2.

1 Derivatives of Algebraic and Transcendental Functions

Derivative is one of the fundamental concepts of calculus. In the previous module, we
discussed the concepts of limits. Derivative uses the limit concepts in its definition. We can
think of the derivative of a function as the instantaneous rate of change of one variable with
respect to the other variable. The derivative also gives the slope of a tangent line to the graph
of 𝑓 at the point (𝑥, 𝑓(𝑥)), if the there is a tangent line at that point.

2.1.1 Definition of the Derivative of a Function

The derivative of the function f at x is
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
if this limit exists. The function is said to be differentiable over the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), if 𝑓’(𝑥)
exists for each 𝑥 in (𝑎, 𝑏).
The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation and the derivative of
a function is obtained by differentiating the function.
Notations: The derivative of the function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) can be denoted by any of the following
symbols:
𝑑𝑦 𝑑
𝑓 ′ (𝑥), , 𝐷𝑥 𝑓, 𝐷𝑥 (𝑓(𝑥)), 𝐷𝑥 𝑦, [𝑓(𝑥)], 𝑦′
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example 1. Find the derivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .
Solution: Note that 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 and so
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 4(𝑥 + ℎ) − (𝑥 + ℎ)2
Thus, using the definition
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
we have

4(𝑥 + ℎ) − (𝑥 + ℎ)2 − (4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 ) Simply. Recall the special product

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim (𝑢 + 𝑣)2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑢𝑣 + 𝑣 2
ℎ→0 ℎ

4𝑥 + 4ℎ − (𝑥 2 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ) − 4𝑥 + 𝑥 2 Simplify further by eliminating 4𝑥

= lim and removing grouping symbol
ℎ→0 ℎ
4ℎ − 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥ℎ − ℎ2 + 𝑥 2 Simplify further by eliminating 𝑥 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
4ℎ − 2𝑥ℎ − ℎ2 Factor our ℎ in the numerator
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ(4 − 2𝑥 − ℎ) Cancel out ℎ
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
 = lim (4 − 2𝑥 − ℎ) Evaluate the limit
ℎ→0
= 4 − 2𝑥 The derivative

Thus, 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4 − 2𝑥.

4𝑥 + 4ℎ − (𝑥 + ℎ)2 − (4𝑥 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
Finding the derivative of a function using the limit process may be difficult. We can avoid this
difficulty by applying the rules below in finding the derivative of a function.

2.1.2 General Differentiation Formulas

Theorem 1. Constant Function Rule Theorem 5. Product Rule

𝐷𝑥 (𝑘) = 0, 𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑔(𝑥) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
Where 𝑘 is a constant

Theorem 2. Power Rule Theorem 6. Quotient Rule

𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 𝑛 ] = 𝑟𝑥 𝑛−1 , 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)
𝐷𝑥 [ ]=
where 𝑛 is a real number. 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2

Theorem 3. Constant Multiple Property Theorem 7. The Chain Rule

𝐷𝑥 [𝑘 ∙ 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 [(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥)] = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥)) ∙ 𝑔′(𝑥)

Theorem 4. Sum and Difference Theorem 8. The General Power Rule

Property 𝐷𝑥 [(𝑢(𝑥))𝑛 ] = 𝑛𝑢(𝑥)𝑛−1 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢(𝑥),
𝐷𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) where 𝑢 is a differentiable function of 𝑥 and 𝑛 is a
real number.

Example 1. Using the Constant Rule

[𝑫𝒙 (𝒌) = 𝟎]
Function Derivative
a. 𝑦 = 9 𝑦′ = 0
b. 𝑓(𝑥) = 0 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0
c. 𝑠(𝑡) = −√𝑥 𝑑𝑠
=0
𝑑𝑡
d. 𝑦 = 𝑘𝜋 3 , where 𝑘 is a constant 𝐷𝑥 𝑦 = 0
Example 2. Using the Power Rule

[𝑫𝒙 [𝒙𝒏 ] = 𝒓𝒙𝒏−𝟏 ]

Function Derivative
a. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 5 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5𝑥 5−1 = 5𝑥 4

b. 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥
4 1 1 1 1
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 [𝑥 4 ] = 𝑥 1−1/4 = 𝑥 −3/4 = 3/4
4 4 4𝑥
1 𝑑𝑦 𝑑 1 𝑑 −3
c. 𝑦 = = ( 3) = (𝑥 )
𝑥3
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= −3𝑥−3−1
= −3𝑥−4
3
=−
𝑥4

