethe trends
trends andand the
the times
times at at which
which the the maximum
maximum
In Figuresoccurred
temperatures 14 and 15, are itsimilar
can be for
observed
the that theand
measured trends and thehourly
numerical times temperature
at which the curves maximum of of
7-
temperaturesoccurred
temperatures occurredare aresimilar
similarfor
forthethe measured
measured andand numerical
numerical hourly
hourly temperature
temperature curvescurvesof 7-
T.
7-T.For 7-W and 7-B, it can be observed that the trends of the numerical hourly temperature curves
ForFor
T.calculated
7-W 7-Wand
by
and
the
7-B,
7-B,
Air
it can
it Element
can bebeobserved
observedthat
Method
thatthe
and
thetrends
Mean
trendsofofthe
Temperature
thenumerical
numericalhourly
Method
hourlytemperature
are
temperaturecurves
similar to the
curves
measured
calculatedby
calculated bythetheAir
AirElement
ElementMethod Methodand andMean
MeanTemperature
TemperatureMethod Methodare aresimilar
similarto tothethemeasured
measured
curves.
curves. When
When the
theAmbient
Ambient Temperature
Temperature Method
Method waswas used,
used, the trends
the trendsofof thethenumerical
numerical curves
curves of of
7-
curves.
W and When
7-B the
are Ambient
similar to Temperature
the measured Method
hourly was used,
ambient air the trends ofcurve,
temperature the numerical
which is curves
the of 7-
same as
W7-Wand and
7-B7-Bareare similar
similar to to the
the measured
measured hourly
hourly ambient
ambient air temperature
air temperature curve,curve,
whichwhichis the is the
samesame
as
the results
as results
the resultsfor the box
forbox girder
thegirder
box girder cross-section. Compared
cross-section. Comparedwith the measured
with hourly
the measured temperature
hourly temperature curves,
the
the for
numerical thehourly temperature cross-section. Compared
curves calculated with the
by the measured
AirAir hourly
Element temperature
Method (the curves,
maximum
curves,
the the numerical
numerical hourly hourly
temperaturetemperature
curvescurves calculated
calculated by the by Air
the Element
Element Method
Method (themaximum
(the maximum
RMSE
RMSE was was 0.70.7 °◦C,
C, and
and the maximum MAPE
the maximum MAPE was was 1.8%)
1.8%) provided
provided aa closer
closer agreement
agreement than than the the curves
curves
RMSE was 0.7 °C, and the maximum MAPE was 1.8%) provided a closer agreement than the curves
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method (the maximum
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 1.5 C, and the maximum RMSE was 1.5 °
◦ C, and the maximum
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 1.5 °C, and the◦maximum
MAPE
MAPE was was 4.9%)
4.9%) andand the the Mean
Mean Temperature
Temperature Method Method (the (the maximum
maximum RMSE RMSE was was 1.51.5 °C, and the
C, and the
MAPE
maximum was MAPE
4.9%) andwas the
4.5%). Mean Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 1.5 °C, and the
maximum MAPE was 4.5%). In Figure S2, it can be observed that the trends and the times at which
maximum MAPE was 4.5%).
the maximum temperatures occurred are similar for the measured hourly temperature curves and
3.2.2. Influence
numerical curves oncalculated
the Temperature Contour Plots
by the Ambient Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 0.8 ◦ C,
and theThemaximum
temperature MAPE was 2.6%).
contour plots (15:00, 17 July 2015) obtained from the FEMs considering
different simulation methods for the (15:00,
The
The temperature
measured contour
hourly plots
temperature curves
internal 17 July
of
thermal 2015) obtained
all temperature
boundary frominstalled
sensors
conditions the FEMs in the
are compared considering
small box
in Figure
different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions
16. It can be observed that the highest temperature (49.0 °C) was located on the external surfaces by
girder cross-sections were compared with the numerical hourly temperature are compared
curves in
calculated Figureof
16.
theItFEM
the can be
overlays observed
usingintheall Air that
FEMs. the
Element Thehighest
Method temperature
influence asofthe (49.0
simulation
different °C) was located
method
simulation for theon
methods the the
internal
for external
thermal
internal surfaces
boundary of
thermal
the overlays
boundary in all FEMs.
conditions on the The influence
highest of different
temperature simulation
of the small boxmethods for the internal
girder cross-sections thermal
is negligible
boundary conditions on the highest temperature of the small box girder
because it is far from the cavities. The temperatures of the top flanges (30.8 °C) and bottom flanges cross-sections is negligible
because it is far from the cavities. The temperatures of the top flanges (30.8 °C) and bottom flanges
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 14 of 28
condition, as shown in Figure S2. It can be observed that the trends and the times at which the maximum
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method for all temperature sensors installed in the small box
girder cross-sections (the maximum RMSE was 0.8 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was 2.6%).

The temperature contour plots (15:00, 17 July 2015) obtained from the FEMs considering different
simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions are compared in Figure 16. It can be
observed that the highest temperature (49.0 ◦ C) was located on the external surfaces of the overlays in
all FEMs. The influence of different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions
on the highest temperature of the small box girder cross-sections is negligible because it is far from the
Appl. Sci. The
cavities. 2019, temperatures
8, x FOR PEER REVIEW
of the top flanges (30.8 ◦ C) and bottom flanges (25.9 ◦ C) near the14cavities
of 27
◦
calculated by the Air Element Method were closer to the measured value (31.4 C for the top flanges
(25.9 °C) near the cavities calculated by the Air Element Method were closer to the measured value
and 26.8 ◦ C for the bottom flanges) than those calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method (30.3 ◦ C
(31.4 °C for the top flanges and 26.8 °C for the bottom flanges) than those calculated by the Ambient
for the top flanges and 27.4 ◦ C for the bottom flanges) and the Mean Temperature Method (28.3 ◦ C for
Temperature Method (30.3 °C for the top flanges and 27.4 °C for the bottom flanges) and the Mean
◦ C for the bottom flanges).
theTemperature
top flanges Method
and 25.4(28.3 °C for the top flanges and 25.4 °C for the bottom flanges).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure16.
Figure 16.Temperature
Temperaturecontour
contour plots
plots of
of the
the small
smallbox
boxgirder
girdercross-sections
cross-sections at at
15:00 on on
15:00 31 31
JulyJuly
2014:
2014:
(a) Ambient Temperature Method; (b) Mean Temperature Method; (c) Air Element
(a) Ambient Temperature Method; (b) Mean Temperature Method; (c) Air Element Method. Method.
3.2.3.Influence
3.2.3. Influenceon
onthe
theAverage
AverageEffective
Effective Temperatures
Temperatures and
and Vertical
VerticalTemperature
TemperatureGradients
Gradients
TheThehighest
highestTT values of
AVG values
AVG of the
the small
smallbox
boxgirder
girdercross-sections
cross-sections forfor
1717
July, 2015
July, obtained
2015 from
obtained thethe
from
field test and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal
field test and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, boundary
areconditions, are listed
listed in Table incan
2. It Table
be2.observed
It can be observed that the influence
that the influence of different
of different simulation
simulation methods
methods for the
for the internal thermal boundary conditions on the highest T AVG was small, with the maximum
internal thermal boundary conditions on the highest TAVG was small, with the maximum difference of
difference
◦ of 1.1 °C.
1.1 C.
Table 2. Comparisons of the highest TAVG of the small box girder cross-sections obtained from the
field test and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary
conditions (Unit: °C).
Ambient Temperature Mean Temperature Air Element

