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Nejmra 030840
Nejmra 030840
review article
mechanisms of disease
Parvovirus B19
Neal S. Young, M.D., and Kevin E. Brown, M.D.
A B C
Figure 1. Transmission Electron Micrographs Showing Native Parvovirus B19 in Serum and Cells and Recombinant
Capsids.
Panel A shows symmetric, icosahedral particles, about 25 nm in diameter, and empty capsids (arrowheads) in serum
from an infected person (courtesy of Dr. Y. Cossart, ¬189,000). Panel B shows human erythroid progenitor cells infected
in vitro with the virus; vacuoles and cytoplasmic pseudopods are present (¬10,000). In Panel C, which shows part of Pan-
el B at higher magnification, marginated chromatin contains assembled capsids (¬100,000). Panel D shows empty re-
combinant parvovirus capsids produced in a baculovirus system (¬154,000).
that of other Parvoviridae, particularly in the use of the coast of Africa have escaped exposure.24,25 Par-
a single promoter. The viral genome encodes only vovirus B19 infection is common in childhood; half
three proteins of known function (Fig. 2A). The of 15-year-old adolescents have specific antiparvo-
nonstructural protein, from NS1, subserves multi- virus B19 antibodies.26 Infection continues at a low-
ple replicative functions and is cytotoxic to host er rate throughout adult life, and by the time they are
cells.22,23 The two structural proteins, viral protein 1 elderly, most persons are seropositive. In temperate
(VP1) and viral protein 2 (VP2), arise from alterna- climates, infections usually occur in the spring, and
tive splicing, so that VP1 is the same as VP2 except small epidemics at intervals of a few years are typi-
for an additional 226 amino acids at its amino ter- cal.27 The virus is spread by respiratory droplets, and
minal. The viral capsid of 60 capsomeres contains secondary infection rates among household con-
mainly VP2; VP1 accounts for only about 5 percent tacts are very high.28 Nosocomial infection has been
of the capsid protein. Folding of the proteins creates described.29 Parvovirus B19 has also been transmit-
a-helical loops that appear on the surface of the as- ted by blood products, especially pooled factor VIII
sembled capsids, where the host’s immune system and factor IX concentrates.30 The absence of a lipid
can recognize them as antigenic determinants (Fig. envelope and their genomic stability make parvovi-
2B and 2C). The region unique to VP1 is external to ruses notoriously resistant to heat inactivation and
the capsid itself and contains many linear epitopes solvent detergents. Since January 2002, major pro-
recognized by neutralizing antibodies. (Epitopes are ducers of plasma derivatives have voluntarily insti-
the parts of a molecule that are antigenic determi- tuted quantitative measurements of B19 DNA to re-
nants.) duce the risk of iatrogenic transmission.31
B19 Proteins
arises from the single unspliced transcript on the left- ATG (nt 3125) 554 aa TAA
hand side of the genome (hatched areas). The capsid (1)
B19 RNA
VP2 (58 kD)
proteins VP1 and VP2 are encoded by genes with over- ATG (nt 2444) 781 aa TAA
lapping reading frames from the right-hand side of the (1) VP1 (84 kD)
genome (for simplicity, alternative splice messenger ATG ATG TAA 7.5 kD
RNAs are not shown); aa denotes amino acids, nt nucle- (1) (2) 11 kD
87 aa
otides, (1), (2), and (3) reading frames, and P6, the sin- P6
gle viral promoter. The capsid protein gene (Panel A), TATA
protein (Panel B), and placement of the protein in the
capsid (Panel C) are shown in red. Panel B shows a rib- B
bon diagram of a major capsid protein, adapted from Loop 2
Tsao et al.20 Like many other viruses, parvovirus B19 VP2
Loop 1 Loop 4
has a determined secondary structure, with eight anti-
parallel b-pleated sheets (labeled A through H) forming
a compact “jelly-roll” core and a-helical loops extending
to the surface of the virus. COOH denotes the carboxy 110
terminal, and NH2 the amino terminal. In Panel C, cryo-
electron microscopy21 shows the surface topography of a Loop 3
100
Angstrom
parvovirus B19 particle, with superimposed positions of COOH
C
three identical capsid proteins and the two-, three-, and
H B
fivefold geometric axes of symmetry. The dashed and sol- 90 A
E
id lines represent symmetric planes around a given D
F
point. G
80 NH2
C
clinical presentation, viremia is present in transient
Threefold
aplastic crisis, and red-cell production resumes af-
ter antiviral antibodies that clear the infection have
been produced (Fig. 4B).
