Journal of Functional Foods 95 (2022) 105183

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Journal of Functional Foods

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jff

Nopal cladodes (Opuntia Ficus Indica): Nutritional properties and

functional potential
Ezequiel Hernández-Becerra a, María de los Angeles Aguilera-Barreiro b,
Margarita Contreras-Padilla c, Esther Pérez-Torrero d, *, Mario E. Rodriguez-Garcia e
a
Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad del Valle de México, Campus Querétaro, Naranjos Punta Juriquilla 1000, Santa Rosa Jáuregui, 76230 Santiago de Querétaro, Qro.,
Mexico
b
Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, Qro. C.P. 76230, Mexico
c
Centro Académico de Innovación y Desarrollo de Productos, Facultad de Ingeniería Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Centro Universitario, Cerro de las campanas s/
n, Las Campanas, C.P. 76010 Santiago de Querétaro, Qro., Mexico
d
Facultad de Ingenieria, Campus Aeropuerto, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Querétaro, Qro. C.P. 76230, Mexico
e
Departamento de Nanotecnología, Centro de Física Aplicada y Tecnología Avanzada, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Campus Juriquilla, Querétaro,
Querétaro C.P. 76230, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Nopal pads at different maturity stages show changes in their chemical composition. They are an excellent
Minerals nutritional source and should be included in human diets worldwide. Moreover, they can be considered a novel
Fiber potential food resource and used for scientific studies when transformed into powders, to reduce product loss
Probiotic
during harvest season. Their physicochemical properties in the maturity stage can be used to treat or prevent
Functional foods
Nopal
nutritional related diseases. The nopal pad powder at high maturity stages could help normalize the fiber intake,
Cladodes and the high amount of Ca and Mg could help maintain bone mineral density. Soluble fiber can be included in
human diets by consuming f fresh young nopals. Authors considered it necessary to increase the studies of the
nutritional properties of different varieties of nopal cladodes as a function of the maturity and select them ac­
cording to the nutritional requirements.

1. Introduction
The nopal plant belongs to the vegetable kingdom, to the Cactaceae
family, of the genus Opuntia, with more than 150 species classified as
originating in Mexico. It is an endemic plant of arid and semi-arid zones.
Nopal cladodes are considered modified stems instead of classical leaves
in their photosynthetic function. The outer cladode and the chloren­
chyma are crucial for its photosynthetic action (Saenz, Sepulveda, &
Matsuhiro, 2004). In contrast, the inner part contains the medullary
parenchyma, whose primary purpose is water storage. The nopal ab­
sorbs water from steam or light rain, which allows the vegetable to take
in water and store it in the parenchyma (Saenz, 1997).
The nopal plant plays a vital ecological role in diminishing soil
erosion, considering that the arid or semi-arid land suitable for culti­
vating these species require little water. This helps to understand their
ecological importance in preventing or ameliorating the environmental
impact of soil impoverishment. Also, due to its peculiar acidic meta­
bolism, this plant can be a potential alternative to capture part of the
increase in CO2, which caused the planet’s rise in temperature. The
nopal plant also diminishes the deforestation environmental impact that
affects the significant ecosystems of the world (Piga, D’Aquino, Agabbio,
& Schirra, 1996; Le Houérou, 1996; Nobel & Bobich, 2002; Betancourt-
Domínguez et al., 2006).
These plants were used in pre-Hispanic civilization as food and
medicine. Nowadays, nopal cladodes are a promising vegetable because
of their high ecological adaptivity and, more importantly, their chemical
composition, which gives them a huge potential application as a func­
tional food due to their nutritional value (Rodriguez-Garcia et al., 2007).
When young, fresh nopal cladodes, also called nopalitos, have been
consumed in Mexico and United States, with different cooking methods.
However, nopal cladodes with medium and advanced stages of maturity
are not used in the human diet and represent a significant loss for the
farmer (Contreras-Padilla et al., 2016). These cannot be included in the
diet due to the undesirable textural properties of the high insoluble fiber.
These older nopal cladodes are frequently used as forage for livestock,
especially when another fresh forage is scarce in the dry station.