Methods
Method Method Method
Measured
28.4
value
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 15 of 28
Table 2. Comparisons of the highest TAVG of the small box girder cross-sections obtained from the field
test and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions
(Unit: ◦ C).
Ambient Temperature Mean Temperature

Methods Air Element Method
Method Method
Measured value 28.4
Numerical value 29.5 28.6 28.6
The numerical maximum vertical temperature gradients of the small box girder cross-sections
on 17 July 2015 that were obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal
thermal boundary conditions are compared in Figure 17. It can be observed that the maximum vertical
temperature differences on the top flanges and bottom flanges calculated by the Air Element Method
(5.8 ◦ C and 1.5 ◦ C) were larger than those calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method (4.3 ◦ C and
Method (5.8 °C and 1.5 °C) were larger than those calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method
0.8 ◦ C) and the Mean Temperature Method (4.7 ◦ C and 1.1 ◦ C). The influence of different simulation
(4.3 °C and 0.8 °C) and the Mean Temperature Method (4.7 °C and 1.1 °C). The influence of different
methods
simulation formethods
the internal
for thermal boundary
the internal conditions
thermal boundaryon the vertical temperature
conditions difference
on the vertical on the
temperature
webs was small, with a maximum difference of 0.5 ◦ C.
difference on the webs was small, with a maximum difference of 0.5 °C.

Comparisonsofofthethe
maximum
maximum vertical temperature
vertical gradients
temperature of theofsmall
gradients box girder
the small cross-
box girder
sections obtained
cross-sections from the
obtained FEMs
from thewith
FEMsdifferent simulation
with different methodsmethods
simulation for the internal
for thethermal boundary
internal thermal
conditions.conditions.
boundary
3.3. Adjacent Box

3.3. Adjacent Box Girder
Girder

Due to space limitations, the measured hourly temperature curves obtained from the temperature
sensors installed on the adjacent box girder #3 (3-T, 3-W, and 3-B as illustrated in Figure 7) were selected
temperature sensors installed on the adjacent box girder #3 (3-T, 3-W, and 3-B as illustrated in Figure
for comparison with the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by the FEMs considering
7) were selected for comparison with the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by the
different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, as shown in Figure 18.
FEMs considering different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, as
The solid points denote the measured data, and the solid lines with hollow points denote the calculated
shown in Figure 18. The solid points denote the measured data, and the solid lines with hollow points
curves. The RMSE and MAPE of the numerical hourly temperature curves of the adjacent box girder
denote the calculated curves. The RMSE and MAPE of the numerical hourly temperature curves of
cross-sections obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal
the adjacent box girder cross-sections obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for
boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 19.
the internal thermal boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 19.
7) were selected for comparison with the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by the
FEMs considering different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions, as
shown in Figure 18. The solid points denote the measured data, and the solid lines with hollow points
denote the calculated curves. The RMSE and MAPE of the numerical hourly temperature curves of
the adjacent
Appl. Sci. 2020,box girder cross-sections obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods
10, 1274 16 for
of 28
the internal thermal boundary conditions are illustrated in Figure 19.
(a) (b)
Figure 18. Cont.

(c)
(c)
Figure 18. Comparisons of of the
the hourly
hourly temperature
temperature curves
curves ofof the
the adjacent
adjacent box girder cross-sections
box girder cross-sections
Figure 18.
obtained Comparisons of the hourly temperature curves of the adjacent box girder cross-sections
obtained from
from the
the field
field test
test and
and the
the FEMs
FEMs with
with different simulation methods
different simulation methods forfor the
the internal
internal thermal
thermal
obtained
boundaryfrom the field(a)
conditions: test and the FEMs with different insimulation methods for bottom
boundary conditions: (a) 3-T
3-T in
in the
the top
top flange;
flange; (b)
(b) 3-W
3-W in the web;
the web; (c)
(c) 3-B in
3-B in the
the flange.
bottom flange.
boundary conditions: (a) 3-T in the top flange; (b) 3-W in the web; (c) 3-B in the bottom flange.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 19. The RMSE and MAPE of the numerical hourly temperature curves of the adjacent box
The RMSE
Figure 19. The
Figure RMSE andandMAPE ofofthe numerical hourly temperature curves of the
ofadjacent box girder
girder 19.
cross-sections MAPE
obtained from the
the numerical
FEMs withhourly temperature
different curves
simulation methods the
foradjacent box
the internal
cross-sections
girder obtained
cross-sections from
obtained the
fromFEMsthe with
FEMsdifferent
with simulation
different methods
simulation for the
methods internal
for the thermal
internal
thermal boundary conditions: (a) RMSE; (b) MAPE.
boundary
thermal conditions:
boundary (a) RMSE;
conditions: (a) (b)
RMSE;MAPE.(b) MAPE.
In
In Figures
Figures 18 and 19,
18 and 19, it
it can
can be
be observed
observed that
that the
the trends
trends and
and the
the times
times atat which
which thethe maximum
maximum
In Figuresoccurred
temperatures 18 and 19,areitsimilar
can beforobserved
the that theand
measured trends and thehourly
numerical times temperature
at which thecurves
maximum of of
3-
temperatures occurred are similar for the measured and numerical hourly temperature curves
temperatures
T, 3-W, and occurred
3-B. The are similar
influence for
ofofthe the measured
Ambient and
Temperaturenumerical
Method hourly
on thetemperature
trends of curves
the of
numerical3-
3-T,
T, 3-W,
3-W, andand 3-B.
3-B. The
The influence
influence theAmbient
AmbientTemperature
TemperatureMethod
Methodon onthe
thetrends
trendsof ofthe
thenumerical
numerical
hourly temperature curves of of
thethebottom flanges on the adjacent box girders is much smaller than
hourly
that ontemperature curves
the box girder of the
or small boxbottom
girders.flanges
This ison the adjacent
because the areabox girders
of the is much
cavities in thesmaller
adjacentthan
box
that on the box girder or small box girders. This is because the area of the cavities
girders illustrated in Figure 7 is quite small. Compared with the measured hourly temperature in the adjacent box
girders
curves, illustrated in Figure
the numerical 7 is quite by
curves calculated small. ComparedTemperature
the Measured with the measured
Method (the hourly temperature
maximum RMSE
curves, the numerical curves calculated by the Measured Temperature Method
was 1.1 °C, and the maximum MAPE was 2.6%) and the Air Element Method (the maximum RMSE (the maximum RMSE
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 17 of 28
hourly temperature curves of the bottom flanges on the adjacent box girders is much smaller than
that on the box girder or small box girders. This is because the area of the cavities in the adjacent box
girders illustrated in Figure 7 is quite small. Compared with the measured hourly temperature curves,
the numerical curves calculated by the Measured Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was
1.1 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was 2.6%) and the Air Element Method (the maximum RMSE was
1.2 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was 3.0%) provided the closest agreement. When there is a lack of
measured temperatures inside the cavities, the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by the
Air Element Method provided a closer agreement with the measured curves than the curves calculated
by the Ambient Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 2.0 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was
4.8%) and the Mean Temperature Method (the maximum RMSE was 1.7 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE
was 4.2%).
The measured hourly temperature curves of all temperature sensors installed in the adjacent box
girder cross-sections were compared with the numerical hourly temperature curves calculated by
the FEM using the Air Element Method as the simulation method for the internal thermal boundary
condition, as shown in Figure S3. It can be observed that the trends and the times at which the maximum
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method for all temperature sensors installed in the adjacent
box girder cross-sections (the maximum RMSE was 1.2 ◦ C, and the maximum MAPE was 3.0%).