Example 3. Using the Constant Multiple Rule

[𝑫𝒙 [𝒌 ∙ 𝒇(𝒙)] = 𝒌 ∙ 𝑫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙)]

Function Derivative
2𝑥 2 2
a. 𝑦 = 𝑦′ = (1) =
3
3 3
b. 𝑦 = 2 √𝑥 1 1 1
𝑦 ′ = 2 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥 2 ) = 2 ( 𝑥 2−1 )
2
1 1
= 2 ( 𝑥 − 2)
2
1
= 1
𝑥2
1
𝑦′ =
√𝑥
3
c. 𝑦 = 𝑦 ′ = 3 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥 −1 ) = 3(𝑥 −1−1 )
𝑥
= 3(𝑥 − 2 )
3
𝑦′ =
𝑥2
5 5 2
d. 𝑓(𝑡) = − 3 𝑓 ′(𝑡) = 𝐷𝑡 (− 𝑡 −3 )
2 √𝑡 2 2
5 2 2 5 5 5
= − (− 𝑡 −3−1 ) = 𝑡 −3 = 5
2 3 3
3𝑡 3
Example 4. Using the Sum and Difference Rule
𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝑫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) ± 𝑫𝒙 𝒈(𝒙)

Function Derivative
a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 6 𝑦′ = 2𝑥 − 4
𝑥4 1
b. 𝑔(𝑥) = − + 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 𝑔′(𝑥) = − (4𝑥 3 ) + 2(3𝑥 2 ) − 5
2
2
= −2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2 − 5
7𝑥2 −𝑥+1 1
c. 𝑦 = = 7𝑥 − 1 + 𝑥 −1 𝑦 ′ = 7 − 𝑥 −2 = 7 −
𝑥 𝑥2

Example 5. Using the Product Rule

Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = (3𝑥 2 + 1)(3𝑥 − 7).
Solution: Recall that

𝑫𝒙 [𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝒈(𝒙)] = 𝒈(𝒙) ∙ 𝑫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) + 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝑫𝒙 𝒈(𝒙)

Thus,
𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

ℎ′ (𝑥) = ⏞
(3𝑥 − 7) ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (3𝑥 2 + 1) + ⏞
(3𝑥 2 + 1) ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (3𝑥 − 7)
𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

=⏞ ⏞ +⏞
(3𝑥 − 7) ∙ (6𝑥) ⏞𝑥 (3)
(3𝑥 2 + 1) ∙ 𝐷

= 18𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 9𝑥 2 + 3

ℎ′ (𝑥) = 27𝑥 2 − 42𝑥 + 3

Example 6. Using the Quotient Rule

1−𝑥 2
Find the derivative of ℎ(𝑥) = .
3𝑥−5

Solution: Recall that

𝒇(𝒙) 𝒈(𝒙) ∙ 𝑫𝒙 𝒇(𝒙) − 𝒇(𝒙) ∙ 𝑫𝒙 𝒈(𝒙)
𝑫𝒙 [ ]=
𝒈(𝒙) [𝒈(𝒙)]𝟐
 So,
𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

(3𝑥 − 5) ∙ ⏞
⏞ 𝐷𝑥 (1 − 𝑥2 ) − ⏞
(1 − 𝑥2 ) ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (3𝑥 − 5)
ℎ′ (𝑥) =
⏟ − 5]2
[3𝑥
[𝑔(𝑥)]2

𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

(3𝑥 − 5) ∙ ⏞ ⏞
(−2𝑥) − (1 − 𝑥2 ) ∙ (3)
=
(3𝑥 − 5)2
𝐷𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝐷𝑥 𝑔(𝑥)

(3𝑥 − 5) ∙ ⏞ ⏞
(−2𝑥) − (1 − 𝑥2 ) ∙ (3)
=
(3𝑥 − 5)2
−6𝑥 + 10𝑥 − 3 + 3𝑥2
2
=
(3𝑥 − 5)2
2
−3𝑥 + 10𝑥 − 3
ℎ′(𝑥) =
(3𝑥 − 5)2

