CHAPTER 8 THINKING

Thinking- Concepts: mental categories use to group similar objects, events, characteristics(fruit food dog love)
allows to relate exper. and objects by similar features. Superordinate-most general form ie. Animal. Basic
Level type- concept with similar concepts like dog,cat. Subordinate- most specific concept ie ones own
pet. Formal Concept- defined by specific rules.
Prototypes: mental representation of objects that our mind has ex. of (chair)
Schemas: mental framework representing our knowledge about things (picnic)
Solving Problems- cognition that occurs when goal must be reached by thinking and behaving certain way.
Strategies: solving problems using manipulation of mental images/trial &error
Subgoaling: setting intermediate goals to be in better position of reaching final goal.
Algorithms: step by step strategy that guarantee solution using formula, directions.
Heuristics: Rule of thumb/educated guess.
Means-end: heuristic steps taken to reduce obstacles between start and finish.
Problems with problem solving:
Mental set: try to solve prob. In way that worked before.
Functional Fixedness: a block to prob. solving from thinking about obj. typical functions.
Confirmation Bias: tendency to search for evidence that fits ones beliefs and ignore evidence that doesn’t fit.
Convergent thinking: only one answer.
Divergent thinking: starts with one point and comes up with many different ideas.
Making decisions: people use established rules. Biases can interfere with good decisions.
Belief perseverance: hold onto a belief in the face of contradicting evidence.
Availability heuristic: making a judgment about probability based on how easily it comes to mind.
Thinking and the brain: frontal lobes- critical for processing thought. Dorsolateral prefrontal region- damage
leads to impaired planning, planning, distractibility and deficits in working memory.
Creativity: 3 elements: originality, fluency, flexibility.
Intelligence: Verbal ability, problem solving skills, ability to adapt and learn.
Individual diff: stable ways ppl are diff.
Assessment: measure of performance, skill, ability
Psychometrics: mental testing
Structural: what abilities are intelligence made up of (verbal, mathematical)
Functional: what processes underlie intelligence? (short term memory, mental processing speed)
Unitary ability vs. Multiple interrelated abilities:
Spearman: general G factor (unitary) ability to reason/ solve problems or general intelligence.
S factor- ability to excel in certain areas, specific intelligence.
Gardner`s multiple intelligence (eg. Savant syndrome)
Heredity vs. environment.
The Psychometric approach:
Sir Francis Galton: Emphasized heredity. Designed first intelligence test (head size, hand grip, reaction
time)Believed sensory, perception, motor responses keys of intelligence.
Binet: emphasized role of environment. Developed concept of Mental Age. Later others developed IQ=MA/CA x
100
Today IQ tests compare score to norm. Follow norm. curve.
Wechsler tests: measure verbal and nonverbal.
Measuring IQ tests: reliability, validity (current GPA), standardization (Norms).
Deviation IQ Scores- assumes IQ is normally around 100 with deviation of 15.
Developmental delay- mild=-55-70 IQ. Moderate=40-55. Severe=25-40. Profound= below 25
Gifted- IQ 130+

Sternberg- Triarchic theory of intelligence-3 kinds of intelligence. Analytical(break problems down into
components) Creative(deal with new/different concepts, new ways to solve) Practical(use info to live and be
successful) Emotional(manage ones emotions and self motivate)
Syntax- system of rules for combining words phrases to form correct sentences.
Morphemes- smallest units of meaning in language
Semantics- rules for determining meaning of words
Phonemes-basic units of sound in language
Pragmatics- practical ways of talking to others.
Linguistic Relativity Theory- thought process and concepts are controlled by language.

CHAPTER 9 MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

Motivation- Biological(food/water) need:deprivation energizes drive to get rid of need.Drive: aroused