* Corresponding author.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2022.105183
Received 3 May 2022; Received in revised form 5 July 2022; Accepted 10 July 2022
Available online 21 July 2022
1756-4646/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
E. Hernández-Becerra et al. Journal of Functional Foods 95 (2022) 105183

Some studies indicate that nopal cladodes can be functional food and
an excellent source of nutraceutical compounds. These cladodes have
been studied as a functional food because they contribute to human
health maintenance. Cladodes help prevent diabetes (Andrade-Cetto, &
Heinrich, 2005; Nuñez-López, Paredes-López, & Reynoso-Camacho,
2013), hypercholesterolemia (Ennouri, Fetoui, Bourret, Zeghal, Guer­
mazi, & Attia, 2006), obesity (Zhaoet al., 2012), and hypertension
(Halmi et al., 2013).
However, in the above-mentioned previous research, the maturation
stage was not considered. Instead, there were subsequent studies
(Aguilera-Barreiro et al., 2013). They used nopal powder from the late
maturity stage (600 g) to improve bone mineral density in perimeno­
pausal women. However, few studies evaluate functional foods prop­
erties of nopal cladodes in the metabolic syndrome, which shares the
same risk factors as diabetes, hypertension, and obesity. Metabolic
syndrome is a public health problem in Mexico, with a prevalence in
42.3 % of adults over 20 years old, 4 out of 10 Mexicans (Gutiérrez,
et al., 2013). They share the same unhealthy lifestyles, such as a diet
mainly without dietary fiber content, high in fats and refined sugars.
However, nopal cladode can also be a beneficial food source due to their
nutritional value, which justifies using the nopal or its products as food.
There is a remarkable interest in people from different cultures and
traditions in consuming natural food that is nutritious and contribute to
improving human health. In this trend, two different ways to introduce
natural foods have been incorporated into the diets. First, the nutra­
ceutical compounds as pharmaceutical intake; and second and more
natural, through the inclusion of some functional foods that are already
part of the diet with inherent health benefits without adverse effects on
the health (Guevara-Arauza, Pimentel-González, & De Órnelas-Paz,
2012).
Nopal cladodes are nutritious, have potential applications as func­
tional food, have a lower impact on our planet due to their high
ecological adaptivity, and can be affordable, accessible, besides being
tasty. The current review aimed to compile, analyze, and discuss the
main knowledge related to the physicochemical, nutritional, and func­
tional properties of fresh nopal cladodes and their powders as a function
of the maturity stage. On the other hand, the review attempted to open a
new window of opportunities in the topic that involves nopal and its
different products. Their physicochemical properties in the maturity
stage can be used to treat or prevent nutritional related diseases. The
nopal pad powder at high maturity stages could help normalize the fiber
intake, and the high amount of Ca and Mg could help to maintain bone
mineral density. Soluble fiber can be included in human diets by
consuming fresh young nopals. Authors considered it necessary to in­
crease the studies of the nutritional properties of the different varieties
of nopal cladodes as a function of the maturity and select them according
to the nutritional requirements.

2. Physicochemical characteristics of nopal cladodes as a

function of the maturity

2.1. Nopal consumption

Fig. 1. (a) Shows the nopal cladodes for different maturation stages. (b) Shows
the transformation of fresh nopal cladodes to dried nopal and powder. (c)
In Mexico, nopal has been part of human diets for centuries. It is
Shows the changes in weight as a function of the harvest day for the Opuntia
consumed as salad, in fresh and in different traditional sauces where
Ficus Indica redonda variety.
cladodes are used at different maturity stages from 24 to 48 days (60 to
150 g, respectively) (Hernández-Urbiola et al., 2010).
according to each necessity to cure or prevent non-hereditary chronic
Nopal consumption is growing around the world mainly because in
diseases. Soluble fiber from young cladodes, insoluble fiber, and min­
the last years there has been an increasing scientific interest in the
erals from older cladodes can be consumed. Then the application of
changes in its physicochemical properties as a function of the age. There
nopal in different fields could be linked to the physicochemical prop­
has also been an increasing remarkable interest in the consumption of
erties related to the age of cladodes (Hernández-Urbiola, Pérez-Torrero,
natural products (Missaoui et al., 2020; Aragona, Lauriano, Pergolizzi, &
& Rodríguez García, 2010; Contreras-Padilla et al, 2011; Mounir,
Faggi, 2018).
Younes, Asmaa, Abdeljalil, & Abdellah, 2020).
Fig. 1(a) shows the nopal cladodes for different maturation stages.
Fig. 1(b) shows the transformation of fresh nopal cladodes to vacuum
Changes in these stages are related to weight and size, but also to a
dried nopal and powder that serves as a nutraceutical form for different
variation in their chemical compounds content, which can be used