The temperature contour plots (15:00, 24 July 2017) obtained from the FEMs considering different
simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions are compared in Figure 20. It can
be observed that the influence of different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary
conditions on the adjacent girder #1 is negligible because girder #1 was covered by a shadow.
The highest temperature (57.8 ◦ C) was located on the external surface of the top flange in girder
#3, which was exposed to sunlight in all the FEMs. The influence of different simulation methods
for the internal thermal boundary conditions on the highest temperature of the adjacent box girder
cross-section is negligible because it is far from the cavities. The temperature distributions on the
adjacent box girder cross-sections calculated by the Measured Temperature Method and Air Element
Method were similar and smaller than those calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method and
larger than those calculated by the Mean Temperature Method.
methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions on the highest temperature of the adjacent box
girder cross-section is negligible because it is far from the cavities. The temperature distributions on
the adjacent box girder cross-sections calculated by the Measured Temperature Method and Air
Element Method were similar and smaller than those calculated by the Ambient Temperature
Method
Appl. and10,
Sci. 2020, larger
1274 than those calculated by the Mean Temperature Method. 18 of 28
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Temperature contour plots of the adjacent box girder

Figure 20. Temperature girder cross-sections at 15:00 on 24 July
July 2017:
2017:
(a) Measured
MeasuredTemperature
TemperatureMethod; (b) Ambient
Method; Temperature
(b) Ambient Method;
Temperature (c) Mean
Method; (c)Temperature Method;
Mean Temperature
(d) Air Element
Method; (d) Air Method.
Element Method.
3.3.3. Influence on
3.3.3. Influence on the
the Average
Average Effective
Effective Temperatures
TemperaturesandandVertical
VerticalTemperature
TemperatureGradients
Gradients
The highest TAVG values of the adjacent box girder cross-sections for 24 July 2017 obtained from
The highest TAVG values of the adjacent box girder cross-sections for 24 July 2017 obtained from
the
the field test
field test and
and the
the FEMs
FEMs with
with different
simulation methods
methods forfor the
the internal
internal thermal
thermal boundary
boundary
conditions are listed in Table 3. It can be observed that the influence of different simulation
conditions are listed in Table 3. It can be observed that the influence of different simulation methodsmethods for
the
for internal thermal
the internal boundary
thermal conditions
boundary conditions on the T
on the highest AVG was
highest small,
TAVG waswith a maximum
small, difference
with a maximum
of 0.8 ◦ C.
difference of 0.8 °C.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 19 of 28