state(uncomfortable) Drive reduction theory: homeostasis PRIMARY DRIVE- biological needs(hunger)
SECONDARY DRIVE- (acquired) learned through experience (money)
Emotional (panic/love)
Cognitive (expectations/beliefs)
Social (reactions from others)
Yerkes-Dodson Law: performance is related to arousal
Arousal approach: try to maintain optimal level of stimulation, avoid over-arousal. Varies in people(introverts,
extroverts) Simple tasks best performed with high arousal, complex tasks best with low arousal.
Cognitive approach: Freud: role of conscious vs. unconscious. Incentive: desire to obtain goal. Either Extrinsic
(do activit for concrete reward) or Intrinsic( do activity for its own sake, enjoyment) 7
Humanistic approach: Maslow’s hierarchy of motives
Needs satisfied in sequence: physio, safety, love, esteem, self-actualization)
Behaviour change most likely when:
Specific goals set that are challenging, realistic. Must be something wanted,not unwanted. Increase skill. Expect
to succeed
PHYSIOLOGICAL COMPONENTS Hunger:
INSULIN-hormone secreted by pancreas to control levels of fats, proteins etc by reducing glucose level.
GLUCAGONS- hormone like insulin but decreases glucose level.
LEPTIN: hormone that when released into blood signals hypothalamus that body has enough food so
reduce appetite increase full feeling.
determined by stomach contractions (Cannon & Washburn gastric balloon) Pressure from full stomach release
hormone CCK to brain. Blood sugar drop signals start eating lateral hypothalamus(stimulation=more eating,
Destruction=less eating.) Blood sugar increase insulin level rises tells stop eating ventromedial
hypothalamus(stimulation-decreased eating, destruction-increased(obese rat))
GENETIC factors: efficient metabolism can eat small amounts and store, inefficient metabolism can eat lots but
not store.
EXTERNAL & cognitive factors: obese more sensitive to external cues.
Eating Disorders: anorexia 2 subtypes: restricting + binge-purge. Atleast 15% below normal weight. Bulimia:
binge-purge.
THIRST: intracellular(thirst triggered by loss of fluid within bodily cells) and Extracellular (triggered by
loss of fluid between cells)
Defining emotion: feeling or thought evokes Physiological arousal(ANS) conscious exp. Behavioural
expression.
THEORIES: common sense- emotion is followed by arousal James-Lange theory- arousal precedes
experience of emotion(happy cause im smiling)
Facial feedback hypothesis: expression can influence emotion.
Cognitive Dimensions: Schachter & Singers Two factor theory: emotion determined by 2 factors: physiological
arousal- determines intensity of emotion, and Cognitive interpretation- determines tpe of emotion.
Interpretation of arousal affects emotions(bridge study)
Limitations: interpretations of ones intentions can impact emotions, doesn’t explain primary emotions.
LeDoux’s Theory of emotion:
External stimuli are first routed to thalamus, thalamus sends info to cortex(associated with complex/secondary
emotions and rely on memory) or directly to amygdala (automatic unconscious primary emotions like fear)
Amygdala responsible for initial approach or withdraw, cortex can then override decision.
LIE DETECTION: measures autonomic nervous system(heart rate, BP, galvanic skin response) Assumes
lying is stressful.
RIGHT PREFRONTAL AREA: motivation to withraw/escape.(fear, disgust) Damage=mania, decreased caution.
LEFT PREFRONTAL AREA: motivation to approach(anger, happiness) damage=depression.

CHAPTER 11 STRESS AND HEALTH

PSYCHONEUROIMMUNOLOGY= study of effects of psychological factors(stress,emotions, behaviour,)

on immune system.
GENERAL MODEL- stressors→intervening factor→reaction
2 kinds of stressors: distress(unpleasant) and eustress(positive events)
Common sources- Social readjustment rating scale(srrs)
Life events (major life changes, 12 month period) vs. daily hassles(cumulative stress)
CONFLICT: approach-approach= must choose between 2 desirable options. Avoidance-avoidance= must
choose between 2 undesirable options approach-avoidance= 1 option that has positive and negative
consequences.
Responding to stress: emotional, psychological, behavioural, physiological. Long term responses: illness
PTSD
FACTORS involved: Biological- general adaptation syndrome= 3 stages of physio reaction to stress.
Alarm=body experiences temp. shock releases hormones for fight or flight(epinephrine.adrenalin) HR & BP go
up., Resistance= Goal: keep activity under control. Return body to homeostasis. Different hormones
released(glucocorticoids)
Exhaustion=body has protective resources. Wear+tear on body= exhaustion, vulnerability to disease(immune
decreases, illness, depression, CHD, HBP)
2 Biological pathways connect brain & endocrine system in response to stress:
HPA pathway: through hypothalamus & pituitary glands to adrenal glands where cortisol is released(by
psychological stressors)
SNS Pathway: extends through hypothalamus to SNS & adrenal glands, adrenalines released.
Short term responses: usually beneficial.
Long term: adrenal glands secrete stress hormones(epinephrine, norepinephrine) irregular heartbeat
Glucocorticoids: Inhibit inflammation to prevent mobility limits, decreased efficiency of immune system(interfere
wit msgs from cytokines) break down muscle tissue to help make fats avail. for energy. (high levels may lead to
blocked coronary arteries.)
Importance of Appraisal: primary (estimate severity, classify as threat or challenge) vs. secondary( Assessing
a threat estimate resources avail.) (LAZARUS, FOLKMAN) Potentional stressor(external event→primary
appraisal→secondary appraisal
Personality Factors: TYPE A=hostile, impatient, hard worker TYPE B=relaxed,easygoing TYPE C=pleasant but
repressed.Difficulty expressing emotions.HARDY=thrives on stress but lacks anger & hostility of Type A.
COPING: Problem-focused coping: face problem and try to actively solve it. (seeking advice/info) Emotion-
focused coping: responding to the stress on emotional level + defensive appraisal. (denial, venting)
SOCIAL SUPPORT: info + feedback from others that one is loved & valued. Forms: tangible assistance,
emotional support
Consequences of Stess: Burnout; Psychological disorder.
Stress Management: turn threat into challenge. Avoid helplessness. Take physical action. Prepare for stress.