2
E. Hernández-Becerra et al. Journal of Functional Foods 95 (2022) 105183

clinical trials. Vacuum drying process does not affect physicochemical
and nutritional properties (Contreras-Padilla et al., 2011). As seen in
Fig. 1 (c), the changes in weight as a function of age behave as a logistic
curve. As it is well known, this curve depends on the variety, season, and
agronomical conditions (Saenz, 1997).
2.2. Nopal nutritional values
meanwhile, the insoluble fiber content increases (Hernández-Urbiola
et al., 2010). Studies by Saenz-Hernandez, Corrales-Garcia, and Aquino-
Pérez (2002) reported that a potential source of dietary fiber could be
found in the nopal due to its high levels of total fiber. The high content of
dietary fibers from nopal powder could be a valuable source of these
essential components for human food intake (Contreras-Padilla et al.,
2012).

Rodríguez-Garcia et al., 2007 studied the physicochemical and 2.4. Mucilage

nutritional characterization of fresh nopal cladodes and nopal powders
obtained by the vacuum obtained at different stages of development.
The results showed that the nutritional and mineral composition of the
nopal changes as a function of maturity. As mentioned before, young
cladodes are eaten as nopalitos, mainly in Mexico and in south of the
USA. Several authors have studied the composition and quality of edible
cladodes (Rodriguez-Felix & Cantwell, 1987) and analyzed three Cactus
species (Opuntia arnyclaea, O. ficus-indica, and O. inermis). They found
the following average composition per 100 g: 91.7 g of water, 1.1 g of
protein, 0.2 g of lipids, 1.3 g of ash, 1.1 g of crude fiber, 4.6 g of complex
carbohydrates, 0.82 g of simple sugars, 12.7 mg of ascorbic acid, and
28.9 µg of carotenes. They concluded that the nutritive value of the
cladodes in which they are commonly harvested and consumed (15 to
25 cm long, weighing 50 to 80 g per stem), was similar for the three
species.
The 88–95 % water content makes cladodes a low-calorie food with
27 kcal/100 g (Muñoz de Chavez, Chavez, Valles, & Roldan, 1995).
According to Table 1, the ash mineral content increases with age,
making advantage of the availability of minerals in the vegetable can be
beneficial in combating food scarcity-related diseases. It is well known
that the mineral content in diets in developing countries is low in min­
erals like calcium. Calcium comes from dairy products and cheese,
among others. However, these products are expensive. Instead, we
propose the nopal product intake as a calcium source. Moreover, the
problem relative to lactose intolerance mainly reduces calcium con­
sumption and can lead to low bone mineral density and osteoporosis
(Aguilera-Barreiro et al., 2013). Table 1 indicates that nopal is a crucial
source of minerals within the diet of people who ingest it. When nopal
can be introduced into the daily diet, it combats the mineral deficiencies
of human populations.
Even though the fat content is low, another work found that fatty
acid analysis of cladodes indicated an important amount of omega fatty
acids. The most abundant was eicosadienoic acid (C 20:2, ω6), followed
by oleic acid, then palmitic acid. Also, γ-Linolenic acid was detected in a
considerable amount for cladodes. These results showed nopal cladodes
as a source of omega and essential fatty acids (Abdel-Razek et al., 2019).
2.3. Fiber content
According to Table 1, the total fiber content increases with the age of
nopal cladodes. Soluble fiber content decreases with the maturity stage;
Gums, mucilage, and pectins form the soluble fiber. The nopal
mucilage has some applications in the food industry. These macromol­
ecules are used as an edible coating in fruits (Del-Valle, Hernandez-
Muñoz, Guarda, & Galotto, 2005); as a stabilizer of emulsions and foam
(Garti & Leser, 2001); to control the crystallization; as a suspension
stabilizer; to inhibit the syneresis, and to form gels (Dziezak, 1991).
Missaoui et al. (2020) found that the dietary fiber, mucilage, and pectin,
were composed of arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, rhamnose,
and xylose sugars.
The mucilage is a hetero-polysaccharide of high molecular weight
produced in specialized cells in plants. According to different studies,
the main composition of this polysaccharide consists of six neutral
sugars: arabinose, galactose, rhamnose, xylose, uronic acid, and gal­
acturonic acid (Trachtenberg & Mayer, 1982). The mucilage is an
interesting compound of these kinds of plants. It has remarkable prop­
erties such as a high capacity for water holding, ion binding, and its gel-
formation ability that contributes to considering mucilage as a func­
tional additive that can be used in several industries (McGarvie, &
Parolis, 1979; Saenz, Sepulveda & Matsuhiro, 2004).
The studies of the physicochemical and rheological properties of the
nopal mucilage at three different maturity stages (100, 200, and 400 g).
The X-ray diffraction analysis showed calcium carbonate in the mucilage
in two different crystalline forms: calcite and calcium carbonate (Con­
treras-Padilla, et al., 2016). These compounds are bioavailable for
humans. Mucilage extracted from cladodes at different maturity shows
changes related to its rheological properties. These findings open the
opportunities for potential uses of this hydrocolloid of the cladodes
depending on the functional application required, considering the
properties associated with each of the different maturity stages Table 2
2.5. Aminoacid and protein content
A complete study found that nopal cladodes contain 17 different
amino acids, nine considered essential. The study showed different
levels of content related to the maturity stages (Hernández-Urbiola
et al., 2010) and revealed that threonine and isoleucine are better
sources for these amino acids in younger samples. On the other hand, the
histidine, leucine, and lysine content increase in older cladodes. Besides,
phenylalanine, threonine, and isoleucine have the highest content of
amino acids for all stages. These results indicate that the nopal powders