Transient aplastic crisis is usually a unique event Twofold
in the life of a patient, suggesting the induction of
long-lasting, protective immunity. Although self- Fivefold
A B C
A Normal Subjects B Patients with Transient Aplastic Crisis C Patients with Pure Red-Cell Anemia
15 15 15
equivalents/ml)
equivalents/ml)
equivalents/ml)
13 13 13
B19 Virus 11
B19 Virus
11
B19 Virus
11
(genome
(genome
(genome
9 9 9
7 7 7
5 5 5
3 3 3
1 1 1
0 0 0
0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
B19 Antibodies
B19 Antibodies
B19 Antibodies
100 100 100
(IU/ml)
(IU/ml)
(IU/ml)
IgM
50 50 50
IgG
10 10 10
0 0 0
0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
Reticulocytes
Reticulocytes
Reticulocytes
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin
14 1.0 14 10 14 10
H R H H
(g/dl)
(g/dl)
(g/dl)
(%)
(%)
(%)
8 8
R 0.2 R
4 0.0 4 6 4 6
0 10 20 0 10 20 0 10 20
Manifestations
Manifestations
Manifestations
Rash,
arthralgia
Clinical
Clinical
Clinical
Fever,
chills, Symptoms
headache, of anemia
myalgia Symptoms
of anemia
10 20 10 20 10 20
Inoculation Infection Infection
Days Days Days
or infection
tent of contact the pregnant woman had with chil- agnosis of infection rests on detection of the B19 ge-
dren.75 nome with the use of a polymerase-chain-reaction
Most parvovirus B19 infections during pregnan- assay, but the notorious difficulty of ridding a labo-
cy do not lead to loss of the fetus. The few reported ratory of a highly stable contaminant that results
cases of developmental anomalies in the eyes or ner- from DNA amplification increases the rate of false
vous system of infants with in utero exposure may be positive results. Furthermore, parvovirus B19 can
coincidental. However, severe anemia at birth with persist at low levels in the marrow,78 joints,43 and
bone marrow morphologic features that are con- liver79 of normal persons for many months after in-
sistent with constitutional pure red-cell aplasia fection, confounding the meaning of a single posi-
(Diamond–Blackfan anemia) or congenital dys- tive test.
erythropoietic anemia may be due to transplacental Elevated levels of hepatic aminotransferases can
transmission of parvovirus B19 infection.76 accompany fifth disease, and parvovirus infection
has been associated with severe but self-limited
other suspected parvovirus b19 syndromes hepatitis in a few children.80 However, parvovirus
Some skepticism about case reports of illnesses as- B19 could not be implicated in larger numbers of
sociated with parvovirus B19 is warranted, because patients with acute seronegative (non-A–E) hepa-
systematic studies that include controls have often titis81,82 or chronic hepatitis.83 Parvovirus B19 has
failed to validate these reports.77 Frequently, the di- been postulated to cause fulminant hepatitis,84 but
we found no specific association.79 The presence of cells — is consistent with the clinical effects of par-
genetic sequences of B19 in cardiac tissue has led vovirus B19 infection. Globoside is also known as
to the diagnosis of parvovirus myocarditis,85 myo- erythrocyte P antigen. Rare persons of the p pheno-
carditis86 and heart failure87,88 have followed fifth type blood group, whose erythrocytes lack P anti-
disease, and in one patient, chronic myocarditis was gen, are not susceptible to infection with parvovirus
accompanied by persistent parvovirus B19 in the cir- B19; they have no serologic evidence of prior infec-
culation.88 In some series, an association between tion, and their marrow erythroid progenitors pro-
parvovirus infection and myocarditis was rare,89 liferate normally in the presence of high concen-
but in others, a high proportion of biopsy speci- trations of virus.106 The nonstructural protein of
mens from patients with inflamed hearts contained parvovirus is responsible for the death of erythroid
B19 DNA.90 progenitors, and some cells, such as megakaryo-
Serologic and DNA evidence of parvovirus B19 cytes, may be lysed by restricted expression of viral
infection has been reported in some patients with proteins in the absence of viral propagation.107
necrotizing vasculitis,91 Kawasaki’s disease,92 The simian parvoviruses, which cause outbreaks
Henoch–Schönlein purpura,93 or giant-cell arteri- of severe anemia in caged animals, similarly target
tis.94 The gloves-and-socks syndrome, an exanthem erythroid cells108; experimental infection of mon-
localized to the hands and feet, with edema, erythe- keys results in conditions that mimic human pure
ma, paresthesia, and pruritus, has also been linked red-cell aplasia and hydrops fetalis.109 Other parvo-
to parvovirus B19.95 The chronic fatigue syndrome viruses that target hematopoietic cells more broadly
may follow infection with parvovirus B19.96,97 Men- are the feline panleukopenia virus110 and the minute
ingitis, encephalitis, and a variety of neurologic virus of mice.111
complications may occur with fifth disease and par-
vovirus infection.98 Type 1 cytokines, tumor necro- immunity to parvovirus b19
