Chapter:5 Steam Turbine

I. Principle of operation

The steam turbine is a form of heat engine which has basically nozzle and ring of
moving blades mounted on a shaft called rotor. The shaft motion of turbine depends
only upon the dynamic action of steam. A steam turbine is a device that use thermal
energy from pressurized steam and converts it to do mechanical work on a rotating
output shaft.
Working of Steam turbine can be summarized into following steps:

1. Steam is generated inside the boiler. Where the fuel is burned in presence of air
and transfer its heat to the water. Water absorbs sensible, latent heat and
converts into steam.
2. Steam is then injected through nozzles over to the ring of moving blades. Here,
thermal energy of steam is partly converted into kinetic energy due to static
pressure drop in nozzle.
3. High velocity steam leaving nozzle enters the moving blade and the direction of
steam flow gets changed from inlet to exit. Change of momentum is due to
change in the direction of steam flow, which results in dynamic force acting as
driving thrust for rotation of shaft.
4. These high velocity steams are fed into the turbine (a device which consists of
Rotor where blades are built and Rotors are mounted on the shaft) and this high
velocity steam strikes the blades which in turn rotates the blade with 30,000-
40,000 RPM.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES

a) Based on the blade flow passage:

i. constant cross section area type from blade inlet to exit (impulse turbines)
ii. varying cross section area type from blade inlet to exit (reaction turbines)

Figure: 5.1 Impulse turbine and Reaction turbine blades

b) Based on the cylinder flow arrangement

i. Single flow single casing turbine
ii. Double flow single casing turbine
iii. Cross flow compound turbine with single flow
iv. Cross flow compound turbine with double flow
 v. Triple cross flow compound turbine with double flow
c) Based on direction of flow
i. Radial flow turbine
ii. Tangential flow turbine
iii. Axial flow turbine
d) Based on number of stages:
i. Single stage turbine
ii. Multi stage turbine.
e) Based on the application of turbine:
i. Condensing turbine
ii. Non-condensing turbine
iii. Back pressure turbine
iv. Pass out turbine
f) Based on speed of turbine:
i. Low speed steam turbine. below 3000 rpm
ii. Normal speed steam turbine. about 3000 rpm
iii. High speed steam turbine. more than 3000 rpm
g) Based on pressure in steam turbines:
i. Low pressure steam turbine less than 20 kg/cm2
ii. Medium pressure steam turbine 20 kg/cm2 to 40 kg/cm2.
iii. High pressure steam turbine 40 kg/cm2 to 170 kg/cm2
iv. Super pressure steam turbine more than 170 kg/cm2

Impulse turbine

The mechanism of impulse forces getting generated is discussed here. From Newton’s
second law we know,

…………………….………………….…………………....………………………….1.1

…………………………………………………………………………………1.2

For steady flow, F = (mass flow rate) X (change in velocity)

Similarly, Tangential force = (mass flow rate) X (change in tangential component of
velocity)
The impulse force can be defined as the force due to change in tangential component of
velocity of fluid which may be due to change in direction as well as change in
magnitude.
 Figure: 5.2 (a): impulse force due to change in magnitude of velocity, (b) impulse force due to
change in direction of velocity (c) Reaction force due to acceleration of fluid.

a) The impulse force is available due to change in magnitude of velocity and shall
be given by the product of mass flow rate and change in velocity.
b) The total force exerted on blade is actually a combination of impulse and
reaction. Impulse force is available in the entrance half of the blade where jet
strikes causing a force to right. Where in the exit half, the jet which is leaving will
exerts a reactive force on the blade which also acts to the right. Combined effect
of these two forces on the impulse blade is arbitrarily termed as impulse force.

Reaction force available due to change in tangential velocity of fluid can be observe in
case of nozzle due to acceleration of fluid.

Figure: 5.3 Schematic of simple impulse steam turbine stage

It has single-stage having a nozzle fitted in the casing followed by ring of moving blades
mounted on the shaft. Variation of velocity and pressure along the axis of turbine is also
present here. Here pressure drop occurs mainly in the nozzle and ideally no pressure
drop happens in blades.

Compounding in Impulse Turbine

If high velocity of steam is allowed to flow through one row of moving blades, it
produces a rotor speed of about 30000 rpm which is very high for application purpose.

It is therefore very much needed to incorporate some improvements for practical use
and also to achieve high performance. This is possible by using more than one set of
nozzles, and rotors, in a series, keyed to the shaft so that either the steam pressure or
the jet velocity is absorbed by the turbine in stages. This is known as compounding.