CHAPTER 12 PERSONALITY

Personality: pattern of psychological characterisitcs that differentiate individuals. Leads to acting

consistently.Variables are reflected by behaviours and starts from inside someone, not a situation.
Freuds theory and the psychodynamic approach:
1. Jean Charcot & hypnotism
2. Joseph Breuer & Anna O. and catharsis: release of emotional tension.
3. Freud’s Topographic model:1st model
A)Conscious: thoughts, perceptions currently aware of.
B)Preconcious: body of retrievable info(memories, knowledge)
C)Unconcious: no immediate access but retrievable under extreme situations(frears, violent motives, selfish
needs)
4. Freuds Structural Model: 2nd model
A)ID: instincts, entirely unconscious. Present at birth. Selfish.
B)EGO: during first 2 years. Develops out of need to deal with reality. Mostly consiouc, rational, logical. Operates
on reality principle; primary functions: statisfy id impluses while realistic.
C) SUPEREGO: Moral branch by age 5 formed. Contains the Ego Ideal: standards for moral behaviour. Contains
Conscience: produces pride or guilt, depends on how close behaviour matches ego ideal.
5.Intrapsychic conflict: 3 parts of personality are always struggling with eachother. Goal is to satisfy needs of id
and superego.
6. Healthy individual: has a strong ego doesn’t allow id or superego too much control over personality.
7. Anxiety: arises from confrontation between personality componenets.
8. Studying the Unconscious: hypnosis, free association, dream analysis, projective tests(thematic
apperception test, Rorschach), parapraxes(slips of tongue, symbolic behaviour(forgetfulness, lateness)
9. Freuds Psychosexual Stage Theory of Personality Development:
A) Oral Stage: oral fixation. First stage occurring in first yr of life in which the mouth is the erogenous zone and
weaning is primary conflict.
B) Anal Stage: anal fixation. Second stage occurring rom 1-3 yrs, anus is the erogenous zone and toilet training
is the source of conflict.
Anal expulsive personality: messy, destructive, hostile.
Anal retentive personality: neat, fussy, stingy, stubborn.
C) Phallic Stage: 3-6 years, child discovers sexual feelings.
Oedipus Complex: child develops sexual attraction to opposite sex parent and jealousy towards same sex parent.
Identification: defence mechanism where person tries to become like someone else to deal with anxiety.
D) Latency: fourth stage occurring in school years where sexual feelings of a child are repressed while child
develops in other ways.
10. Evaluation of Freudian theory:
Contributions: interation between child & caregiver, defense mechanisms, therapeutic approach.
Critisism: overemphasis on sexuality, male bias, difficult to test unconscious.
HUMANISTIC APPROACH:
Emphasizes personal responsibility & self acceptance in differences.
4 Elements: here & now, personal responsibility (choice), phenomenology(focus on subjective interpretation of
reality, and growth.
Carl Rogers pioneered this approach in Psychotherapy.
All have capacity to fully function(open to experiences), but we grow up under conditions of worth/conditional
positive reward:significant others provide love and support but often with conditions
Self Concept: images of ones self that develop from interactions with people that matter to them. Desires that
others would disapprove of are repressed and kept out of sel-concept.
Contributions: comprehensive theory, applications for therapy.
Criticisms: vague concepts sometimes difficult to test, too optimistic.
TYPE & TRAIT THEORIES:
1.Type Theories: categorize people(Sheldon’s Somatotypes: ectomorphic, endomorphic, mesomorphic)
Limitations: not everyone can be categorized.
2.Trait Theories: trait refers to emotional, cognitive, behavioural tendencies & underlying dimensions that
form personality; conceptualized as on a continuum ranging high to low.
3.Assumptions (stable over time/across situations)