Table 3. Comparisons of the highest TAVG of the adjacent box girder cross-sections obtained from the
Table
field 3. and
test Comparisons of thedifferent
the FEMs with highest simulation
TAVG of themethods
adjacentfor
boxthe
internal obtained
thermal boundary from the
conditions
field test
(Unit: ◦ C). and the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary
conditions (Unit: °C).
Measured Ambient Mean
Measured Ambient Mean Air Element
Methods Temperature Temperature Temperature Air Element
Method
Methods Temperature
Method Temperature
Method Temperature
Method
Method
Measured value Method Method 37.5 Method
Measured value
Numerical value 37.0 37.8 37.5 37.1 36.7
Numerical value 37.0 37.8 37.1 36.7
The
The numerical
numerical maximum
maximum vertical
vertical temperature
temperature gradients
gradients ofof the
the adjacent
adjacent box
box girder
cross-sections
on
on 24 July 2017, obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal
24 July 2017, obtained from the FEMs with different simulation methods for the internal thermal
boundary
boundary conditions
conditions are
are compared
compared in in Figure
Figure 21. It can
21. It can be
be observed
observed thatthat the
the influence
influence of
of different
different
simulation
simulation methods
methods forfor the
the internal
internal thermal
thermal boundary
boundary conditions
conditions on on the
the trends
trends of
of the
the vertical
vertical
temperature gradients for the adjacent box girder cross-sections was small, with
temperature gradients for the adjacent box girder cross-sections was small, with a maximum a maximum difference
of 0.5 ◦ C. The
difference maximum
of 0.5 vertical temperature
°C. The maximum differences
vertical temperature on the top
differences onflanges
the topand bottom
flanges and flanges
bottom
calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method were slightly smaller than those calculated
flanges calculated by the Ambient Temperature Method were slightly smaller than those calculated by the other
three methods. The maximum vertical temperature differences on the webs calculated
by the other three methods. The maximum vertical temperature differences on the webs calculated by different
simulation
by differentmethods for methods
simulation the internal
forthermal boundary
the internal thermal conditions
boundarywere almost were
conditions the same.
almost the same.
Figure 21.
Figure 21. Comparisons of the maximum
maximum vertical temperature gradients of the adjacent box girder
cross-sections obtained from the FEMs
cross-sections FEMs with
with different
simulation methods
methods for
for the
the internal
internal thermal
thermal
boundary conditions.
boundary conditions.
4.
4. Temperature
TemperatureDistributions onon
Distributions Concrete Closed
Concrete Girder
Closed Cross-Sections
Girder under under
Cross-Sections Historically
Historically
Extreme Temperature Conditions
Extreme Temperature Conditions
The temperature curves inside the cavities under historically extreme temperature conditions are
The temperature curves inside the cavities under historically extreme temperature conditions
difficult to measure. However, the Air Element Method can be used as a simulation method for the
are difficult to measure. However, the Air Element Method can be used as a simulation method for
internal thermal boundary conditions in the FEM to predict the temperature distributions on concrete
the internal thermal boundary conditions in the FEM to predict the temperature distributions on
closed girder cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions.
concrete closed girder cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions.
4.1. Meteorological Data
4.1. Meteorological Data
In order to simulate the external thermal boundary conditions in the FEMs, the hourly ambient
In order to simulate the external thermal boundary conditions in the FEMs, the hourly ambient
air temperature curves, hourly solar radiation curves, and wind speed under historically extreme
air temperature curves, hourly solar radiation curves, and wind speed under historically extreme
temperature conditions should be assumed. The sinusoidal function was used to simulate the hourly
temperature conditions should be assumed. The sinusoidal function was used to simulate the hourly
ambient air temperature curves by determining the maximum and minimum ambient air
temperatures (Tmax and Tmin) using the following Equation [15]:
Ti = asinωi + β (2)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 20 of 28
ambient air temperature curves by determining the maximum and minimum ambient air temperatures
(Tmax and Tmin ) using the following Equation [15]:
Ti = asinωi + β (2)
where T is the ambient air temperature at the ith hour, a and β are the model coefficients calculated by
where Tii is the ambient air temperature at the ith hour, a and β are the model coefficients calculated
a = (Tmax − Tmin )/2 and β = (Tmax + Tmin )/2, and ωi is the hour angle at the ith hour.
by a = (Tmax-Tmin )/2 and β = (Tmax+Tmin)/2, and ωi is the hour angle at the ith hour.
The designed life of a highway bridge is set at 100 years, according to the Chinese code (JTG
The designed life of a highway bridge is set at 100 years, according to the Chinese code (JTG
D60-2015) [50]. Based on the historical extreme temperatures obtained from the China Meteorological
D60-2015) [50]. Based on the historical extreme temperatures obtained from the China Meteorological
Administration [51] and an assumption of a normal distribution with a confidence of 95% [52], the Tmax
Administration [51] and an assumption of a normal distribution with a confidence of 95% [52], the
and Tmin for the 100-year return period can be predicted, as listed in Table 4. The monthly average daily
Tmax and Tmin for the 100-year return period can be predicted, as listed in Table 4. The monthly average
temperature range can be obtained from the China Meteorological Administration [51]. The idealized
daily temperature range can be obtained from the China Meteorological Administration [51]. The
hourly temperature curve on the hottest day was based on Tmax , and the corresponding lowest
idealized hourly temperature curve on the hottest day was based on Tmax, and the corresponding
temperature of the idealized curve was selected by subtracting the monthly average daily temperature
lowest temperature of the idealized curve was selected by subtracting the monthly average daily
range in July. The idealized hourly temperature curve on the coldest day was based on Tmin , and
temperature range in July. The idealized hourly temperature curve on the coldest day was based on
the corresponding highest temperature of the idealized curve was selected by adding the monthly
Tmin, and the corresponding highest temperature of the idealized curve was selected by adding the
average daily temperature range in January [13,53]. The times at which Tmax and Tmin occurred in the
monthly average daily temperature range in January [13,53]. The times at which Tmax and Tmin
idealized hourly temperature curves under historically extreme temperature conditions were assumed
occurred in the idealized hourly temperature curves under historically extreme temperature
to be 14:00 for the idealized hourly temperature curve on the hottest day and 06:00 for the idealized
conditions were assumed to be 14:00 for the idealized hourly temperature curve on the hottest day
hourly temperature curve on the coldest day. According to the bridge locations introduced in Chapter
and 06:00 for the idealized hourly temperature curve on the coldest day. According to the bridge
2, the hourly ambient air temperature curves (continued for five days) under historically extreme
locations introduced in Chapter 2, the hourly ambient air temperature curves (continued for five
temperature conditions in Shenzhen, Handan, and Fuzhou are illustrated in Figure 22.
days) under historically extreme temperature conditions in Shenzhen, Handan, and Fuzhou are
illustrated in Figure 22.
Table 4. Meteorological parameters of the hourly ambient air temperature curves under historically
extreme temperature conditions (Unit: ◦ C).
Table 4. Meteorological parameters of the hourly ambient air temperature curves under historically
extreme temperature conditions (Unit: °C). Monthly Average Daily
Ambient Air Temperature
Cross-Section Location Temperature Range
Ambient Air Monthly Average Daily
Max Min July January
Cross-Section Location Temperature Temperature Range
Box girder Shenzhen 37.9 Max −0.3 Min 6.1July 7.4
January
Small box
Box girder Handan Shenzhen43.1 37.9 −21.3 −0.3 8.9 6.1 8.9
7.4
girder
Smallbox
Adjacent box girder Handan 43.1 −21.3 8.9 8.9
Fuzhou 40.6 −1.9 8.7 7.0
Adjacent
girder box girder Fuzhou 40.6 −1.9 8.7 7.0
(a) (b) (c)
Figure
Figure 22. Idealized
Idealized hourly
hourly ambient
ambient air
air temperature
temperature curves
curves under
under historically
historically extreme
extreme temperature
temperature
conditions:
conditions: (a)
(a) Shenzhen;
Shenzhen; (b)
(b) Handan;
Handan; (c)
(c) Fuzhou.
Fuzhou.
Under the
Under the highest
highest historical
historical temperature
temperature condition, the
the yearly
yearly maximum
maximum hourly
hourly solar
solar radiation
radiation
occurs on
occurs on2121June,
June,which
whichhashas
thethe maximum
maximum sunshine
sunshine duration
duration andand extraterrestrial
extraterrestrial radiation
radiation [54].
[54]. The
The hourly beam solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation on 21 June can be simulated
hourly beam solar radiation and diffuse solar radiation on 21 June can be simulated by using by using
numerical models
numerical models[25][25] based
based on
on the
the solar
solar radiation
radiation data
data obtain
obtain from
from the
the National
National Aeronautics
Aeronautics and and
Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center [55], as illustrated in Figure 23. Under the
lowest historical temperature condition, the influence of solar radiation was not considered.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 21 of 28
Space Administration (NASA) Langley Research Center [55], as illustrated in Figure 23. Under the
lowest
Appl. Sci.historical temperature
2019, 8, x FOR condition, the influence of solar radiation was not considered. 20 of 27
PEER REVIEW
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 23. Numerical

