Scribd Logo
Upload

Welcome to Scribd!

  • PGPA-01State, Society & Public Administration

    Uploaded by

    PranNath
    26 views184 pages

    Copyright

    © © All Rights Reserved

    Available Formats

    PDF or read online from Scribd

    Did you find this document useful?

    Is this content inappropriate?

    Report this Document

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    26 views184 pages

    PGPA-01State, Society & Public Administration

    Uploaded by

    PranNath

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF or read online from Scribd
    Flag for inappropriate content
    of 184
    NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY STUDY MATERIAL P.G.P.A. PAPER - 4 (Eng.) MODULES : I-IV POST GRADUATE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PREFACE Inthe cuticular struc introduced by this Univesity forsiuentsofPost Graduate Degree Programme, the opportunity (o pursue Post Cradunte course inasubjesisas introduces by this Univesity equally available foal camer. Instead of being guided “by any presurion about ify leva, t would perkaps stand to reasonieceptivity of a leamer is uelged in the couse of the Ieaming provess. That would be entirely in Ihecping wil lic ebjectives of open educsiton which docs not believe in artifical reestablish Segrezation ond other illiberal diseases of the Old South, Since Conservatives, ined, very ‘would have preferred a pateralistic state more than a truly liberal ney movement, however energized by Reagan, they were poorly. situated to things Just as drug prohibition was producing in the 1986's the same phen of crime anid gansterisin as had eleohol Prohibition in the 1920s, it was nev agreed upon by Conservatives and “Liberals” that such paternalistic laws we right thing, however vile the consequences, ‘Tins, although presurmibly refuted and repudiated by Reagan and ‘Tha the welfare stave actly marches on. Blit opinion has leaned wothing and fo ‘homing and continues, a forthe Tas forty years, acleas, 1 exer a constant pr towards greater socialism, Conse-vatig, of course is relative term. If Consesvs is sienply co call "Stop", as William F. Buckley seid, this would mean actual tetaining the principles ofthe New Deal, Since neither Reagan, nor Newt Gingvich, ‘which now was dismissed as a fiction of religious and mer: and no differenve bet 38 or George W. (or H. W.) Bush, havy ever breathed a word aguinst the.New Deal, ‘and oesasionally even pruice Franklin Roosevelt, they obviously are quite comfortable ‘with one foot in the welfare star, When the other foot is closer to paternalism Gian to liberalison, this promises litle hong for genuine progress towards liberal ideals. ‘That such movement would indeed be progress lias been well vevealed by ‘events and by theory. The reproachful presece of the Soviet Union, as 8 successful social and economic order devoid of the trivial freedoms of civil society, guaranteeing {full tie to al, esasted in fgnominious failure between 1989 and 1991. The reputed prosperity and efficiency of the “command ecoriomy" was all a fiction, promoted ‘well enough to deceive, not only eredulous, crypto-socialise evonomists Tike: John Kenneth Gotbenith, but even the CIA, which consistently overestimated the size of the Soviet economy. Thus, all the eggs that needed to be broken Ge. millions class enemies killed) 10 create the workers’ paradise tumed out to be an exereise jn monstrous and cruel futility. Yet elite opinion in the West continues to think that price conols and other command economic regulations, together with rights to jobs, income, housing, education; medical care, ete, are still the direction called for by politica) aud social progress. [Euiopean states that never went as far as the Soviets, but did put in plave irge systems of welfate benefits and joh protections, eunsistently experienee-poor to noteconomie growth and’ persistent high unemployment. What had been the British disease now looks like the French disease, as French truckers, for instanes, regularly fheeze French trausportation t demand an even lower reticement age, treater benefits, ete, In the liberal stat, such things would sot be political issues, ‘Theoretically, Public Choice economics reveals why in the welfire state, os lias been ssid of the ‘Votional Health Service, “useless york replaces useful works” ‘That is, it nicer to g | something for nothing through tent seeking than 10 actually create and run a business that avoids baukruptey and provides something that people want, The costs of political appropriations are dispersed among the public, aud the benefits eoneenirated in the bands of the privileged individual while the benefits of generating wealtl: economically are dispersed among the oblivious consumer, awhile the costs are concentrated private precarious business, When govertuniient protects and subsidizes businesses o° onder to “save jobs," i¢ ean even make the procedure sound noble and compassionate, This is aptly called "corporate welfare” 9 but politically it sells as well © labor unions as to business. Thus te steel taifis jstiuted by George W. Bush buy votes and mouey from te steel industry amd steal ymin, while everyone, including those put out of their jobs when their eamployers, operating atthe margin of pritbilty, are put out of business, pays the higher prices of ste. AAs the welfare stme rms up apoinst fiscal frie, the rebound con as well ‘bo back towards paternalism as towards liberalitm, The greatest evil of the welfare stale, indeed, is tha ic is designed to protet people from the couseqwences of vice 1.2 Principals of the Liberal State Based on ideas of the enlightenment and the French revolution, the 19th century developed the nkxlel of the liberal ste, This Iiberal state was based on ‘a sumber of principles (0) the state i's government and it's Jaws were based on a writen constitution ‘which limited the euthority of the state veraus it’s citizens, protected the rights of the: individual citizen, and delined his dotied, @) the state was to guarantee individual Leryn transitional petiods, servitude was phased out, Privileges of the nobility and clesey were cancelled )_ Stote md Chumvh vere clearly separated As the ehrrch, in the, in the past, had taken to functions now monopolized by the sate, property was confiscated to & large extent and rum into state 7 4) communal property often equally was confiscated or dissolved, nto individual property: (5). freedom of trade was inmedueed; monopolies, privileges of abolisheds (© some liberal states, in order to break regionalisen (regions) hist privileges. structuren) instinited an administrative reform i centralization ond a structure of departments; (7) edlucation, at least from secondary education upward, was the ta he state, not any more of the church, 40 (8) in economie policy, the liberal state proposed a policy of laissez-faire; (0) law codes (civil and penal lay), were published, ‘The {9th century liberal slate was a constitutional monarchy. The right wo parliament, ‘now permanent, was to exercise a checking function, by approving or not approving, hudgets, debating political issues or demanding individual portfolio ministers to resign, appoint a cabinet with a prime minister or chancellor was. with the kin Supporters of the libero! state were burghets, the middle class—entreprencurs, bunkers, property owners, and intellectuals The liberal state had antagonized the Catholic Church and resulted in sttained stote-church-relations. Parliamentary polities dhroghout much of the 19th century ‘was matked by the rivalry between conservatism aud liberals often advocating the extension of the franchise in Inpe to win more voters. This policy ultimately favoued the Labour Moyement 1.3 The Philosophy of the Liberal State Liberalisn can be undersmod as a political tition a political philosophy ‘and general philosophical theory, encompassing a theory of value, 2 conception. of the person-and a motal theory as well as 2 political philosophy. As a politioul ‘tradition liberalism bas-varied in different countries. In England the liberal tradition, i politics has centred on religious toleration, government by consent, personal and, especially, econeinie freedorn. In Fronce liberalistn has been more closely associated. ‘with seenlarism and democracy, In the United States Wberals often combine a devotion to personel liberty with an antipathy to capitalism, while the Heeralism ‘of Anatralin tends (© be much more-sympathetic to capitalism but often less enthusiastic about civil liberties According 19 J.8, Shapiro the term ‘Liberalism’ whicl is » Spanish word vnerged trom the name of a political paty, te ‘Liberals’ that in the early 19ih tentury advocated constitutional goverment for Spain, Te bir. late: on th: term “Liberal” was taker over in other counties to designate a goverment, a party a paticy, and an opinion that favored fiesdom as opposed %9 authoritarianism. a” Eumest Barker explained that by its'very name it tried to vindicate peculiar interest in the cause of Liberty. Originally it was a passion for die right of che individual citizen to cary on his life accoeding to his own will, at once protected and espeoted by his own state. It was a protes from the days of the Magna Carta, against arbitrary imprisonment and arbitrary taxation. It-was also. a claim for liberty of spéech, of ‘meeting, of discussion etc, The liberty of discussion was widened to mean further the right of the members af a state to constitute its own government and to deter i policies by flee debates and the sight io vote. It upholds the cause fr freedom, from the unjust and hampering. restraints imposed on his actions, thoughts, beliefs and worship by te goverament, the chuteh, institutions and traditions, Political Liberalism has following basic elements = Natura) Law, Equality, Limited goverument, Laissez-laire Beouomies, Rationalism, Intellectual Freedom, Toleration, Secularism, Peopscss, Fdveation, were ‘viewed as the instruments of real social progress. ‘The madieval producer arwined his individual end through an otivty, which aL every stage bout him to the eules of conduct, which wre ethically sanctioned, ‘Wealth was regarded asa fund of social significance and not of individual possession, ‘But the rising commercial classes. were opposed © any sort of vestant, even he ethical one, As soon as the exptuist spirit began to attain a predominant hold Cover mau's mind, the capitalist individual strted claiming for the freedom of ‘economie pursuit. ‘The pursuit of wealth for its 6wn sake became the chic? mi cof human activity. They raised their voice against any sor of interfetence, whet by the ecclesiastical authority. or by the state itselt Political liberty in this sense simply dhe area within which a man Lunotstructed by others, Coercion implies the deliberate interference of other ‘beings within the area, “By definition’, Maurice Cranston righlly pointed Liberal is @ man oho believes Ubery’ (Cranston, 459). In two ditfeent liberals ncoord liberty primacy as & political value, First, Uberals have ‘maintained that humans ace notarally in ‘a Stare of perfect Freedom or order ‘Actions ... as Uwey think fit... without asking leave, or dependidng on the ‘of any otter Man’ (Locke, 1960 {1679}; 287. Mill oo argued! that [7] be ‘of proof is supposed 10 ith those who are against. liberty; who contend for ‘restriction oF prohibition. ... The a priori assumption is in favour of freedom EM, 199] {1859 472) "This sight by called tho Fundamental Liberal Principle 2 (Gaus, 1996 162—166) + freedom in nonnatively basic, and so the onus of justification is on those who would limit freedom, Tt follows froun this that political authority and Jaw must be justified s they limit he liberty of citizens, Consequently, the central question of liberal polticsl theory is whether political authority con be justified, and if s0, bow. Tris for this reason that social contract theory, as developed! by Thonnas Hobbes (1948 [1651), John Locke (1960 [1689)), Jenn-Iacyues Rousseau (1973) [1762)) and Fmmamuel Kast (1965 (1797), is usually viewed as liberal even ‘though the actuall political prescriptions of, say, Hobbes and Rousseau, have ininety iliberal features. Insofar as ey take as their stating point a stale of nature in which humans are fee and equal , and so) argue that ay Himnitation of this fteedonn awd equality stonds in need of justification (ie., by the social contract), the contractual traditioo expresses the Fundamental Liberal Principle. ‘The Fundamental Inberal Principle hold that restrictions om liberty must be: justified, and heeause he accepts this, we can understand Hobbes as espousing a Tliberal political theory. But Hobbes is at best a qualified bbera, for he also argues that drastic limitations on Liberty can be justified. Paradigmacie liberals such as Locked not only advocate the Furdamental Liberal Principle, but also maintain that justified Fimitations on Hberty ate fairly comest. Only a limited goverment eat be justified; indeed, the basie task of goverument is to protect the equal liberty of citizens, “Thus Jol Rawls's first principle of justice : “Each person is to have ‘an equal sight to the most extensive fotal system of equal basic liberties compatible with a similar system for all” (Rawls, 1971 + 302) Liberalism is based on the ascumption that the individual initiative contains within ilself soine necessary seed of social good. Accordingly, it has always tended to make on antithesis between liverty and equality, because it has seen in Hibexty hat emphasis upon individual accion which inspites him to mave towards his own destiny of progress in his own way ond eecordiug co his own capability and ft thas seen in equality the outcome of authoritarian intervention which trespass into the private domain of the individual, hampering the smooth growth of individual personality. As adoctrine, early liveralism was directly related to individuel freedouns ic sought, almost from the ontsst of is history to limit the power of the goverument syithin the framework of constitutional pineiple and wo enlist such Fundamental Lights whieh the government of the sla was uot entitled to violate, though the fact was that the tights were secured i the ‘ttevest of the propertied clus, not the common people. They not only murured the auitude favouing the breakdown of tie system 43 of public assistance, but also answered to the growing need of the boungeois oluss who were getting alisid of the working community's effort to combine for self- protection ad their attempt to assert rights both in parliament and in the covits of law. The early liberals upheld that the uexus between master and mon was purely economic one and uot a partesship