Compounding can be of following three types:

i. Pressure compounded impulse turbine
ii. Velocity compounded impulse turbine
iii. Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine
The Velocity - Compounding of the Impulse Turbine

The velocity-compounded impulse turbine was first proposed by C.G. Curtis to solve the
problems of a single-stage impulse turbine for applicable with high pressure and
temperature steam. The Curtis stage turbine, is composed of one stage of nozzles as
the single-stage turbine, followed by two rows of moving blades instead of one. These
two rows are separated by one row of fixed blades attached to the turbine stator, which
has the function of redirecting the steam leaving the first row of moving blades to the
second row of moving blades. A Curtis stage impulse turbine is presented in Figure: 5.4
with schematic pressure and absolute steam-velocity changes through the stage. In the
Curtis stage, the total enthalpy decreases and hence pressure drop occur in the nozzles
so that the pressure remains constant for all three rows of blades.
 Figure: 5.4 The Velocity - Compounding of the Impulse Turbine

In two stages velocity is absorbed. In fixed (static) blade stage both pressure and
velocity remain constant. Fixed blades are also called guide vanes. Velocity
compounded stage is also called Curtis stage. 

Pressure Compounding or Rateau Staging

To overcome the problem of high blade velocity in the single-stage impulse turbine, the
total enthalpy drop through the nozzles of that turbine are simply differentiated,
especially in an equal manner, among many single-stage impulse turbines in series
(Figure: 5.5). Such a turbine is called a Rateau turbine, based on the name of its
inventor. Due to a reduced , the inlet steam velocities to each stage are essentially
equal.

Pressure drop - takes place in more than one stage of nozzles and the increase in
kinetic energy after each nozzle is held within limits. For this, generally convergent
nozzles are used.
Figure: 5.5 Pressure Compounding or Rateau Staging
Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine:

Figure: 5.6 Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine

Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine is a combination of the two types of

compounding discussed earlier. Here both pressure drop and velocity drop are
differentiated into different sections as presented in Figure 5.6.

Thus, here one or more ‘Curtis stage’ (velocity compound) followed by ‘Rateau stage’
(pressure compound) are given. Curtis stages reduce pressure to a medium level with
high proportion of work in single stage and then the highly efficient ‘Rateau stages’
absorb the energy which is remaining. Here it is possible to reduce over all-length.
Velocity Diagram and Calculations for Impulse Turbines

Velocity diagram gives an account of velocity of fluid entering and leaving the turbine.

Figure: 5.7 Velocity Diagram

  and   = Inlet and outlet absolute velocity

  and   = Inlet and outlet relative velocity (Velocity relative to the rotor blades.),

U = mean blade speed

= nozzle angle,   = absolute fluid angle at outlet

It is to be represent that all angles are with respect to the tangential velocity (in the
same direction as of U)

and   = Inlet and outlet blade angles

  and   = Tangential or whirl component of absolute velocity at both inlet and outlet

 and   = Axial component of velocity at inlet and outlet

Tangential force exerted on a blade, 

Figure: 5.8 Combined velocity tringle

(mass flow rate X velocity change in tangential direction)

or,

Blade efficiency or Diagram efficiency or Utilization factor is calculated from

or,
or,

or,    

Or,

Optimum blade speed of a single stage turbine

where,  
  is at its maximum when   also

or,   

or,     

is of the order of 180 to 220

Now,   (For single stage impulse turbine)

The maximum value of blade efficiency

  
For equiangular blades,

If the friction over blade surface is neglected

Figure: 5.9 Diagram efficiency with blade speed-steam velocity ratio.

Reaction Turbines

Reaction turbine, is one that is constructed of rows of fixed and rows of moving blades.
The baled which are acts as nozzles. The moving blades move as a result of the
impulse of steam received (caused by change in momentum) and also as a result of
expansion and change in the velocity of the steam relative to them. In other words, they
also act as nozzles. The enthalpy decreases per stage of one row fixed and one row
moving blades is divided between them, often equally. Thus, a blade with a 50% degree
of reaction, or a 50% reaction stage, is one in which half the enthalpy drop of the stage
happens in the fixed blades and half in the moving blades. The pressure drops will not
be equal, however. They are greater for the fixed blades and greater for the high-
pressure compared to the low-pressure stages.
The moving blades of a reaction turbine are easily differentiable from those of an
impulse turbine in that they are not symmetrical and, because they act partly as
nozzles, have a look similar to that of the fixed blades, although curved in the opposite
direction. The schematic pressure line (Figure: 5.10) shows that pressure continuously
drops through all stages of blades, fixed or moving. The absolute steam velocity
changes within each stage as shown and repeats from stage to stage. Figure: 5.11
shows a typical velocity diagram for the reaction stage.

Figure: 5.10 Three stages of reaction turbine indicating pressure and velocity distribution
Pressure and enthalpy drop both in the fixed blade or stator and in the moving blade or
Rotor

or,  

A very widely used design has half degree of reaction or 50% reaction and this is known
as Parson's Turbine. This is having of symmetrical stator and rotor blades.
 Figure: 5.11 The velocity diagram of reaction blading

The velocity triangles are symmetrical and we have

Energy input per stage (unit mass flow per second)

From the inlet velocity triangle, we have,

Work done (for unit mass flow per second) 

Therefore, the Blade efficiency

Put   then

For the maximum efficiency   and we get

from which finally it yields

Figure: 5.12 The velocity diagram of outlet stage

Absolute velocity of the outlet at this stage is axial ( Figure: 5.12). In this case, the energy
transfer

 can be found out by putting the value of   in the expression for
blade efficiency
 is more in reaction turbine. Energy input per stage is less, so there are a more
number of stages.