Example 7. Using the General Power Rule

3
Find the derivative of 𝑓 (𝑥) = √2𝑥 6 − 8.
Solution: Recall that 𝑫𝒙 [(𝒖(𝒙))𝒏 ] = 𝒏𝒖(𝒙)𝒏−𝟏 ∙ 𝑫𝒙 𝒖(𝒙). Then
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
= 𝐷𝑥 [(2𝑥6 − 8 )3 ]

𝑢(𝑥)𝑛−1
𝐷𝑥 𝑢(𝑥)
1⏞ 1
= (2𝑥6 − 8)3−1 ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (2𝑥6 − 8)
3
𝐷𝑥 𝑢(𝑥)
1 2
= (2𝑥6 − 8)−3 ∙ ⏞
[2(6𝑥6−1 )]
3
1 2
= (2𝑥6 − 8)−3 ∙ (12𝑥5 )
3
4𝑥5
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2
(2𝑥6 − 8)−3

2.1.3 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Recall that the exponential and logarithmic functions are inverses of each other, and
that for any base 𝑏 > 0, 𝑏 ≠ 1 we have
𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥 if and only if 𝑥 = log 𝑏 𝑦
where 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and 𝑦 > 0.
 Exponential Function Logarithmic Form to
to the base b the base b
𝑦 = 𝑏𝑥 𝑦 = log 𝑏 𝑥
Domain: (−∞, +∞) Domain: (0, +∞)
Range: (0, +∞) Range: (−∞, +∞)

• if 𝑏 = 10, we have the common logarithmic function 𝑦 = log 𝑥 = log10 𝑥.

• if 𝑏 = 𝑒 ≈ 2.7182812, we have the natural exponential function 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑥 and the
natural exponential function 𝑦 = ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥

Also, take note of the following rules:

Laws of Exponents Laws for Logarithm

Let 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑏 ≠ 0 be real. Let 𝑏 be a positive real number,
𝑝 ∈ ℝ, and 𝑢 and 𝑣 be algebraic
expressions.
𝑏 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑏 𝑥+𝑦 log 𝑏 (𝑢𝑣) = log 𝑏 𝑢 + log 𝑏 𝑣
𝑏𝑥 𝑢
= 𝑏 𝑥−𝑦 log 𝑏 ( ) = log 𝑏 𝑢 − log 𝑏 𝑣
𝑏𝑦 𝑣
(𝑏 𝑥 )𝒚 = 𝑏 𝑥𝑦 log 𝑏 𝑢𝑝 = log 𝑏 𝑢
(𝑎𝑏)𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 𝑏 𝑦 log 𝑎
log 𝑏 𝑎 = , where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
log 𝑏
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎𝑥
( ) = 𝑦
𝑏 𝑏
𝑏 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 ln 𝑏

We are now ready to discuss the derivatives of the exponential and logarithmic functions. The
following formulas can be obtained using the definition of the derivative.

Theorem 9. Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Let 𝑢 be a differentiable function 𝑥. Then for 𝑎 > 0 and 𝑎 ≠ 1 we have

𝐷𝑥 (𝑒 𝑢 ) = 𝑒 𝑢 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 1
𝐷𝑥 (ln 𝑢) = ∙𝐷 𝑢
𝑢 𝑥
𝐷𝑥 (𝑎𝑢 ) = 𝑎𝑢 ln 𝑎 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 1
𝐷𝑥 (log 𝑎 𝑢) = ∙𝐷 𝑢
𝑢 ln 𝑎 𝑥
Consequently, if 𝑢 = 𝑥, then we have
𝐷𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 1
𝐷𝑥 (ln 𝑥) =
𝑥
𝐷𝑥 (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 ln 𝑎 1
𝐷𝑥 (log 𝑎 𝑥) =
𝑥 ln 𝑎
 Example 8. Derivatives of Exponential Functions

Function Derivative
𝑢 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
⏞ 2 −3𝑥 2 2
−3𝑥 2
𝑦′ = 𝑒 −3𝑥
∙⏞
𝐷𝑥 (−3𝑥 2 ) = 𝑒 ⏞
∙ (−6𝑥) = −6𝑥𝑒 −3𝑥
𝑦=𝑒

Using the Product Rule:

𝑦 = 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝑥5 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) + 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥5 )

4
= 𝑥5 ∙ [𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥)] + 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ∙ (5𝑥 )
𝐷𝑥 (−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥)
⏞ 𝐷𝑥 ( 𝑙𝑛 𝑥)
⏞
1
= 𝑥5 ∙ 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ∙ −3 ∙ + 5𝑥4 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑥
However, we ( )
can also simplify [ ]
−3𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 4
the given = 𝑥5 ∙( ) + 5𝑥 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
𝑥
function using
−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
= −3𝑥4 𝑒 + 5𝑥4 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
the properties of
−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
exponents: = 2𝑥4 𝑒 , note that 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 = 𝑥−3
= 2𝑥 4 𝑥 −3
= 2𝑥

We can simplify the process using the laws of exponents.