Figure 23. Numerical hourly
hourly beam
beam solar
solar radiation
radiation and
and diffuse
diffuse solar
solar radiation
radiation under
under the
the highest
highest
historical temperature conditions: (a)
(a) Shenzhen; (b) Handan; (c) Fuzhou.
(a) (b) (c)
The smaller
The smaller theNumerical
the
Figure 23. wind speed,
wind speed, the solar
the
hourly beam higher
higher the and
the
radiation temperature
temperature of the
diffuse solar of the girder
radiation girderthecross-section
under cross-section
highest [17].
[17].
However, the probability that zero wind speed and the maximum temperature will occur together is
historical temperature conditions: (a) Shenzhen; (b) Handan; (c) Fuzhou.
extremely small. A A wind
wind speed
speed ofof 1.0
1.0 m/s
m/s [14,56]
[14,56] waswas used
used toto analyze
analyze the
the temperature
temperature of of the
the concrete
concrete
The smaller the wind speed, the higher the temperature of the girder cross-section [17].
bridge structure
structure under the highest historical temperature conditions. The maximum
However, the probability that zero wind speed and the maximum temperature will occur together is wind
under the highest historical temperature conditions. The basic
maximum wind
basic speeds
for the 100-year
speeds for return
small. Aperiod,
the 100-year
extremely return which
period,
wind speed iswhich
of 1.0 37.5[14,56]
m/s m/s for
is 37.5 Shenzhen,
wasm/s for
used 27.9the
to Shenzhen,
analyze m/s for m/s
27.9 Handan,
temperature for and
ofHandan,
the 34.0and
concrete m/s34.0
for
Fuzhou
m/s [57],
for bridge
Fuzhouwere chosen
[57],
structure were
underas the windasspeeds
chosen
the highest the windunder
historical the lowest
speeds
temperature under historical
Thetemperature
the lowest
conditions. historical
maximum conditions.
basic temperature
wind
speeds to
In order
conditions. forreduce
the 100-year return period,
the influence of which is 37.5thermal
the initial m/s for Shenzhen,
boundary 27.9condition,
m/s for Handan, and 34.0
the same idealized
hourly m/s for
In ambient Fuzhou
order to airreduce [57], were chosen
the influence
temperature curves, as the
ofhourly wind
the initial speeds
solarthermal under
radiation the
boundary lowest
curves, and historical
condition, temperature
the same
wind speed wereidealized
imposed
conditions.
cyclically
hourly for five
ambient airdays.
temperature curves, hourly solar radiation curves, and wind speed were imposed
In order to reduce the influence of the initial thermal boundary condition, the same idealized
cyclically for five
hourly days.
ambient air temperature curves, hourly solar radiation curves, and wind speed were imposed
4.2. Average Effective Temperatures of Cross-Sections
cyclically for five days.
4.2. Average
Based on Effective Temperatures of Cross-Sections
the aforementioned meteorological data under historically extreme temperature
4.2. Average Effective Temperatures of Cross-Sections
conditions and the Air Element
Based on the aforementioned meteorological Method, the FEMs ofdata the concrete closed girder
under historically cross-sections
extreme temperaturewere
establishedand Based
to predict on the aforementioned meteorological data under historically extreme temperature
conditions the Airthe peak average
Element Method, effective
the FEMs temperatures
of the concrete of theclosed
cross-sections under historically
girder cross-sections were
conditions and the Air Element Method, the FEMs of the concrete closed girder cross-sections were
extreme
establishedtemperature conditions (hereafter referred
to predict the peak average effective temperatures to as T E ). The one-year measured average
of the cross-sections under historically effective
established to predict the peak average effective temperatures of the cross-sections under historically
temperatures
extreme of the cross-sections can be obtained
extreme temperature conditions (hereafter referred to as TE).E).The
temperature conditions (hereafter referred fromto the
as field
T test
The (hereafter
one-year
one-year
referred
measured
measured
to as TM ).
averageaverage
The maximum
effective effective and
temperatures minimum
temperaturesof the effective
the temperatures
of cross-sections
cross-sections can
canbe of highway
be obtained
obtained from
from concrete
thethe field
field bridges
test test were
(hereafter
(hereafter recommended
referred
referred to to
by the Chinese
as T ). code
The JTG
maximum D60-2015
and [50]
minimum (hereafter
effective referred
temperatures
as TM). The maximum and minimum effective temperatures of Chighway concrete bridges were
M to as
of T ).
highway China is
concrete partitioned
bridges wereinto four
climatic recommended
recommendedregions by thatthe by Chinese
are the Chinese
categorized codecode
as JTGD60-2015
severe
JTG D60-2015
cold, cold,[50]
warm,
[50] (hereafter referred
and “other”
(hereafter referred to astoTC[50].
regions ). China
as THandan is
C). China is in
is
the cold partitioned
region, into
with four
the climatic
highest regions
T of that
34 ◦ Care
andcategorized
the lowest as severe
T of cold,
−10 ◦cold,
C; warm,
Shenzhen and is“other”
in the warm
partitioned into four climatic regions that are categorized as severe cold, cold, warm, and “other”
C C
regions [50]. Handan is in the◦cold region, with the highest TC◦ of 34 °C and the lowest TC of −10 °C;
region, with
regions [50]. the
Handan highest TCthe
is warm
in of 34coldCregion,
and the lowest TC of −3 TC; and Fuzhou is inlowest
the “other” region,
Shenzhen is in the ◦
region, with the with
highestthe
T◦C highest
of 34 °C and C of
the34 °C and
lowest TC ofthe TC of −10
−3 °C; and Fuzhou °C;
with theishighest
Shenzhen is in theT C of
warm 34 C and
region, the
with lowest
the T
highest
C of 0
T C.
of Comparisons
34 °C and the of T
lowest
M ,
in the “other” region, with the highest TC of 34 °C and the lowest TC of 0 °C. Comparisons of TM, TC,
C T T
C ,
C and
of −3T °C;
E are
andillustrated
Fuzhou
inin
is Figure
the and24.TE areregion,
“other” with
illustrated the highest
in Figure 24. TC of 34 °C and the lowest TC of 0 °C. Comparisons of TM, TC,
and TE are illustrated in Figure 24.
(a) (b)
Figure 24. Cont.
(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 22 of 28
(c)