implying reciprocal social duties: nits inival phase of evolution iberaiam was associated with the priaiple of laisse fre economy aud most of te times supported the vauso ofthe minimum state interference, The early liberals were mosly bothered ahout the coercive jnvolyement or restrictive movernent of dhe goverment in the economic sphere tnd they were coucemed with the tariffs and regolotions of the poverament in this respect. John Stuart Mill maried the distinction between aithortstive and none authoritative intervention by the government, demanding that the authoritative action of the government be restveted wo he ininimum required for the upholding of justice In addition (0 providing minimum welfare services, a liberal state wns supposed to muintain a free order. The libecala felt dat de state must perform sou: positive fimetions, lke the legislation snd enforcement of anti-monopoty regulations, certain coastner protection mensires, the regulation of the star-funded schools and the like, The ideal government, then, ensures that no ogent, including itself, has erbitrary power over any citizen. The key method by which this is accomplished is via an ‘qual disbursement of power. Such a disbursement would make it more difficult for un agent, oF the slate, (o possess the resources, economic or otherwise, that would allow them + exercise arbitrary interferenes over another (Petit, 1997 6) ‘The notion of Hihevsl state sought fo eurail the, absolu authority govemmient, The concept gained its strengih liom the philosophy of John ‘who made the governmental powers subservient to popular consent snd natu of the individuals. He justified te overthrow of government by revolution vl the govemment went against die natural rights of the people. This notion ‘on the assumption that these isan inherent basic rationality of umon bein liberals believed that only by using reason man could create anew system of hut would bring happiness to mun in this world. As ravoualists, the bora a0 institutions 4 be wietiable to natural layr end thereby indiectty urged suck institutions should be uplel! cr ertieized sud explained in terms of 1 law. Indeed it was his tauenalist atinude. of mind thot urged the beruls emphasize the autonomy of the individual, The concept gained its suength from er the philosophy of Jol Locke who made the govemmental powers subservient to popular consent and natural righs of the iuuividuals. le justified the overthrow ff govemmunt by revolution whenever the government went against the nature rights of the people For Berlin ond those who follow him, then, the heart of liberty is die absence of evercion by others; consequently, the liberal stae's commitment to protectiig liberty is, essentially, the job of ensuriag that citizens do not eneree each other ‘without compelling justification, Hosvever, despite the gowerful case for negative Tiberty, many Heras have been atrueted to more “positive” conceptions of libeny, Although Rousseau (1973 [1762)) seemed wo advocate a positive conception of liteny, according to which one wus free when one acted according 10 one’s tmie ‘vil (he general will), the positive eonceprion was Hest developed by-the British nco-Hegeliaas of the lato nineteeath and early twentieth centuries, such as ‘Thomas Green and Bosanguet (2002 (1923), Green ueknowledged hat “it must be of conse acted that every usage of the term [ic freedom) tm express anything but social and politcal-relation of one man c other involves metaphor . It ciways implies ... some exemption from compulsion by another ... (1986 [1895] 229), Newestheless, Green went on to clsim that & person can be unfive if he js subject to an impulse or craving that cannot te controlled, Such a person, Green argued, is“... the condition of a bondsinan who is carrying out the will of another, not his own’ (1986 [1895]: 228). Just as a slave is not doing what he really wants to do, oe who fs, soy, an aleoholic is being Jed by » craving to look for satisfaction, where it cannot, ullimately, be Found, & Ror Green, « person is free only i she is self-directed or swtonomous, Runny throughout liboral political theory is au ideal of a free person. as one whose actin are is some sense het own, Suck a person is not subjevt to compulsions, critical reflects on list ideals and so does not unreflectively follow eustom and does ignore her long-term interests for short-term pleasures. This ident of freedom autonomy has its rots not omly at Rousseau’s and Kant’s political theory, but ali fn John Stuart Mill's On Liberty. And today it is a dominint strain in tiheruflan as witnedied by the work of S.J. Benn (1988), Gerald Dworkin (1988), and Joseph Raz (1986). ‘An older uation of liberty that has recently undergone resurgence, is the republican, of neo-roman, eongepiion of liberty. This conception jis theortiea! 