𝑦 = 𝑥 5 𝑒 −3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥5 𝑒−3 𝑙𝑛 𝑥 ) = 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥2 ) = 2𝑥
−3
= 𝑥 5 𝑒 𝑙𝑛 𝑥
= 𝑥 5 𝑥 −3
= 𝑥2

5𝑥
𝑦′ = 2 ln 2 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥2 ) + 3√𝑥 ln 3 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥1/2 )
𝑦 = 25𝑥 + 3√𝑥 5𝑥 1
=2 ln 2 ∙ (2𝑥) + 3√𝑥 ln 3 ∙ ( 𝑥−1/2 )
2

5𝑥+1 3√𝑥 ln 3
=2 𝑥 ln 2 +
2 √𝑥
 Function Derivative
(𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 )
∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 )
− (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )
𝑦′ =
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑦= 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ∙ (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 (−1)) − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ∙ (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 (−1))
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 =
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ∙ (𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 ) − (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 ) ∙ (𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 )
=
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − (𝑒 2𝑥 − 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 )
=
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 + 𝑒 −2𝑥 − 𝑒 2𝑥 + 2 − 𝑒 −2𝑥
=
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2
4
=
(𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 )2

Example 9. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

Function Derivative
𝐷𝑥 𝑢
′ (𝑥)
1 ⏞
𝐺 = ∙ 𝐷 (ln 𝑥)
ln 𝑥 𝑥
𝑢
⏞ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
𝐺(𝑥) = ln(ln 𝑥)
1 ⏞
1
= ∙
ln 𝑥 𝑥

1
=
𝑥 ln 𝑥

𝑦 = ln(5𝑥 + 1)(7𝑥 3 + 2𝑥) 1 1

𝑦′ = ∙ 𝐷 (5𝑥 + 1) + 3 ∙ 𝐷 (7𝑥 3 + 2𝑥)
5𝑥 + 1 𝑥 7𝑥 + 2𝑥 𝑥
𝐷𝑥 (5𝑥+1) 𝐷𝑥 (7𝑥3 +2𝑥)
1 1
Note that: = ⏞ +
∙ (5) 3
∙⏞
(21𝑥 2 + 2)
5𝑥 + 1 7𝑥 + 2𝑥
𝑦 = ln(5𝑥 + 1) + ln(7𝑥 3 + 2𝑥) 5 21𝑥 2 + 2
= + 3
5𝑥 + 1 7𝑥 + 2𝑥

𝑥+1 𝑥+1
𝑦 = log 𝑦 ′ = 𝐷𝑥 (log )
𝑥2 − 1 𝑥2 − 1
𝑢
= 𝐷𝑥 (− log ⏞
(𝑥 − 1))
Note that
𝑥+1
𝑦 = log
𝑥2 − 1
 𝑥+1 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
= log 1
(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1) =− ∙⏞
𝐷 (𝑥 − 1)
(𝑥 − 1) ln 10 𝑥
1 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
= log 1
𝑥−1 =− ⏞
∙ (1)
(𝑥 − 1) ln 10
= log 1 − log(𝑥 − 1)
1
= 0 − log(𝑥 − 1) =−
(𝑥 − 1) ln 10
= − log(𝑥 − 1)
𝑢 1/2

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ⏞ 𝑎 𝑥)
= 𝐷𝑥 (log
𝑓(𝑥) = √log 𝑎 𝑥
𝐷𝑥 𝑢
1
= (log 𝑎 𝑥)−1/2 ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (log 𝑎 𝑥)
2
𝐷𝑥 𝑢

1 ⏞1
= (log 𝑎 𝑥)−1/2 ∙
2 𝑥 ln 𝑎
1
=
2𝑥 ln 𝑎 √log 𝑎 𝑥

2.1.4 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Let us have a quick review of the trigonometric functions before we discuss its
derivatives. Recall that the trigonometric functions sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, and tan 𝑥 can be used to find
an unknown side of a right triangle. The remaining three trigonometric functions
csc 𝑥 , sec 𝑥 , and cot 𝑥 are just the reciprocals of sin 𝑥, cos 𝑥, and tan 𝑥, respectively.