Table 1
Shows the proximate chemical analysis of Opuntia ficus indica variedad redonda for nopal powders as a function of the maturation (Hernández-Urbiola, et al., 2010).
Weight Moisture Ash Fat Crude Protein Carbo Insoluble Insoluble
Nopal cladodes (%) (%) (%) Fiber (%) hydrates (%) fiber fiber
(days) (%) (%) (%)

40 5.03 17.65 2.16 11.00 7.07 42.94 40.14 25.50

50 8.81 19.59 2.37 13.26 8.99 53.04 – –
60 5.43 20.64 2.38 16.14 8.39 53.01 58.61 11.38
70 4.85 21.09 1.62 19.03 8.92 55.53 – –
80 4.36 21.64 1.53 18.73 7.25 53.53 61.24 10.81
90 4.81 21.92 1.50 19.12 7.78 55.15 _ _
100 4.08 22.80 1.42 20.11 8.29 56.73 51.68 8.49
115 4.58 22.91 1.72 21.48 8.48 59.20 50.40 8.81

125 4.35 20.91 1.70 19.85 5.85 52.67 56.82 9.80

135 4.18 24.30 1.87 23.33 7.07 60.77 58.20 9.94

3
E. Hernández-Becerra et al.
Table 2
Shows the main mineral content of Opuntia Ficus indica variedad redonda for nopal powders as a function of weight (Hernández-Urbiola et al., 2010).
Weight P Ca K Na
Nopal cladodes (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g)
(days)
40 0.236 17.520 55.200
60 0.411 22.800 68.750
80 0.351 27.560 70.900
100 0.382 29.010 68.500
120 0.252 30.700 68.800
135 0.282 34.400 63.350
might be a good food complement due to their essential amino acid
content.
2.6. Minerals source
The mineral composition of nopal cladodes depends on diverse fac­
tors such as the variety of plants, the cultivation region, water quality,
soil, and cultivation practices, among others. The main elements are
calcium, potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, and sodium. Meanwhile,
iron, zinc, and manganese are present in small quantities. Some studies
indicate that these minerals are in different compounds: carbonates,
chlorides, sulfates, and phosphates (Rodriguez-Garcia et al., 2007;
Hernández-Urbiola et al., 2010). Other studies show similar results
about this vegetable. Missaoui et al. (2020) indicate that it is a source of
minerals, such as cations (calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium)
and anions (sulfate and chloride), with high magnesium bioaccessibility
(93 %).
According to previous reports, the maturation stage is an important
factor in the variation of the mineral content of nopal cladodes (Rodri­
guez-Garcia et al., 2007; Hernández-Urbiola et al., 2010; Contreras-
Padilla et al., 2011). The calcium content in this plant was studied in
different ways. The concentration of calcium increases at later maturity
stages. Contreras-Padilla et al. (2011) demonstrated that the molar ratio
between oxalate and calcium in all states of maturity was lower than 1.
Therefore, these results suggest that the bioavailability of this mineral
has not been modified for the antinutritional effect of oxalates.
They analyzed crystalline structures present in nopal cladodes. They
identified calcium carbonate or calcite (CaCO3, calcium-magnesium
bicarbonate (CaMg(CO3)2), magnesium oxide (MgO), calcium oxalate
monohydrate (Ca(C2O4)•(H2O), potassium peroxydiphosphate (K4P2O),
and potassium chloride (KCl) (Contreras-Padilla, Rivera-Muñoz,
Gutiérrez-Cortez, del Real-López, & Rodríguez-García 2015). The CaCO3
compound is key due to its bioavailability for humans. Calcium and
magnesium have essential functions in the biochemical processes of
plants, animals, and humans.
2.7. Postharvest technology and nutritional quality
The nopal cladodes harvested early in the morning had moderate