098s in the ritiugs of Cicero and Niccolo Mochiavelli (1950 (1513). ® Whar hus come to be known as ‘new’, ‘wevisionist, or “welfare state” liberalism ‘challenges this intimate conneetion between personal liberty aud a private propeity based market order (Fiveden, 1978; Gaus, 19832, Moepherson, 1973: ch. 4). Three factors lielp explsin the rise of this revisionist theory. First, the new liberaliam arose in the lace vinetsenth aud early twentieth centuries, a petiod in which the ability of a free market to sustoin what Lord Beveridge called “prosperous ‘equilibrium’ was being questioned. If» private propery based market tended to be uustable, or could, as Keynes argued (1973 (1936), get stuck in an equilityiuam with fhigh employment, new liberals came t0-daubr thar it was an adequate Foundation for a stable, free society. Here the second factor comes into play ; just as the new liberals were losing faith in the macket, their faith in government as a mneaas of supervising economic life was incteasing. This was parly du to the ‘expericies of the Fist World War. The third factor underlying the developinent Of the new liberalism was probably the. most fundamental : a growing conviction thot, so far from being ‘he guardian of every ether right” ly, 1992: 26), propeity rights generated on unjust inequality of power that Led tw less-thet-equal liberty (ypically, ‘positive liberty") tor the working class. ‘This theme is’ central to contermporary American liberalism, which combines sttong endorsement of civil and peisoual liberties with, st best, an indifference, and often enough an antipathy, to private ownership. Once agai, the seeds of dis newer Hberalism ea be found in Mill's On Liberty, Although Mill insisted that the ‘so-oglled doctrine of Free ‘Trade’ resied on ‘equally solid” grounds as did the ‘principle oF individual liberty? (0991 [1859]: 105), he nevertheless insisted thatthe justifications of personal economic liberty wete entinely distineet. And in his Principles of Political Ec ‘Mill consistently emphasises that it is an open question whether personal ‘can Alourish without private property, a position that Rawls was veaffina a Inter. ‘The impact of the World War Il enhanced the.eatent of state acitvi Great Britsin the experience oF a highly successful socialist command yielded the Beveridge Plan for a mmaged mixed economy, while in the Ur ‘States war involvement entrenched the managerialist tondeueies of the Ru Gon Gray: Liberalism, p, 36). Even where the socialist ideology taid no cr indict impact, there developed w tendency favouring the grow of te act state and mixed and regulated morket, instuad oF w free ong. 9 Ju Nozick’s view te minimum state would exist only to protect the Lockealt 46 fights, ie, the rights 6 life, berry, propery, possessed by man in the stawe of tatu, However Robert Nozick slmost mentioned nothing about the finoncing of the minimum state, The most promissing altemative approach was ffzied by FA. Hayek (The, Road 10 Serfdom, 1944) and by the Public Choice School, Hayek warmed against the adoption of socialist polices by the westem mation and he sopgested that these nations must travel slong, the classical Mera line, Tt added strength tothe current neo-liberal shought, supporting the policy of minima contol oon ccouomic: activities, Hayek ‘ried 0 derive the basie liberal rights from « eonception of justice that is procedural in nauro. The basie rights, as conceived by Hayek and owls wete based ou jusli, which isi Kantian lexus enttches the autonomy of the individuat Liberalism hs always been subject to attck and eriticism trom different quarters, both tatellectually and politically, Conservatism, socialism, colleesvism and the ike severely ltacke the basic tenet of liberalism, Conservatives proclaimed that relations of authority are actual aspects of the nanural form oF social lite Conservative thinkers like de Meiste ond Burke muliniained that the elements of authority, loyalty, higramhy and order ate the cental themes of political life, not the equality or liberty; they are particularists Socialists fayowred the proggess towards « classless epalitarin auciely and Jike the Conservatives and unlike the liberals they mostly repudiated the abstract individualism, 1.4 Weberian Conceptualisation A systematic theory of burvaneracy had been evolved by Max Weber 36 sn exteusion of his notion of “deal Type’, He gonceived of bureaucracy as a fora tnganization, which evolved ost of the lnrgor considerations of sosi-political: ad ioral forees. The concept of egal dowination ceanered around a unique relaion Tetween the less and the led and this eied the position of the bureauesn ‘The bureaucrat form, aocondng io Weber, i the most efficient orgatzatonal font for largeeeale, complex adminishation that has been developed under te conditions of 0 Hborad democratic atte, Io describing the legal—raional authority spstem, Weber noted six major principles a 1, A fonnel hierachiea! structure Each level controls the level below and is vonwolled by the Tevel above, formal hierarchy is the basis of central planning and centralized decision making, 2. Management by rules Controlling by ples allows decisions made ot high levels t0 be executed consistently by all lower level. 