ComparisonsofofTMT,MT,C,Tand TE: T
C , and (a)
E : Box
(a) girder cross-section;
Box girder (b) small
cross-section; box girder
(b) small cross-
box girder
sections; (c) adjacent
cross-sections; box girder
(c) adjacent cross-sections.
box girder cross-sections.
The comparisons of of TTM M, TC andTTEEfor

C,,and forthe
theboxboxgirder
girdercross-section
cross-section are are illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 24a.
◦
It can
can be be observed
observed that that the highest TTM
the highest M was close to the highest highest TCC (a difference of 0.9 °C), C), and these
these
values
values werewere lower
lowerthanthanthe highestTTEE(differences
thehighest (differencesofof4.9 4.9◦ C forTT
°Cfor MMand
and5.8 5.8◦°C
C for forTTCC).). The lowestTTMM
The lowest
was TET(a ◦ C) and the lowest T (a difference of 17.8 ◦ C).
was much
muchhigherhigherthanthanthe thelowest
lowest E (adifference
difference of of
12.2
12.2 °C) and the lowest C TC (a difference of 17.8
The
°C). variation
The variation of TCofwas
TC was closeclose to that
to that TET(a
of of E (adifference
differenceofofonly only0.2 0.2◦ C),
°C),and
andthey theywerewere larger
larger than
than
that ofof TTM M (differences of 16.9 16.9 ◦°C for TTCC and 17.1 ◦°C
C for C for T It can be predicted that the longitudinal
TEE). It
thermal
thermal movement
movementofofthe theconcrete
concrete boxbox girder under
girder historically
under extreme
historically temperature
extreme conditions
temperature would
conditions
be underestimated
would by considering
be underestimated the variation
by considering of TM . The
the variation of variations of TC (37.0
TM. The variations of◦T and T°C)
C)C (37.0 and◦ C)
E (37.2 TE
were almost
(37.2 °C) werethe same.
almost theHowever,
same. However, assuming that the
assuming datum
that temperatures
the datum temperatures(T0 ) were(T0) werethe same,
the same,the
thermal
the thermal expansion
expansionof the of concrete
the concrete box girder
box girdercalculated by the
calculated bydifference
the difference between the highest
between TC and
the highest TC
Tand
0 would
T0 would be smaller thanthan
be smaller that that
calculated
calculated by thebydifference
the difference betweenbetween the highest
the highestTE and T0 , while
TE and the
T0, while
thermal
the thermal contraction
contractionof theofconcrete
the concrete box girder calculated
box girder by theby
calculated difference between
the difference T0 and T
between the lowest
0 and the
Tlowest
C would be larger
TC would bethan
larger thatthancalculated by the difference
that calculated betweenbetween
by the difference T0 and the T0 and the T
lowest E.
lowest TE .
The comparisons
comparisonsof ofTTMM , T, CT, and
C , andT E T
forE for
the the
small small
box box
girder girder cross-sections
cross-sections are are
illustrated illustrated
in Figure in
TE (44.7 ◦
Figure
24b. It 24b.
can beIt can be observed
observed that the thathighest
the highestTE (44.7 °C) was C) was significantly
significantly higher
higher thanthanthethe highest
highest TMT(aM
◦ C) and the highest T (a difference of 10.7 ◦ C);
(a differenceofof8.8
difference 8.8°C) and the highest TCC(a difference of 10.7 °C); meanwhile, the lowestTTEE (−18.2
the lowest (−18.2 ◦°C)C)
was lowestTTMM(a(adifference ◦ C) and the lowest T (a difference
was significantly lower than than the the lowest differenceofof20.2 20.2°C) and the lowest TC (a C difference of
of ◦ TE (62.9 ◦ TM (a difference
8.28.2
°C).C). TheThe variation
variation of TEof(62.9 °C) was C)significantly
was significantly larger larger
than that than ofthat
TM (aofdifference of 29.0 °C) of
29.0 ◦ C) and T (a difference of 18.9 ◦ C), which was possibly because Handan is in Northern China,
and T C (a difference
C of 18.9 °C), which was possibly because Handan is in Northern China, where the
where
variation the of
variation
ambientofair ambient
temperature air temperature
is large. It is can
large.be Itpredicted
can be predictedthat the that the longitudinal
longitudinal thermal
thermal
movement movement
of the of the concrete
concrete smallsmall box box girders
girders underunder historically
historically extremetemperature
extreme temperature conditions
would
would be be underestimated
underestimated by by considering
considering variationsvariations of of TTMM or T C C ..
comparisons of TTM
The comparisons M, TC and TTEE for
C,, and for the
the adjacent
adjacent box box girder cross-sections are illustrated in
Figure 24c.
Figure 24c. It can be observed
observed that that the highestTTEE (39.8 ◦°C)
the highest C) was higher than the highest highest TTM M (a(a difference
difference
◦
of 4.9 °C) C) and
andthe highestTT
thehighest CC (a(a difference
difference of of
5.85.8°C);◦ C);
meanwhile,
meanwhile, thethelowest TE (0.1
lowest TE (0.1
°C) was◦ C) lower
was lowerthan
the lowest
than the lowestTM (aTdifference of 8.4of°C) ◦
8.4and C) similar to thetolowest TC (aTdifference of only 0.1 ◦The
0.1 °C).
M (a difference and similar the lowest C (a difference of only C).
variation
The variation TE (39.8
of TEof(39.8 °C) was ◦ C) larger
was larger than than
that ofthatTMof(aTdifference
(a of
difference 10.8 of°C) and
10.8 ◦ C) Tand
C (a T
difference
(a of
difference 5.8
M C
of 5.8It◦can
°C). C). be predicted
It can be predictedthat thethat longitudinal
the longitudinalthermalthermal
movement movement of the concrete adjacentadjacent
of the concrete box girdersbox
under historically
girders extreme
under historically temperature
extreme temperature conditions
conditions would would bebeunderestimated
underestimatedby by considering
variations of
variations of TTM
M or TC C. .
Therefore, it can can be be concluded
concluded that that the
the longitudinal
longitudinal thermal thermal movement of the concrete concrete closedclosed
girders calculated
calculated by bythe theone-year
one-yearmeasured measuredaverage average effective
effective temperature
temperature of cross-sections
of cross-sections or byor the
by
Chinese-code-specified
the Chinese-code-specified effective
effective temperatures
temperatures forforhighway
highwaybridge bridgestructures
structuresisissmaller
smaller than that
under historically extreme temperature conditions, which are thus thus unconservative
unconservative for for engineering
engineering
applications. ItIt is is suggested
suggested that that the the average
average effective temperature for the concrete closed girder
cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions should be calculated for each city
using the FEM with the Air Element Method described in this paper.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 23 of 28
cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions should be calculated for each city
using
Appl. Sci.the FEM
2019, withPEER
8, x FOR the Air Element Method described in this paper.
REVIEW 22 of 27
4.3. Vertical Temperature Gradients