Trigonometric Function Domain Range

y = sin 𝑥 ℝ [−1,1]
𝑦 = cos 𝑥 ℝ [−1,1]
1
ℝ\ {(𝑛 + 2) 𝜋},
𝑦 = tan 𝑥 ℝ
where 𝑛 is an integer
ℝ\{𝑛𝜋}, (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞)
𝑦 = csc 𝑥 where 𝑛 is an integerer
1
ℝ\ {(𝑛 + 2) 𝜋},
𝑦 = sec 𝑥 (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞)
where 𝑛 is an integerer
ℝ\{𝑛𝜋},
𝑦 = cot 𝑥 where 𝑛 is an integerer ℝ
Simplification of complicated expressions involving trigonometric functions require some
trigonometric identities. Let us recall some of the trigonometric identities.

The Eight Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

1 cos 𝑥
sin 𝑥 = cot 𝑥 =
csc 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1 sin2 𝑥 + cos1 𝑥 = 1
cos 𝑥 =
sec 𝑥
1 1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥
tan 𝑥 =
cot 𝑥
sin 𝑥 1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥
tan 𝑥 =
cos 𝑥
The Sum and Difference Identities Double Measure Identities
sin(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ± sin 𝑦 cos 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦
cos(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 ∓ sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 cos 2𝑥 = cos 2 𝑥 − sin2 𝑥
= 2 cos 2 𝑥 − 1
= 1 − 2 sin2 𝑥
tan 𝑥 ± tan 𝑦 2 tan 𝑥
tan(𝑥 ± 𝑦) = tan 2𝑥 =
1 ∓ tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦 1 − tan2 𝑥

The derivatives of sine and cosine functions are obtained by using the definition of a derivative
of a function.
Theorem 10. If 𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥.
Proof. Note that sin(𝑥 + ℎ) = sin 𝑥 cos ℎ + sin ℎ cos 𝑥. Then
sin(𝑥 + ℎ) − sin 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 cos ℎ + sin ℎ cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin ℎ cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin ℎ cos ℎ − 1
= lim cos 𝑥 ∙ + lim sin 𝑥 ∙
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
sin ℎ cos ℎ − 1
= (cos 𝑥) lim + (sin 𝑥) lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= (cos 𝑥)(1) + (sin 𝑥)(0)
= cos 𝑥
 Theorem 11. If 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Proof. Note that cos 𝑥 = sin ( 2 ) ∙ cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cos ( 2 ) = sin ( 2 − 𝑥). Then
𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 [sin ( − 𝑥)]
2
𝜋 𝜋
= cos ( − 𝑥) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 ( − 𝑥)
2 2
𝜋
= cos ( − 𝑥) (−1)
2
𝜋 𝜋
= − [cos cos 𝑥 + sin sin 𝑥]
2 2
= −[(0) cos 𝑥 + (1) sin 𝑥]
= − sin 𝑥

Knowing the derivatives of the sine and cosine functions, one can use the trigonometric
identities and the quotient rule of differentiation to find the derivatives of the remaining four
trigonometric functions.

Theorem 12. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

Let 𝑢 be a differentiable function 𝑥. Then
𝐷𝑥 (sin 𝑢) = (cos 𝑢) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (cos 𝑢) = (−sin 𝑢) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (tan 𝑢) = (sec 2 𝑢) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
𝐷𝑥 (csc 𝑢) = (− csc 𝑢 cot 𝑢) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (sec 𝑢) = (sec 𝑢 tan 𝑢) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (cot 𝑢) = (−𝑐𝑠c 2 𝑢) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
Consequently, if 𝑢 = 𝑥, then we have
𝐷𝑥 (sin 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝐷𝑥 (cos 𝑥) = −sin 𝑥 𝐷𝑥 (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥
𝐷𝑥 (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 𝐷𝑥 (sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝐷𝑥 (cot 𝑥) = −𝑐𝑠c 2 𝑥