3, Organization by functional specialty Brory task of the organizatio is @ be done by experts, and the basis uf recruitment must depend on the principle of selecting ‘right person Yor the cigh job’ 4, An “upfocused” oF “in-foensed” mission 1f the mission is desorbed as “up focused, (hen the orpanization’s purpose is to serve the stockholdes, the board, or whatever agency canpowered it. IF the mission is (@ serve the organization itself, and those within it, ©, © produce high profits, to gain market shee, or m produce a cash steam, then the mission js deseribed as “u-focused”. 5, Impersonality ‘The idea Js to teat all employees equally and customers equally, and not be influenced by individual differences and personal value preferences or bius, 6 + Secuity of tenure ‘There must be protection fiom arbiuary disinissal without any sat {ustification. Defined rights and duties prescribed in written document, employment ‘on technical qualifiations, merit or seniority bused promotions, a caresr Dy fixed salaries et. sve some of ether principles prescribed in Wehetian conceptual of bureaueracy. ‘The bureaucratic form, according to Parkinson, has another atvibute Predisposltion ta grow in stalf “above the line": Weber failed to notjee this; but CN. Parkinson found it so common the made it the basis of his humorous "Parkinson’s Inw”, Parkiason demonstra 48 that the management and professional stail tend to grow at predictable rates, almost ‘without regard to what the line orginization is doing ‘The bureaucratic form is s0 common that unost people secept it as the normal sway of organizing almost ony endeavor Peoyle in bureaucratic organizations ‘generally blame the ugly side effects of bureaveracy on management, or the founders, oF the owmers, without awareness that the real cause is the organizing, form’ Max Weber laid ness on the following elements of a Bureaceney Division of Labor Hierarchy of Authority Rules and Regulations Thnpessonality Career Orientition Cleorly specified functions Unified control and disciplined functioning According © Max Weber © —Buteaucracies ate rational have chains of eommand maintain specification of suthorty, follow clear lines of responsiblity abides by the niles of impersonality © emphasizes on productivity nd revord Keeping Burewuersey as conceived by Max Weber is based on the notion (of ) legal- rational authority, an authority shut is aoknowledyed as legitimate*being: herent in the adniuistrators in the hierarchical strvetare ‘Atte hunds of Weber, bureausraby emerged as neutral, hienorhivally erganiznl, efficient and inevitable im contemporary society This wus the ideal (ype bureaucracy. 1n foet the ideal (ype is never actualized, The characteristics of butteaucriey were: precision, continuity discipline, seicmess, and reliability and it ts supeiior «© wy 49 otter form of orgenization in precision, stability, maintenance of eisciptine and teliability. These characterisics made it technically the most efficient form of organization, Max Weber has defined bureaucracy in terms of sts structural characteritis, Ihas sozie behavionsial tits, Bureaucracy has heen viewed in terms of achievement of purposes, Unit 2 Q Evolution of Liberal State : Beckground History wits the evolution of the Nation-State in two phases © transition from feudalism fo the absotutist State Serfs reproduced vis their cov lots reploced slaves. ‘They enoyed relative freedom but were bound t0 tho fand. The system could be managed without Inrge sale military. © transition from the absoluést state to the liberal State, followed by the tise of towns, (Ourside feudel onder, hariered by King, ruled by Councils of Burgers. Towns paid taxes direetly t0 the Kings. Serfs who the manors found work in the cities, King used towus a power Gase ~ often abvopating the Laws of Retum. Absolutst store sequined steveriral reform 10'replace the decentulized deciaion making of feudalism, Bvoltion of modes of production ftom tj meresntle and then mercantile to capitalistic ome necessitated the prowth of a centralized state system with « uniform legal structure, In course of tume manufacture became more inaportant, Guilds became non aristocratic power struciures. Growing urbun population meant that agriculture had to be commercial. Trade began t open in the 14th century. King needed standing, army, ‘Taxation was needed to suppost standing atmy. Standing army could be used to suppress nobles, ‘The Rise of Absolution md the Nation-State system could be atibuted to he following events, ‘A, ‘The Reformation and the Religious Wars 1517 Martin Luier in Wistnberg 151944531 Zwvingli de Calvin 1533 Honky 8ikeDivoree from Catuerine of