FOOD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY

TECHNOLOGY PRACTICAL (IV)

SEMESTER VI

PRACTICAL 01

SUBSTITUTING DAIRY PRODUCTS WITH LEGUME

BASED PRODUCTS

NAME: J.A.N.GIMHANI

INDEX NUMBER: BST/17/025

DUE DATE: 2022.01.14

GROUP NUMBER: 01

DEPARTMENT OF BIOSYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY OF SRI JAYEWARDENEPURA

Date: 2021.12.01

Practical No: 01

Practical Name: Substituting dairy products with legume based products

Objectives:

 Understand the nutritional importance of legumes in human diet

 Understand the ways of substituting dairy products with legume based products
 Familiarize with the product development using legumes based on their functional
properties

Introduction:

Soybean (Glycine max) is a legume belonging to the botanical family Leguminosae. Soy bean is highly
nutritious and it contains about 40% proteins, 20% largely unsaturated fats, 17% fibers and it is also a
good source of the minerals like calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron and zinc. Soybeans are not cooked
like other beans but it is processed into various products (like soy flour, soy milk, tofu) for improved
palatability, to remove anti-nutritional factors, and improve the digestibility of soy proteins (Saha and
Mandal, 2019).

Soy milk is a cheaper source of high quality protein with many other health promoting properties which is
prepared by aqueous extraction of whole or de-hulled soybeans. It has been used to manufacture
processed soy foods with including tofu and fermented soy milk. Currently, it is most popular non-dairy
and alternative for cow’s milk substituting for lactose intolerance. Soymilk is traditionally made by
soaking soybeans in water overnight, then grinding the beans with water added during grinding and then
heat in applied. This heating step is increase the shelf life by reducing microbial load and improves the
flavor and nutritional value by inactivating tripsin and lipoxygenase inhibitors. It has the same profile of
protein as cow milk even it gives fewer calories on consumption than bovine milk. It is one of the high-
quality protein of plant-based sources. Soymilk has contains all essential amino acids in high amount
which exert positive impacts on cardiovascular health. It is rich in potassium as well as calcium and
contains very little saturated fat. Soymilk has been used in many products like soy cheese, soy yogurt,
tofu, etc.

Tofu is an unfermented soy product which is soft and cheese-like. It is produced by curdling fresh hot
soymilk with either salt or an acid. Tofu is very versatile and can be used to make different foods like,
cheesecake, dips, pies, cream cheese, and mayonnaise. The quality of the final tofu product is affected by
soybean varieties, storage conditions, soaking, grinding, soymilk pre-treatment, types of coagulants,
operating conditions, pressing and packaging.
Materials:

Ingredients

 Soybean
 Lemon juice
 Whole milk
 Skimmed milk
 Muslin cloth

Equipment

 Blender
 Pan

Procedure:

Part 1: Preparation of soy milk

Firstly, around 80 g of white soybeans were soaked in about 750 ml of water overnight. Then the hulls of
beans were removed by rubbing them between your fingers. The hulls were removed and discarded the
water. After that, about 80 g of de-hulled soybeans and 750 ml of water was added to blender and blended
until getting a smooth paste. Then the blended mixture was strained using muslin cloth. Then the top of
the muslin was twisted tightly otherwise enables to continue squeezing out more milk. After that, the
mixture was poured into a heavy-bottom pan and it was added 250 ml of water. Then, it was placed on the
store and it was heated until boiling while stirring. Then milk was held in medium heat for 20 minutes,
and it was stirred occasionally to prevent sticking. Finally, the milk was cold.

Part 2: Preparation of Tofu (Soymilk paneer)

There were three tofu samples were prepared by changing the ratio of soy milk and skimmed milk as
following, A sample was prepared by using only soy milk (100%), B sample was prepared by mixing soy
milk and skimmed milk in a ratio of 75:25. C sample was prepared by mixing soy milk and skimmed milk
in a ratio of 50:50. Firstly, soy milk was obtained from soaked de-hulled soy bean by blending with water
as above mention procedure. Then A, B, and C samples were cooked up to 100 °C and then they were
cold to 80 °C. Then, lemon juice was added to coagulate the samples slowly with gentle and continuous
stirring. After the coagulation, stirring was stopped and the contents were left with undisturbed at room
temperature for 15 min. then the whey was removed by straining through a muslin cloth. Then the
coagulum was pressed to produce soy paneer. After that, the paneer was removed and soaked in cold
water for 30 min. then it was taken out and removed surface water by wrapping paneer blocks on a clean
muslin cloth.
Observations:

Date: 2021.12.01

Practical No: 01

Practical Name: Substituting dairy products with legume based products

Observations:

Part 1: Preparation of soy milk

Initial weight = Weight of soy bean + water

= 80 g + 1000 g

= 1080 g

Final soy milk weight = 500 g

Table 1: Comparison of sensory properties in fresh milk and soy milk

Properties Fresh milk Soy milk

Color White Pale white
Texture Thickness is high compare to soy Thickness is low compare to
milk fresh milk
Consistency High Low
Overall acceptance High Low
Odor Fresh Soy bean odor
Flavor High Low (raw soy bean flavor)

A B

Figure 1: A – Fresh milk sample, B – Prepared soy milk sample

Part 2: Preparation of Tofu (Soymilk paneer)

Table 2: Observation of tofu product

Sample Amount of lime Time for taken Initial weight of Final weight of
added coagulation soy milk paneer
A (100% of soy
14 ml 2.5 min 779 g 53.6 g
milk)
B (75% of soy
21 ml 3 min 948 g 77.5 g
milk)
C (50% of soy
30 ml 2.52 min 1080 g 82.1 g
milk)

Table 3: Sensory properties of prepared tofu product

Sample Color Flavor Texture Overall

acceptance
A (100% of soy Pale white High soybean taste with Rubbery texture Low
milk) low lime taste
B (75% of soy White Medium soybean taste Brittle Medium
milk) with high lime taste
C (50% of soy Whitish yellow Low soybean and lime Hard texture High
milk) taste

A B C

Figure 2: Prepared tofu products; A: 100% of soy milk added tofu product, B: 75% of soy milk
added tofu product, C: 50% of soy milk added tofu product
Calculation:

Soy milk recovery:

= 46.29 %

Soy paneer recovery:

I. For A (100% of soy milk added tofu product)

= 6.88 %

II. For B (75% of soy milk added tofu product)

= 8.17 %

III. For C (50% of soy milk added tofu product)

= 7.60 %
Discussion:

Part 1: Preparation of soy milk

Soy bean like legume have several drawbacks such as anti-nutritional factors (ANF), beany flavor or off
flavor, shelf life and last poor stability. If legume consume more, it adversely affect to the human body.
This ANF are reduced the protein digestibility and availability. Some anti-nutritional factors have
benefits, because there are some anti-carcinogenic and antioxidant (tannin like) compounds. those ANF
can be reduced by processing during soaking because some of ANF are leaking out, or by heating (Rekha
and Vijayalakshmi, 2013). This heating step improves the nutritional value of the milk (by inactivating
tripsin inhibitors and phytic acid) and improves the flavor (by inactivating lipoxygenase enzyme and
some of off-flavor compounds) (Road and Pradesh, 2014). And also it is increase the shelf life of the milk
by reducing its microbial load. Lipoxigenase is complex of oxidized lipids that result in beany flavor. The
most effective and simple method to remove the beany flavor is grinding and hot water blanching. It is
very effective to eliminate beany flavor by blanching with heat treatment because heating has been seen
to inactivate lipoxygenase and it is an enzyme important to generate soymilk off-flavor (Saini and Morya,
2021). The beany odor of soy bean occurs because of soybean lipoxygenase-catalyzed oxidation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids, mainly linoleic acid and alpha-linolenic acid. The common method for
soybean processing involves soaking the soy beans overnight (12 hr) prior to make milk. There are a
number of treatments have been developed to inactivation of lipoxygenase, to reduce the odor and
increase the acceptability of soy milk by involving heating and modification of pH (Niyibituronsa et al.,
2019).

The raw soy milk can deteriorate rapidly. If the raw soy milk is left at room temperature for long time it
will separate two parts. The lower part is whitish and resembles the curd of animal milk and the upper
part has transparent. If the raw soy milk is boiled, it can be preserved for a much longer time. Raw soy
milk has a cream yellow color and in a raw state it smells of raw beans. This beany odor disappears with
cooking and gives typical flavor for cooked soy milk (Han, no date). Some peoples have allergy for
lactose in dairy milk. Therefore, almond, soy, rice, and coconut milk are popular as plant-based milk
alternatives. Those are lactose free milk products. It is often used by people who have an allergy or
intolerance for dairy (These et al., 1969).