Stage Efficiency and Reheat factor

The Thermodynamic effect on the turbine efficiency can be easily understood by

considering different stages between two stages, stage 1 and stage 2 as shown in
Figure 5.13

Figure: 5.13 Different stage of a steam turbine

The whole expansion is divided into four stages of the same efficiency   and pressure
ratio.
The overall efficiency of expansion is . The actual work during the expansion from 1
to 2 is:

Or,

Or,

R.F is 1.03 to 1.04

If will be same for all the stages or   is the mean stage efficiency.

Or,
We can see:

This makes the overall efficiency of the turbine greater than the single-single stage
efficiency.

The effect presented is due to the thermodynamic effect called "reheat". This does not
imply any heat transfer to the stages from outside. It is merely the reappearance of
stage losses an change in enthalpy during the constant pressure heating (or reheating)
processes AX, BY, CZ and D2.

Losses in Steam Turbines

1. Losses in nozzles: Deviation in operating state of nozzle may be due to non-

isentropic expansion. The reasons for non-isentropic expansion may be friction
losses among the steam and nozzle wall, viscous friction resistance to flow in the
steam particles, boundary layer formation and separation, heat loss during flow
etc.

2. Losses in moving blades: Profile loss coefficient ( ), incidence loss coefficient

( ) and carry over loss coefficient ( ). Profile loss coefficient is the addition of
the losses due to turbulence, friction, fluid deflection in blade passage, curvature
of blade and actual exit angle being different from blade exit angle. Incidence
loss coefficient taking use of losses due to turbulence introduced by angle of
incidence. The carry over loss coefficient making use of losses due to kinetic
energy loss during transition of flow between the rows.

3. Disc friction loss: Disc friction loss is the loss of energy visible whenever any
object say disc is rotated in air or other medium.

4. Windage loss: Windage loss happens when the rotor blades come in contact
with near stationary fluid (steam).

5. Loss due to leakage: Steam leakage may occur across the turbine shaft and
among stages. Leakage of steam may result in availability of less work from
stage as steam is not fully use for producing work.

6. Losses in bearings
7. Losses at inlet and exit
8. Losses due to radiations

Governing of Steam Turbines

Governing of steam turbine is required for controlling and regulating the output of a
turbine according to variable which are in service. This regulation of turbine is done by
maintaining accurate and positive control of speed, pressure and flow by employing
governors.
i. Throttle governing
ii. Nozzle control governing
iii. By-pass governing
iv. Combined governing i.e., Combination as ‘throttle and nozzle control governing’
or ‘throttle and by-pass governing’.

i. Throttle Governing

Throttle governing of steam turbine bases upon the throttling of steam up to suitable
pressure and regulate the mass flow of steam through the turbine so as to control the
output of turbine.

Figure: 5.14 Throttle governing on h-s diagram

Here a centrifugal governor is applicable to sense the change in speed of shaft. For
throttle governing of steam turbine the steam consumption rate may be plotted with load
resulting into characteristic line called Willans line as shown in Figure: 5.14
 Figure: 5.15 Schematic of simple throttle governing

Figure: 5.16 Specific Steam Consumption

During throttle governing the Willan’s line is straight line making an intercept on y-axis.
Mathematically, it can be given as,
where M is steam consumption in kg/h at any load L.
M0 is steam consumption in kg/h at no load i.e. L = 0
L is any load on turbine in kW.
K is the constant and gives slope of Willan’s line.

Throttle governing offers following disadvantages due to throttle action at inlet:

(a) Throttling increases initial superheat at inlet and the greatest variations in steam
velocity occur in the later stages.
(b) The wetness of steam gets reduced in later stages due to throttling. Due to this
reduced wetness there happens reduction in stage efficiency at part load
operation of turbine.

ii. Nozzle Control Governing:

Nozzle control governing is the one in which steam flowing via nozzles is regulated
by valves. Nozzle control governing is usually employed at first stage of turbine
because of practical limitations. The nozzle areas in remaining stages remain
unchanged. If somehow the nozzle governing is provided for all nozzles in all stage
then an ideal condition of turbine flow passage areas conforming to mass flow rate
at all loads shall exist. Under this ideal condition the pressure, velocities and nozzle
and blade efficiencies would be constant with load. For such ideal condition the
Willan’s line would be straight line as represented for throttle governing of turbine. In
nozzle governing the nozzles of turbines are combined in two, three or more groups
up to six or eight groups. When nozzle governing is employed then the pressure and
temperature of steam incoming to first stage nozzles are independent of load.

iii. By Pass Governing

In case of by-pass governing arrangement is made for by-passing surplus quantity of

steam without allowing whole steam quantity to contribute in turbine output when
load reduces.

iv. Combined governing:

Some times when the governing requirements are not met by any one kind of
arrangements of governing i.e. throttle, nozzle control and by pass governing, then
the combination of both governing mechanisms may be used. These popular
combinations are ‘throttle and nozzle control combined governing’ and ‘throttle and
by pass combined governing’.