Example 10. Differentiating Trigonometric Functions

Function Derivative
a. 𝑦 = 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 𝑦 = 1 − (− csc 2 𝑥) = 1 + csc 2 𝑥
′

b. 𝑦 = 𝑥 cos 𝑥 Using the Product Rule, we have

𝑦 ′ = 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (cos 𝑥) + cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥)
= 𝑥 ∙ (− sin 𝑥) + cos 𝑥 ∙ 1
𝑦′ = −𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥

Example 11. Differentiate both forms of

sin 𝑥 − 1
𝑦= = tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥
cos 𝑥
Solution:
sin 𝑥−1
First form: 𝑦 =
cos 𝑥

cos 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (sin 𝑥 − 1) − (sin 𝑥 − 1) ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (cos 𝑥)

𝑦′ =
(cos 𝑥)2
cos 𝑥 (cos 𝑥) − (sin 𝑥 − 1)(− sin 𝑥)
=
cos2 𝑥
cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
= 2
(note: sin2 𝑥 + cos1 𝑥 = 1)
cos 𝑥
1 − sin 𝑥
𝑦′ =
cos2 𝑥
Second form: 𝑦 = tan 𝑥 − sec 𝑥
𝑦 ′ = sec 2 𝑥 − sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
We can show that these two derivatives are equal by using the identities.
1 − sin 𝑥 1 sin 𝑥 2
1 sin 𝑥
= − = sec 𝑥 − ( ) ( ) = sec 2 𝑥 − sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥
cos2 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥

Example 12. Trigonometric Functions and the Chain Rule

Function Derivative
𝑢 cos 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
⏞
𝑦 = sin 3𝑥 ⏞ 3𝑥 ∙ ⏞
𝑦 ′ = cos 𝐷𝑥 (3𝑥) = cos 3𝑥 ∙ (3) = 3 cos 3𝑥

𝑢 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
𝑦 = sec ⏞
(2𝑥 2 − 1) 𝑦 = sec(2𝑥 − 1) tan(2𝑥 − 1) ∙ ⏞
′ 2 2
𝐷𝑥 (2𝑥 2 − 1)
𝐷𝑥 𝑢
2 ⏞
2
= sec(2𝑥 − 1) tan(2𝑥 − 1) ∙ (4𝑥)
= 4𝑥 sec(2𝑥 2 − 1) tan(2𝑥 2 − 1)

𝐷𝑥 𝑢

𝑢 𝑦 ′ = − csc √𝑥 ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (𝑥1/2 )
⏞𝑥
𝑦 = cot √ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢
⏞
1
= − csc √𝑥 ∙ ( 𝑥 −1/2 )
2

csc √𝑥
=−
2√𝑥
 𝑦 = cos2 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝐷𝑥 (cos 2 𝑥)
𝑢 2
⏞𝑥) ] use general power rule
= 𝐷𝑥 [(cos

𝐷𝑥 𝑢

= 2(cos 𝑥) ∙ ⏞1
𝐷𝑥 (cos 𝑥)
𝐷𝑥 𝑢

= 2 cos 𝑥 ∙ ⏞
(− sin 𝑥)
= −2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
3 3
𝑦 = √tan 𝑥 𝑦 ′ = 𝐷𝑥 ( √tan 𝑥)
𝑢 1/3
⏞𝑥)
= 𝐷𝑥 [(tan ] use general power rule

𝐷𝑥 𝑢
1
= (tan 𝑥)−2/3 ∙ ⏞
𝐷𝑥 (tan 𝑥)
3
𝐷𝑥 𝑢
1 ⏞ 2𝑥
= (tan 𝑥)−2/3 ∙ sec
3
sec 2 𝑥
=
3(tan 𝑥)2/3

2.1.5 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Recall that some values of the inverse trigonometric functions are restricted so these
functions to become one-to-one. They are defined as follows:

Inverse
Trigonometric Definition Domain Range
Function
y = sin−1 𝑥 y = sin−1 𝑥 if and [−1,1] 𝜋 𝜋
[− , ]
2 2
only if 𝑥 = sin 𝑦
𝑦 = cos −1 𝑥 y = cos −1 𝑥 if and
[−1,1] [0, 𝜋]
only if 𝑥 = cos 𝑦
y = tan−1 𝑥 if and
𝑦 = tan−1 𝑥 only if 𝑥 = tan 𝑦 ℝ 𝜋 𝜋
(− , )
2 2
y = csc −1 𝑥 if and
𝑦 = csc −1 𝑥 only if 𝑥 = csc 𝑦 (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) 𝜋 𝜋
[− , 0) ∪ (0, ]
2 2
 y = sec −1 𝑥 if and
𝑦 = sec −1 𝑥 only if 𝑥 = sec 𝑦 (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞) 𝜋 𝜋
[0, ) ∪ ( , 𝜋]
2 2
y = cot −1 𝑥 if and
𝑦 = cot −1 𝑥 only if 𝑥 = cot 𝑦 ℝ (0, 𝜋)