Soy beans should be soaked for overnight to absorb water because, it will reduce the time that they have
cook, modify the texture of the beans, easy to split open and burst, improve the digestibility of soy bean,
softening the grains, easy to grind, and some of ANF (Anti Nutritional factors) are leaking out. Soaking
temperature and soaking time are the two key factors affecting to the water absorption of soy bean.

Normally, soy bean is consisting with outer layer that is called hull. If this hull can be removed before
produce soymilk, it is best because hull consists with more fibrous materials (cellulose) and it can be
affect to the grinding, filtration process, flavor and color changes in soymilk. The use of de-hulled
soybeans is not only improves the quality but also facilitates the extraction of soy proteins. On the other
hand, this hull contains some insoluble dietary fiber particles that can be embedded in the network
structure which destroys the continuity of the soy protein gel network. In this practical de-hulling of soy
bean is done by hand. After that wet grinding process is done for the extraction of soy milk. This wet
grinding involves for both physical and chemical changes in soy milk. Throughout the process of wet
grinding in the reaction of water and air lipids are oxidized and the reaction has been carried out by
lipoxygenase like undesirable taste and flavor causing enzyme in soy milk, because Lipoxigenase is a
complex of oxidized lipids that result in beany flavor. So this off-flavor generation can be reduced by
grinding with low or high temperature with low pH. During heating of soy milk is produce some foam top
of the mixture. This form should be removed, because otherwise the flavor of soy milk can be changed.

A B

Figure 3: Soaked soy beans; A: Soy bean with hull, B: Soy beans without hull (de-hulled)

A B

Figure 4: Separated soy milk: A: Raw soy milk, B: Cooked soy milk
In this practical, soy milk was produced by using soy bean and it was compared with the fresh cow’s milk
sample. Soy milk is a good source of low fat and plant-based protein. It is cholesterol free with having
less saturated fat than cow’s milk. And also soy milk has lower calcium and vitamin B compared with
cow’s milk. According to the comparison of sensory properties in fresh milk sample with soy milk
sample, the color of the fresh milk sample was white and soy milk sample was pale white, because soy
beans are somewhat yellow color and after grinding of soy bean it was given pale white color. And also
prepared soy milk was found somewhat high viscosity as well as less beany flavor compare to just after
grinding, because heating process is helps to remove off-flavor (beany flavor) from the product. Flavor of
soymilk is an important factor. There are many factors effect on the flavor of soy milk such as, storage
condition, enzymes, and soaking condition. Thickness and consistency of fresh milk sample was get
higher compare to the soy milk sample, because total soluble solid content in fresh milk sample is higher
than soy milk sample. Fresh milky odor was given in fresh milk sample while somewhat beany odor was
given in soy milk, because that beany odor cannot be removed completely only by heating the soy milk
sample. Therefore, overall acceptance is high for the fresh cow’s milk sample compare to soy milk.
According to this practical, about 46.29% of yield was get as soy milk.

Part 2: Preparation of Tofu (Soymilk paneer)

Tofu is usually considered as salt- or acid-coagulated water based gel, with soy lipids and proteins
trapped in its gel networks. It is an inexpensive, nutritious and versatile meat or cheese substitute with
bland taste and porous texture (Guan et al., 2021). Tofu contains about 50% protein and 27% oil, and the
remaining constituents are carbohydrates and minerals. It is cholesterol free, rich source of proteins,
minerals and PUFA. Therefore tofu can form an alternative protein source. Its preparation generally
includes soaking and grinding of soybeans in water, filtering, boiling and coagulation of soymilk,
molding and pressing. Several processing factors affect the quality and texture of tofu, such as cultivar of
soybean, type of coagulant, storage conditions, soaking, grinding, soymilk pre-treatment, pressing and
processing methods (Rekha and Vijayalakshmi, 2013).