sis factor, and interferon-g have all been associated The antibody response is dominant in parvovirus
with symptomatic parvovirus infection in patients B19 infection (indeed, it has been difficult to dem-
with these syndromes.98,99 onstrate a T-cell response to the parvovirus). Anti-
body production is correlated with the disappear-
pathophysiology ance of virus from the blood, and IgG antibodies
appear to confer lasting protection against reinfec-
parvovirus b19 tropism tion. The basis of persistent parvovirus infection
The only known natural host cell of parvovirus B19 is a defect in immunoglobulin production. Serum
is the human erythroid progenitor. This extraordi- from patients with persistent infection lacks anti-
nary tropism was first demonstrated in tissue cul- bodies to parvovirus B19 or contains low levels of
ture, where small amounts of parvovirus B19 dra- nonneutralizing IgM or IgG antibodies.112 Antibod-
matically inhibited colony formation by early and ies to the unique amino-terminal region of VP1 are
especially by late erythroid progenitors without af- important for clearance of the virus. Serum samples
fecting myeloid colony formation.100 In normal from patients in the early phase of convalescence re-
subjects who are experimentally inoculated with act to VP2, but serum samples from patients in the
parvovirus B19, the numbers of erythroid progeni- late phase (and commercial immunoglobulins de-
tors in their bone marrow decline within a few rived from the plasma of normal subjects) have
days.101 Erythroid progenitors in cultures of bone strong anti-VP1 activity. Experiments with recombi-
marrow,102 peripheral blood,103 and fetal liver104 nant capsids, in which VP2 or VP2 plus VP1 assem-
allow the propagation of parvovirus B19. A distinc- bled in the empty capsids113 (Fig. 1D), demonstrat-
tive cytopathic effect and assembled parvovirus par- ed the crucial role VP1 has in the immune response.
ticles can be seen in isolated erythroid precursors Capsids containing VP2 only and those containing
from these cultures (Fig. 1B and 1C). VP2 plus VP1 differ markedly in their ability to elicit
Globoside, a neutral glycolipid that acts as a cel- a neutralizing immune response in both animals113
lular receptor,105 accounts for the tropism of the and humans.114 VP1 is required for an effective im-
virus for erythroid cells. The presence of globoside mune response, whereas VP2 is ineffective.115,116
in the placenta and in fetal myocardium — mainly The function of VP1 is not known, but its phospho-
on the surface of erythroid precursors and red cells lipase activity117 suggests that it has a role in viral
but also on some megakaryocytes and endothelial entry into cells. Peptides derived from VP2 may be
can also be prevented. The recombinant immuno- of bioterrorism: a domain of protective antigen of
gen that is being developed as a vaccine for the hu- anthrax is being incorporated on a parvovirus B19
man virus lacks DNA and is therefore noninfectious; particle.
empty capsids have been engineered to overexpress
the highly immunogenic VP1, and a single dose of conclusions
2.5 µg of empty capsids elicited neutralizing anti-
body responses in normal volunteers.114 As with Parvovirus B19 is an excellent example of the de-
many other vaccines, commercial interest rather pendence of the clinical manifestations of disease
than lack of efficacy or safety has limited the devel- on the intrinsic properties of a pathogen and the
opment of a parvovirus B19 vaccine. Such a vaccine peculiarities of the infected host. Distinct B19 syn-
could prevent transient aplastic crisis in patients dromes are prominent in pediatrics and obstetrics,
with sickle cell disease or other hemolytic anemias dermatology, rheumatology, and hematology, but
and pure red-cell aplasia in some immunodeficient the full spectrum of virus-induced disease has not
persons, as well as hydrops fetalis, if seronegative yet been defined. Symptoms and signs follow from
women were inoculated early in pregnancy. the infected person’s hematopoietic and immune
Chimeric viral capsids have been proposed as status, and parvovirus infection can range from an
more general vehicles for the delivery of antigens, asymptomatic condition to life-threatening disease.
and parvovirus B19 is especially attractive for this In the quarter century since Cossart’s discovery, our
purpose, because the VP1 unique region can be en- knowledge of parvovirus B19 has led to the recog-
tirely replaced with other protein sequences, al- nition of new human diseases, as well as the devel-
lowing, for example, the presentation of a confor- opment of diagnostic assays, effective treatments,
mationally and functionally intact enzyme on the and a candidate vaccine.
surface of the empty viral capsid.126 This method is We are indebted to M.G. Rossmann for his assistance with Fig-
ure 2C.
now being adapted for protection against an agent
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