Theorem 13. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Let 𝑢 be a differentiable function 𝑥. Then
1 1 1
𝐷𝑥 (sin−1 𝑢) = ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (cos−1 𝑢) = − ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (tan−1 𝑢) = ∙𝐷 𝑢
√1 − 𝑢2 √1 − 𝑢2 1 + 𝑢2 𝑥
1 1 1
𝐷𝑥 (csc −1 𝑢) = − ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (sec −1 𝑢) = ∙ 𝐷𝑥 𝑢 𝐷𝑥 (cot −1 𝑢) = − ∙𝐷 𝑢
|𝑢|√𝑢2 −1 |𝑢|√𝑢2 −1 1 + 𝑢2 𝑥

Consequently, if 𝑢 = 𝑥, then we have

1 1 1
𝐷𝑥 (sin−1 𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 (cos −1 𝑥) = − 𝐷𝑥 (tan−1 𝑥) =
√1 − 𝑥2 √1 − 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1 1 1
𝐷𝑥 (csc −1 𝑥) = − 𝐷𝑥 (sec−1 𝑥) = 𝐷𝑥 (cot −1 𝑥) = −
|𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1 |𝑥|√𝑥 2 −1 1 + 𝑥2

Example 13. Differentiation of the Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Function Derivative
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 cos −1 𝑥 ℎ ′ (𝑥)
= 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (cos−1 𝑥) + cos−1 𝑥 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (𝑥)
1
= 𝑥 ∙ (− ) + cos −1 𝑥 ∙ (1)
√1 − 𝑥2
𝑥
=− + cos−1 𝑥
√ 1 − 𝑥2
1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝑧) = sin−1 ( 𝑧) + sec −1 (5𝑧) 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = ∙ 𝐷𝑥 ( 𝑧) +
2 2 2 |5𝑧|√(5𝑧)2 − 1
√1 − (1 𝑧)
2
1 1 1
= ∙( )+
2 2 |5𝑧|√25𝑧2 − 1
√1 − 𝑧
4
1 1 1
= ∙( )+
2 2 |5𝑧|√25𝑧2 − 1
√4 − 𝑧
4
1 1 1
= ∙( )+
√4 − 𝑧 2 2 |5𝑧|√25𝑧2 − 1
2
2 1 1
= ∙( )+
√4 − 𝑧 2 2 |5𝑧|√25𝑧2 − 1
1 1
= +
√4 − 𝑧 2 |5𝑧|√25𝑧2 − 1
 2 2 1 2 1 2
𝑔(𝑠) = cot −1 ( ) − tan−1 ( ) 𝑔′ (𝑠) = − 2 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 ( ) − 2 ∙ 𝐷𝑥 ( )
𝑠 𝑠 2 𝑠 2 𝑠
1+( ) 1+( )
𝑠 𝑠
1 −1
1
=− ∙ 𝐷 (2𝑠 ) − ∙ 𝐷 (2𝑠 −1 )
4 𝑥 4 𝑥
1+ 2 1+ 2
𝑠 𝑠
1
= −2 [ ∙ 𝐷𝑥 (2𝑠 −1 )]
4
1+ 2
𝑠
1
= −2 [ ∙ (−2𝑠 −2 )]
+4 𝑠2
𝑠2
𝑠2 2
= −2 [ 2 ∙ (− 2 )]
𝑠 +4 𝑠
4
=
𝑠2 +4

References:

Barnett R., Ziegler M., Byleen K. (2011). Calculus for Business, Economics, Life Sciences, and
Social Sciences (12 ed). Prentice Hall.

Canoy S., Benitez J., Buenavista R., Tubo B. (2014). A First Course in Analytic Geometry and
Calculus. CSM-DMS, MSU-IIT

Larson R., Edwards, B. (2013). Calculus of a Single Variable. Cengage Learning.