The functional properties of soy protein are mainly included gelling, emulsification, and foaming. Gelling
is the basis for the formation of tofu. During tofu production, soy protein undergoes dissociation or
association reactions during the acid-base treatment and heat treatment, which changes the ionic strength
of the solution.

Soaking is important steps in tofu processing. Soaking changes the structural characteristics and crushing
performance of soybeans, accelerating the extraction of soybean protein and thereby increasing the
protein content of tofu. And also, the swelling of soy protein doubles the absorption of water and increase
soy bean volume. High-quality water and suitable temperature and soaking time lead to a higher protein
extraction rate and content in soymilk, increasing the gel strength and waterholding capacity of tofu.
Normally, the protein and oil content of de-hulled soybeans is higher than whole soybeans. The gel
network structure of whole bean curd is mostly discontinuous, large, irregular and uneven that because of
the insoluble dietary fiber particles in soy bean hull are destroys the soy protein gel network. The use of
de-hulled soybeans to produce tofu is not only improves the quality but also facilitates the extraction of
soy proteins. On the other hand, this hull contains some insoluble dietary fiber particles that can be
embedded in the network structure which destroys the continuity of the soy protein gel network.

Denaturation of soy protein is a prerequisite for curd formation of tofu and is generally done by applying
the form of heat in tofu processing technology. Raw soy milk is relatively stable because the natural soy
bean protein molecules have a hydrophobic group inside and hydrophilic group on the surface of the
molecule. When the raw soymilk is heated, the energy in the system increases, the vibration of protein
molecules intensifies. This change leads to the breaking of the secondary bonds that hold the protein
molecular structure, while the spatial structure also changes. Heating process induces the protein
aggregation and protein–polysaccharide interaction, leading to the modification of protein particle size
distribution, viscosity, surface hydrophobicity, and solubility and altering the structure of soybean
protein.

Coagulation of soy milk is the most important step in tofu making and difficult to control because it
depends on complex interrelationships of many variables such as Increasing coagulation temperature and
rate of stirring immediately after adding coagulant increases hardness. Stirring method and mixing speed
and time has a significant effect on tofu yield and quality (Oboh, 2014). The addition of a coagulant is
making the soybean protein form a gel network structure that is macroscopically reflected in the
formation of tofu coagulation. During the coagulation process, the protein–protein and protein– water
interactions cause soy protein to aggregate and form a honeycomb-like gel. There are different coagulants
types that use for tofu production are listed in below,

 Salt coagulants: Magnesium chloride, Calcium chloride, magnesium sulfate, calcium sulfate,
calcium acetate.
 Acid coagulant: glucolactone (GDL), physalis, lactic acid,
acetic acid, succinic acid, citric acid, malic acid, and tartaric
acid
 Enzyme coagulant: transglutaminase (TGase), pepsin, acalase,
papain, and bromelain

In this practical, lime juice (citric acid) was used to the coagulate soy
milk proteins. Citric acid is the type of acid coagulant. This acid
coagulant can provide hydrogen ions that reduce the pH value of
soymilk to the isoelectric point of soy protein, and thus promoting the
isoelectric precipitation of protein.

Figure 5: Coagulated soy milk

sample with lime juice
According to this practical, high amount of lime juice (30 ml) was added to the C sample (Contain 50% of
soy milk and 50% of skimmed milk) and it was taken 2.52 min to coagulate, because, it is required high
amount of coagulant for the dairy protein coagulation and other reason is dairy milk contains high amount
of protein yield compare to the proteins in soy milk. Low amount of lime juice (14 ml) was added to A
sample (100% soy milk containing) and it was taken 2.5 min to coagulate proteins, because this sample is
contain low amount of proteins due to contain only soy milk. And also, B sample (75 % soy milk
contains) was taken much time (3 min) to coagulate proteins compare to other.

Figure 6: Changes of soybean protein during tofu production.

Pressing is the other process of stabilizing the tofu gel network structure that is applied to the formed curd
while removing the excess yellow water and reducing the syneresis of the tofu during the storage period.
Under high pressure, the gel structure of tofu is greatly damaged, resulting in excessive loss of yellow
water.

Figure 7: Pressing of coagulated soy milk

Okara (soy bean pulp) is the by-products of manufacturing soy milk which is produced after filtration of
grounded soybean. To produce tofu, soy milk is brought to a boil and a coagulant is added, which results
in the formation of a gel-like structure (which is soy bean curd). Then this soy beans are subjected to
various degrees of pressing to form the different types of tofu. During this pressing process, soy whey is
generated, which is also disposed of. Those can be seen in following picture.