4.3. Vertical Temperature Gradients
Based on the aforementioned meteorological data under historically extreme temperature
Based on the aforementioned meteorological data under historically extreme temperature
conditions
conditions andandthetheAir
AirElement
Element Method,
Method, thethe FEMs
FEMs of concrete
of the the concrete closed
closed girdergirder cross-sections
cross-sections were
were established to predict the vertical temperature gradients under historically extreme temperature
established to predict the vertical temperature gradients under historically extreme temperature
conditions. The highest temperatures for the bridge deck surface proposed by Chinese code JTG
conditions. The highest temperatures for the bridge deck surface proposed by Chinese code JTG D60-
◦ C for Portland cement concrete overlays and 14 ◦ C for 100 mm asphalt concrete
D60-2015
2015 [50]25
[50] are are°C
25for Portland cement concrete overlays and 14 °C for 100 mm asphalt concrete
overlays (for positive vertical temperature differences), and the lowest temperatures of the bridge
overlays (for positive vertical temperature differences), and the lowest temperatures of the bridge
◦ C for Portland cement concrete overlays and −7 ◦ C for 100 mm asphalt
deck surface
deck surface are −12.5 °C
are −12.5 for Portland cement concrete overlays and −7 °C for 100 mm asphalt
concrete overlays (for negative vertical temperature differences). The numerical vertical temperature
concrete overlays (for negative vertical temperature differences). The numerical vertical temperature
gradients of cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions and the designed vertical
gradients of cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions and the designed
temperature
vertical gradients
temperature for concrete
gradients superstructures
for concrete proposed
superstructures by Chinese
proposed code JTG
by Chinese D60-2015
code [50] are
JTG D60-2015
compared in Figures 25–27.
[50] are compared in Figures 25–27.
(a) (b)
Figure Comparisonofofthe
Figure 25. Comparison the vertical
temperature gradients
gradients of theofbox
thegirder
box cross-section:
girder cross-section: (a)
(a) Positive
Positive gradient;gradient;
vertical temperature (b) negative vertical temperature
(b) negative gradient.gradient.
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 26.
26.Comparison
Comparisonofofthe
thevertical
verticaltemperature
temperaturegradients
gradientsof the small
of the boxbox
small girder cross-sections:
girder (a)
cross-sections:
Positive vertical temperature gradient; (b) negative vertical temperature gradient.
(a) Positive vertical temperature gradient; (b) negative vertical temperature gradient.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 24 of 28
(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 27.
27. Comparison
Comparisonof ofthe
thevertical
verticaltemperature
temperaturegradients
gradientsof
ofthe
theadjacent
adjacentbox
boxgirder
girdercross-sections:
cross-sections:
(a)
(a) Positive
Positive vertical
vertical temperature gradient; (b) negative vertical temperature gradient.
For positive
For positive vertical
temperature differences,
differences, thethe designed
designed highest
highest temperatures
temperatures of of the
the bridge
bridge
deck surface were higher than those obtained from the FEMs with differences of 7.3 ◦ C for the
deck surface were higher than those obtained from the FEMs with differences of 7.3 °C for the box
box girder cross-section, ◦ C for the small box girder cross-sections, and 18.2 ◦ C for the adjacent
9.1for
girder cross-section, 9.1 °C the small box girder cross-sections, and 18.2 °C for the adjacent box
box girder
girder cross-sections,
cross-sections, respectively.
respectively. For negative
For negative verticalvertical temperature
temperature differences,
differences, the designed
the designed lowest
lowest temperatures of the bridge deck surface were lower than those
temperatures of the bridge deck surface were lower than those obtained from the FEMs with obtained from the FEMs with
differences of of 9.9 ◦
9.9 °CC for
for the
the box
box girder
girder cross-section,
cross-section, 6.8 ◦
6.8 °C C for
for the
the small
small box
box girder
girder cross-sections,
cross-sections,
differences
and 12.1 ◦°C
and C forfor the
the adjacent
adjacentbox boxgirder
girdercross-sections,
cross-sections, respectively.
respectively. Therefore,
Therefore, it can be concluded
it can be concluded that
the Chinese-code-specified design temperatures of the bridge deck
that the Chinese-code-specified design temperatures of the bridge deck surfaces in vertical surfaces in vertical temperature
gradients aregradients
temperature conservative.
are conservative.
The temperature differencesononthe
The temperature differences thebottom
bottom flanges
flanges werewerenotnot considered
considered in Chinese
in Chinese code code
JTG
JTG D60-2015 [50]. However, the extreme temperature differences
D60-2015 [50]. However, the extreme temperature differences on the bottom flanges under on the bottom flanges under
historically extreme
extremetemperature
temperatureconditions
conditions obtained from ◦ and°C−2.7 ◦C
historically obtained from the the
FEMs FEMs
werewere
3.3 °C3.3 andC−2.7 for the
◦ ◦
for the
box boxcross-section,
girder girder cross-section,
and 1.2 °Cand and1.2
−2.0C°Candfor −2.0
the small C forbox the smallcross-sections,
girder box girder cross-sections,
respectively.
respectively.
The temperature The temperature
differences on differences on the
the bottom bottomofflanges
flanges of the adjacent
the adjacent box girder
box girder cross-sections
cross-sections are
are negligible
negligible because because the bottom
the bottom flange ofheight
flange height of the box
the adjacent adjacent
girdersbox girders
is small (0.44is m).
small (0.44 m).
Therefore, it
Therefore, it can be concluded that the Chinese-code-specified design
can be concluded that the Chinese-code-specified design temperatures on the bottom flanges in thetemperatures on the bottom
flanges in
vertical the verticalgradients
temperature temperature gradients are unconservative.
are unconservative.
5. Summary
5. Summary
The following
The following conclusions
conclusions can
can be
be drawn
drawn based
based on
on the
the results,
results, and
and within
within the
the limitations,
limitations, of
of the
the
research presented
research presented in
in this
this paper:
paper:
(1) The
(1) TheMeasured
MeasuredTemperature
TemperatureMethodMethod cancan reflect
reflect thethe actual
actual temperatures
temperatures inside
inside the cavities,
the cavities, but
but measurements on site are cost- and time-prohibitive. Therefore,
measurements on site are cost- and time-prohibitive. Therefore, the application range the application rangeof of the
the
Measured Temperature Method is limited. When there is no measurement
Measured Temperature Method is limited. When there is no measurement on site to obtain the on site to obtain the
temperatureinside
temperature insidethe
thecavity,
cavity,the
theAmbient
AmbientTemperature
TemperatureMethod, Method,Mean MeanTemperature
TemperatureMethod,Method,
or Air Element Method can be used as alternative
or Air Element Method can be used as alternative methods. methods.
(2) Theinfluences
(2) The influencesofofdifferent
differentsimulation
simulationmethods
methods forfor
thethe internal
internal thermal
thermal boundary
boundary conditions
conditions on
on the numerical hourly temperature curves of the parts of cross-sections
the numerical hourly temperature curves of the parts of cross-sections far from the cavities far from the cavities
are
are negligible.
negligible. Compared
Compared withwith
the the measured
measured hourly
hourly temperaturecurves,
temperature curves,thethenumerical
numerical hourly
hourly
temperature curves of the parts of the cross-sections near the cavities calculated
temperature curves of the parts of the cross-sections near the cavities calculated by the Measured by the Measured
Temperature Method
Temperature Methodprovide
providethethe
closest agreement.
closest WhenWhen
agreement. there isthere
a lack of
is measured
a lack oftemperature
measured
inside the cavity,
temperature thethe
inside numerical hourly
cavity, the temperature
numerical hourly curves calculated
temperature by thecalculated
curves Air Element by Method
the Air
provide a closer agreement with the measured curves than the curves
Element Method provide a closer agreement with the measured curves than the curves calculated by the Ambient
Temperature
calculated by Method and Mean
the Ambient Temperature
Temperature Method.
Method and When
Mean the Ambient Temperature
Temperature Method. When Methodthe
is used, the
Ambient trends of the
Temperature numerical
Method curves
is used, of the of
the trends bottom flanges and
the numerical the webs
curves of thenear
bottomthe flanges
bottom
and the webs near the bottom flanges are similar to the measured hourly ambient air
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 25 of 28
flanges are similar to the measured hourly ambient air temperature curve, because the temperature
change in the hourly ambient air temperature curve was much larger than the temperature
changes in the measured curves inside the cavities.
(3) The comparisons of the temperature contour plots obtained from the FEMs considering different
simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions indicated that the temperature
distributions on the parts near the cavities calculated by the Measured Temperature Method and
Air Element Method were close to the measured values.
(4) The influences of different simulation methods for the internal thermal boundary conditions
on the highest hourly average effective temperature of concrete closed girder cross-sections
and the trends of the vertical temperature gradients for the box girder and adjacent box girder
cross-sections were small. The maximum vertical temperature gradients calculated by the Air
Element Method on the top and bottom flanges were larger than those calculated by the Ambient
Temperature Method and Mean Temperature Method for the small box girder cross-sections.
(5) The Air Element Method can be used as a simulation method for the internal thermal boundary
conditions in the FEM to predict the temperature distributions on concrete closed girder
cross-sections under historically extreme temperature conditions. The longitudinal thermal
movement of concrete closed girders calculated by the one-year measured average effective
temperature of the cross-sections or by the Chinese-code-specified effective temperatures for the
highway bridge structures would be smaller than those under historically extreme temperature
conditions, which are thus unconservative for engineering applications. It is suggested that the
average effective temperature of concrete closed girder cross-sections under historically extreme
temperature conditions should be calculated for each city using the FEM with the Air Element
Method, as described in this paper. The comparisons of vertical temperature gradients under
historically extreme temperature conditions indicate that the Chinese-code-specified vertical
temperature gradients are conservative for the bridge deck surfaces and unconservative for the
bottom flanges.
(6) Further research has been carried out to analyze the average effective temperatures and
vertical temperature gradients of concrete closed girder cross-sections under historically extreme
temperature conditions for each city in China using the FEM with the Air Element Method
described in this paper.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/10/4/1274/s1,