Aragon - Aunt of Chas V ~ of HIRE. a 3. Reance and the Holy Reman Knpire ~ MAP 1520 Chartes-V declaed HIRE - Defender of the Chureh in Avst0, Hungary ad Geaman st 1646-1547 Sehuathadan War - Potstnt Geman Princesrevel again the MRE HRB wins 1552 Second Sehmalkadan Upsing =the tin supporid by Henry 1 of France = Germann Pines wins 1555 Peace of Augsburg 1 Prinees of Gennany can choose thir religion between Lutheranism and Catliism = but not Calvinism, 2 Cajus Regi, ejusRelgio~ “the elpln ofthe prince is the reiion of de a 43 Bessel Princes ne) lose thers lands if they convert to Lutheranisin, 4 Protestant prinoes retain land won-Calvinism entered German States — contrity to the terms of Avgstincy 1608 Flector of Paluntine proposed Evangelical Union ~ to unite protestant stares of HRE vs Hapsburgs. Maximilian of Bavaria organized the Catholic League it opposition Evangelical Union C . The thirty’ years were ~ 1618,~ 1648, followed by" the enactment ‘TREATY OF WESTPHALIA (1648). The trealy maked the very fis of the secular state ‘The 17¢h and 18th century saw the emengence of the “reat powers” 1 Growth of Bureaucracy Growth of Official Diplomacy ~ establishment of missions Mervantilism Empire Building - Mereantile lnpertalism Dring this period capitalism requzed that private investors must i thei money, Mereantiiam wns found auti-capitalist. Absolute sta meant 2 investors had to get charter from monarchy, ‘This idea had to be hanged giving place to Ge ideals of liberalisun, {Freedom of choice Equality among, at least some set of competitive elites Laissez Faire economy ~ keep your hands off Self regulating economy Participation in polioy mekiig ~ DEMOCRACY Primacy of property sights ‘The democratic ethic arose fiom lizerelisin which le to the rise of seoularist polities [absolutst states] arising out of the philosophis of enlightement followed by reformation in Burope. ie idea of William of Occan (13th century) that freedom to purse a personal relations with God (Reformation) was emphasized: The notion of Enlishtenment that the freedom to. pursee knowledge outside of the Church— ic. knowledge of the world, not constituted by god Found significationee. The vale of freedom t constitu the politcal world separately from the religions was highlighted. The ateibute of lihealiem, the freedom to paste Individual intersts without subordination to the state found expression. History agnin wimessed she utbrack of liberal sevotutions: First liberal revolution was USA ~ 17676 French Revolution 1789 Freuch people overthrow their aristocracy. — 1793-Eugland form conlision with Specin, Prussia and te uethwelands againrt France. 1795-Paris sevolt put down by commander of Paris, Brigade, Napoleon. [Napoleon rewarded with Command of Fra Anmy in Italy. The Libra sates were formd of different paris of Europe Now the Bourgeoisie had enfrachisement, there Were refoms in the conditions ‘ofthe work the Bourgeoisie had enfianchisement, there are reforms in the conditions of the working class; role of the Nobels was reduced ~ & eliminated: interests of ‘the stotes shifled from the “Passions” of the rulers tp the “Interests” of the economy. ‘and its elite. 8a omen Unit 3 O Democracy Structure 341 Tntroductign 3.2 History of Democracy 33° 20th century waves of Eemocracy 34 Forms. of Democracy 35. liberal Democracy 3.6 Four Conceptions of Democracy 437 Political Legitimacy and Democratic Culture 38. “Democracy” vs. “Republic” 49 ‘The Democratic State 3.10 Dissent 311 Advantages and Disadvantages of Democracy 3:12. References 1.1 Introduction Demecracy is more than a mere theory. It is a way of living, 4. & rightly observes that The highest measure ot demoeracy 38 nether the freedom’ norte ‘extent of equality’ but att the highest measure of pad Abbie Hoffman says that ‘Democracy is not something you believe in oF to bang your hit, bot its somethign you-do, You participate. 1F you s ft, democracy crumbles” Abraham Lincoln narrares that elections belong, people, Tt is their decision, TF they decide to our their back on the fire fhoir behinds; thew dhey wil jst have 40 sit on their blair.” Ab 1 be a slave, 6 T vould not be a master, This expresses my iden of et Abroham Lincoln (1809-1865) defines quite approriately that ‘Democracy i ovement of the poople, by the people, for the people’. 56 ‘Democragy, literally, is rule by the people (from the Greek domon, “people,” and krotos, “sule”). This cast be contrasted with oligarchy and antocracy, rule by fa few people or a single person, The word “democracy” has acquired e' highly positive connotation over the sekond half of the 20th century, to such an extent that even many dictatorehips elaum to be democratic and often hold pre-arranged show elections 10 gamer legitimacy, both internally and infemationally, Most contemporary polities! ideologies include at leost nominal support for some kind of democracy, Finally,

    You might also like