Figure 8: By-products formation of Soymilk and tofu production

According to this practical, pale white color gives in A tofu sample (100 % soy milk contain) with high
soy bean flavor and low lime taste compare to other, because this sample is contain only soy milk then it
was given beany flavor in tofu product. And also, it was added low amount of lime (14 ml) compare to
other sample and this amount is enough for the protein coagulation, and then it was given low lime taste.
B tofu sample (75 % soy milk contain) have given White color with medium soybean taste but it was
given high lime taste compare to other, because that sample was added about 21 ml of lime juices to
coagulate the proteins, that amount may be higher and remain within the tofu. Therefore, it was given
high lime taste. C tofu sample (50 % of soy milk contain) have given whitish yellow color with low soy
bean and lime flavor, because there is low soy milk compare to other samples and added lime juice
amount is enough for the protein coagulation which is not remain extra lime juice within tofu. A tofu
sample was having rubbery texture. But in B tofu sample was brittle the structure just after touching,
because its gel structure is not fully developed. C tofu sample was having hard texture and that have high
overall acceptance compare to other, because this C tofu sample with having the lower beany flavor
compare to other. Overall acceptance is lower in A tofu sample, because that have high beany flavor
compare to B and C tofu samples.

According to this practical, B and C tofu sample have somewhat high soy paneer recovery (yield of soy
paneer) compare to A tofu sample which is contain 75% of soy milk-25% of cow’s milk and 50% of soy
milk-50% of cow’s milk respectively. And also, A tofu sample have lowest soy paneer recovery (yield of
paneer) compare to other, because that only contain only soy milk. Cow’s milk contain high amount of
proteins than in say milk. The amount of coagulated proteins in B and C sample was higher. Therefore,
cow’s milk added tofu sample was given high yield than a sample containing only soy milk.

Conclusion:

The demand for milk is increasing so that it cannot be able to fulfill everywhere. Cow’s milk is causing
lots of problems like lactose intolerance. One of the good alternatives for dairy milk is soymilk. Soymilk
is rich in protein and free from lactose. Soymilk is easy to process. Soy bean like legume have several
drawbacks such as anti-nutritional factors (ANF), beany flavor or off flavor, shelf life and last poor
stability. The most effective and simple method to remove the beany flavor is grinding and hot water
blanching. It is very effective to eliminate beany flavor by blanching with heat treatment because heating
has been seen to inactivate lipoxygenase and it is an enzyme important to generate soymilk off-flavor.

The production of tofu includes a series of processes, such as soybean screening, soaking, grinding,
filtering, boiling, coagulating, pressing, preserving, and packaging. The composition, structure, and
content of soy protein are constantly changing during the production process. The gelation properties of
soy protein are the basis for the preparation of tofu. There are different kinds of coagulant can used for the
milk protein coagulation, such as acid, salt, enzyme. Soy milk can be mixed up with skimmed milk with
different ration for the production of good quality tofu product. The 50% cow’s milk-50% of soy milk
blend was scored the highest in terms of overall acceptability by sensory evaluation.

References

Guan, X. et al. (2021) ‘Changes of Soybean Protein during Tofu Processing’, pp. 1–16.

Han, T. A. N. B. O. E. (no date) ‘TECHNOLOGY OF SOYMILK AND SOME DERIVATIVES’.

Niyibituronsa, M. et al. (2019) ‘The effect of different processing methods on nutrient and isoflavone content of
soymilk obtained from six varieties of soybean grown in Rwanda’, (August 2018), pp. 457–464. doi:
10.1002/fsn3.812.

Oboh, G. (2014) ‘Coagulants modulate the hypocholesterolemic effect of tofu ( coagulated soymilk )’, (December
2006).

Rekha, C. R. and Vijayalakshmi, G. (2013) ‘Influence of processing parameters on the quality of soycurd ( tofu )’,
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Road, K. and Pradesh, M. (2014) ‘SOYBEAN’, 12(1).

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and Progress Scenario in last Decade A Review based study on Soymilk : Focuses on production technology ,
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