Figure S1: Comparisons of the hourly temperature curves of the box girder cross-sections obtained by the field test
and the FEM using the Air Element Method as the simulation method for the internal thermal boundary conditions:
(a) Sensors in the top flange; (b) sensors in the bottom flange; (c) sensors in the left exterior web; (d) sensors in the
interior webs; (e) sensors in the right exterior web, Figure S2: Comparisons of the hourly temperature curves of
the small box girder cross-sections obtained by the field test and the FEM using the Air Element Method as the
simulation method for the internal thermal boundary conditions: (a) Sensors in the top flanges; (b) sensors in the
bottom flanges; (c) sensors in the webs, Figure S3: Comparisons of the hourly temperature curves of the adjacent
box girder cross-sections obtained by the field test and the FEMs using the Air Element Method as the simulation
method for the internal thermal boundary conditions: (a) Sensors in the top flanges; (b) sensors in the bottom
flanges; (c) sensors in the webs.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.X.; Data curation, J.L. and J.X.; Funding acquisition, J.X. and F.H.;
Investigation, J.L., J.X., and B.C.; Software, J.L., J.X., and F.H.; Writing—original draft, J.L.; Writing—review and
editing, J.X., F.H., and B.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China grant number 51508103
and the National Natural Science Foundation of China grant number 51578161.
Acknowledgments: The authors would also like to acknowledge the National Meteorological Information Center,
China Meteorological Administration.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 26 of 28
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Featured Application: The temperature distributions on concrete closed girder cross-sections

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274; doi:10.3390/app10041274 www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Tmean = 0.25 × (Tmax,i + Tmin,i + Tmax,i−1 + Tmin,i−1 ) (1)

2.1. Box Girder

Figure 1. Layout of the box girder cross-section (unit: cm).

The midas FEA

Figure 4. Layout of the small box girder cross-sections (unit: cm).

Figure 7. Layout of the adjacent box girder cross-sections (unit: cm).

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 27

Figure 10. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 27

FigureFigure 10. Comparisons(c)

Figure 11. The root-mean-square

3.1.2. Influence on the Temperature Contour Plots

Figure 12. Cont.

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 27

(d) Air Element Method.

of the box girder cross-sections for 13 August 2017, obtained

Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1274 12 of 28

Figure 14. Cont.

3.2.2. Influence on the Temperature Contour Plots

Ambient Temperature Mean Temperature Air Element

Ambient Temperature Mean Temperature

Figure 17. Comparisons

3.3. Adjacent Box

3.3.1. Influence on the Hourly Temperature Curves

Figure 18. Cont.

3.3.2. Influence on the Temperature Contour Plots

Temperature contour plots of the adjacent box girder

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 27

(a) (b) (c)

Appl. Sci. 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 27

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 23. Numerical

Figure 24. Cont.

Figure 24. Comparisons

The comparisons of of TTM M, TC andTTEEfor

4.3. Vertical Temperature Gradients

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2076-3417/10/4/1274/s1,

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