Focus on group, description of traits, prediction of behaviour from traits.
Comparisons across people; little emphasis on personality change.
Employ a psychometric approach; method of factor analysis to find common denominators of personality by
noting which traits cluster statistically. THE BIG FIVE-OCEAN. Openness to experience, Conscientiousness,
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism.
Allport noted 18000 traits, Cattrell argued for 16 distinct traits.
Limitations: lack of theoretical framework, doesn’t explain how personality develops, over-reliance on self
reports.
CHAPTER 13 SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social Psychology: study of how people think about themselves and others and relate to others. Emphasizes
perceptions or person interpretations and how ppl affected by social situations.
Social behaviour: influencing others. Relevant to soc. Influence, 2 motives important in determining
thoughts/behaviours & explain why ppl conform/obey. Normative social influence: ppl want to be liked,
accepted, approved of. Social norms: learned, socially based rules how ppl should or shouldn’t act. Informational
social influence: ppl want to be correct & how to best act in a situation.
Conformity: Solomon Asch: series of studies in which task clearly defined. Subject went along with wrong
answer 37% of time. 73% conformed at least once. Why? Size of group. Unanimous decisions create more
likelihood of conforming. Attractive ppl, similar.
Obediance: complying with explicit demand. Usually from authority figure.
Compliance: changing ones behaviour as result of other ppl direction or asking for change
Foot in door technique: ask for small commitment, after gaining compliance, ask for bigger commitment.
Door in face technique: ask for large commitment. Be refused. Ask for smaller.
Milgram study. No one stopped before 300 volts. 80% continued past learner saying heart condition or
ouch.
Social Perception: study of how we use info to develop impression of others.
Attribution theory: describes how ppl understand & explain causes of social behaviour. Fritz Heider view ppl
as scientists.
Is it something within person?(personality) Internal Attribution. Makes a Dispositional Attribution.
Is it caused by something outside person?(situation) External Attribution makes a Situational Attribution.
Rules of Attraction: attractiveness, proximity, similarity, reciprocity
Social Exchange Model explains:
Factors that affect situation: stress, children, time= general decrease in satisfaction over time.Satisfaction
determined by: Rewards-Costs-Comparison Level. Comparison level determined by past relationships
and parental relationships. Commitment determined by: stasfation + investments.
CONFLICT AMONG GROUPS:
Prejudice: unjustified negative attitudes toward ppl based on their social group. Race, sex, age, nation, etc.
(emotional)
Factors promoting prejudice:
Stereotypes: cognitive generalization about a groups characteristics.
Social Identity Theory: individuals assigned to a group view themselves as an in-group. Allows for comparisons.
Which can lead to competition/discrimination against other groups.
(Jane Elliots minimal group exercise brown eyes blue eyes) factors may be arbitrary, but can still promote
in group out group biases.
Discrimination: behaving differently toward ppl (behavioural)
Reducing Prejeudice: Sherif’s 1966 study of boys at camp.
3 Phases of Robber’s Cave Experiment:
1. create in-groups; boys assigned to 1 of 2 camps. Development of Social Identity. 2. Instilling of Inter-group
competition: resulted in hostility. 3. Encouraging Inter-group Cooperation: Non-competitive Contact: Did not
help Cooperative action toward super-ordinate goal: made friendships. (groups needed to pull truck up hill)
Contact hypothesis: contact situations must include: a common goal, mutual interdependence, equal status
of group members, friendly, informal setting, multiple contacts.

CHAPTER 14 PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: study of abnormal behaviour
Define Abnormal Behaviour- 4 elements:
1)Statistically Deviant: atypical behaviour
2)Socially Deviant: Deviates from culturally accepted norms.
3)Maladaptive: Interferes with ones ability to function effectively.
4) Personal Distress: causes personal discomfort.
Classifying Abnormal Behaviour: The DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL of MENTAL DISORDERS.
Standard for diagnosing mental illness. Focus is on detailed descriptions. Allows for uniform communication
regarding mental illness.
DSM-IV is a multiaxial system.
Axis 1: major disorders(symptoms that cause distress or impair functioning(eg. Schizophrenia)
Axis 2: Personality disorders & MR (chronic, enduring problems. Eg. APD
Axis 3: General medical conditions of relevance to mental disorder-cancer
Axis 4: Psychosocial stressors in recent past that may contribute
Axis 5: An assessment of current functioning & highest level of functioning in past year (0-100, lower number,
poorer function)
Critisism: continues to espouse medical model of mental illness. System focuses solely on pathology
and problems; stigma(Rosenhan`s study);comorbidity(individual meets more than one criteria)
ANXIETY DISORDERS: include motor tension, hyperactivity, apprehensive thoughts & expectations.
Phobic Disorders: Irrational, overwhelming fear of object/situation.
Avoidance associated with phobia can be debilitating.
Causal Factors: behavioural perspective(classical (establishes fear) & operant (maintains fear) conditioning)
Treatment: systematic desensitization(relaxation, hierarchy of fears, expose each level) FLOODING: exposure at
full intensity TREATMENT: exposure(actual or imagined) based on principle of extinction.
Obsessive compulsive Disorders:
Obsessions:persistent, recurring, irrational thoughts/images)violence
Compulsions: irresistible impulsesnto perform some behaviour/ritual. May be related to obsession.
CAUSAL FACTORS: biological perspective
Genetic predisposition; brain areas. Frontal lobes: Obsessions, Basal Ganglia: Compulsions. Treatment:
exposure therapy, antidepressants.
Mood Disorders: characterized by extremews of emotion. 1 extreme=depression or 2 extremes=bipolar
disorder.
Major Depression: lethargy, opelessness for over 2 weeks, change in sleep and eating, psychomotor agitation or
retardation, no energy, suicidal thoughts
Bipolar Disorder: extreme mood swings with episodes of mania(extreme feeling of euphoria, energy, impulsivity)
alternating with depression.
CAUSES: Biological-genetics, abnormalities in neurotransmitters. High levels of Norepinephrine= mania. Low
levels of Seratonin=depression. Cognitive- beck believes negative schemas lead to negative thoughts that
magnify negative experiences. Perfectionisn: unattainable personal standards
TREATMENT: Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy- monitor private thoughts, confront irrational beliefs/alter emotions,
activity assignments(change behaviour) Biological therapy- antidepressants: Selective Seretonin Reuptake
Inhibitors (SSRI) regulate serotonin like Prozac, celexas. Lithium or anticonvulsants for bipolar. ECT: can lift
secere depression but sometimes returns.
Psychosis: loss of touch with reality, associated with many disorders(bipolar, schizophrenia), brain injury, drugs.
Symptoms include:
Hallucinations: disturbances in perception(auditory common with schizophrenia)
Delusions: Disturbances in thinking, disordered thought content and strong beliefs in misrepresentations of reality.
Thought Disorder: Disorganized Speech & behaviour
TREATMENTS: medication, decrease stressors, enhance coping, gently challenge distorted thoughts.
Childhood Disorders:
Oppositional Defiant Disorder: aversive & socially disruptive behaviours. Atleast 4 of the following for 6 months:
loses temper, argues with adults, defies or refuses to comply, blames others for mistakes, easily annoyed, angry,
spiteful.
Conduct Disorder(CD): repetitive & persistent pattern of behaviour that violates basic rights of others & major
age-appropriate societal norms(aggression to people/animals, destruction of property, lies & theft, serious rule
violations)
KEY ELEMENT: Childhood Physical Aggression.CAUSES: genetics & family factors, Psychophysiology:
Behavioural Activation system(BAS) stimulates behaviour in response to signals of reward(overactive)
Behavioural Inhibition System(BIS): Produces anxiety, inhibits behaviour in presence of punishment,
fear(underactive, less stress hormones)
INTERVENTIONS: learn to identify, define, observe problem behav. Spend fun time with child everyday. Set clear
rules. Reward compliance.
PERSONAL DISORDERS: (On axis 2) long standing & highly maladaptive pattern of behaviour, thought,
feeling; impair social & occupational functioning. Rigid.
Antisocial PD(APD): one most common personality disorder, more common in men. Often reffered to as
psychopathy or sociopathy but not the same.
APD: frequent violations of basic rights of oterhs, criminal acts. Involves presence of conduct disorder before age
15 and into adulthood like not working consistently, breaking laws, phys. Aggression, recklessness.
CAUSES: Biological Roots: heredity, low arousability, low levels of anxiety in face of punishment, poor impulse
control. Environmental Influences: harsh & inconsistent parenting, lack of affection, antisocial behaviour in father.
TREATMENTS: impossible to treat. Studies of inmates show they settle down in middle age.
VULNERABILITY-STRESS MODEL: Considers interplay between 3 factors in development of any disorder.
Vulnerability: predisposing conditions(genetic risk, central nervous system impairment..) Stress: events that
heighten likelihood of schizophrenic epsidoes(death of parent, child abuse) Protective factors: reduce risk of
episodes(intelligence, social competence, supportive relationships)
Approaches to Therapy: all types of psychotherapy try to help alleviate suffering. Successful therapies have
common elements: Support(strong therapeutic alliance, telling stories), Learn(educate client about clinical
problem, coping skills), Action(encourage client to perform personal experiments and try new things.
Somatoform disorders: disorders that take form of bodily illnesses and symptoms but no real psychical disorder.