CO2 and low ethylene production rates, which initially declined and
then remained almost constant with time in storage (Cantwell,
Rodriguez-Felix, & Robles-Contreras, 1992). Storage at 5 ◦ C permitted a
shelf-life of 3 weeks without the development of any visual signs of low-
temperature damages. Postharvest technology is crucial to maintain the
quality of nopal cladodes to maximize storage life for human con­
sumption. One of the most important conservative technology is drying.
Contreras-Padilla et al. (2012) found that it is vital to consider the
appropriate equipment for the drying process. Their study focuses on
changes of nutritional characteristics of nopal powders from three
different maturity stages: 50, 100, and 150 days, and obtained by three
different drying processes: freeze-dried, forced air oven, and tunnel.
Results indicated that nopal powder obtained by freeze-drying retains
higher contents of protein, soluble fiber, and fat than the other two
processes. Also, the freeze-drying process had less effect on the color
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Journal of Functional Foods 95 (2022) 105183
Mg Mn Fe Zn
(mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g) (mg/g)
0.300 8.800 0.290 0.090 0.070
0.300 11.200 0.070 0.010 0.080
0.550 10.200 0.080 0.120 0.030
0.200 11.000 0.050 0.130 0.070
0.200 8.950 0.030 0.160 0.040
0.300 9.550 0.080 0.135 0.080
variable. No changes were observed in insoluble fiber content, chroma,
and lightness for any of the three different drying processes.
In an experimental study, which includes nopal pads of 6 and 12
months Opuntia ficus indica cladodes, results showed an increased sugar
release for 12-month cladodes and notorious increases in the presence of
cellulose. Results suggest a benefit of the increasing hydrolysis activity
for the association with sugar release increment and cellulose fiber
(Mounir et al., 2020).
3. Food, nutritional aspects, and functional properties
Nopal is also used in traditional medicine to treat several diseases
due to its hypoglycemic properties in diabetes, to reduce weight on
obesity, and to reduce cholesterol levels (Piga et al., 1996; Le Houérou,
1996; Betancourt-Domínguez et al., 2006). Nopal also contains nutri­
tional substances of the daily diet, such as vitamins and several minerals.
For nutritional deficiencies associated with a degenerative disease,
currently widespread in developing countries, attention should be
focused on affordable options of regional food resources. The focus
should also be on returning to customs of the precedent cultures, com­
bined with the global tendency on feeding habits and thus improving
food. Always respecting their habits and cultural trends, nopal powders
can be an alternative because of their low-slung cost and can be used as a
dietary supplement in all seasons, taking advantage of the best harvest
season and storage when scarcity comes. The dried nopal has significant
benefits due to its management, transport, and storage for long periods
and ensuring supreme nutritional values.
3.1. Secondary metabolites
In Mexican culture, the consumption of nopal includes different
preparations such as roasted, cooked, and fried. Nopal is poor in mac­
ronutrients such as carbohydrates (digested by human enzymes), pro­
teins, and lipids. The main component is water, 90–93 %. It is rich in
fiber (soluble and insoluble), some vitamins, and minerals. It also con­
tains secondary metabolites in the fresh plant. These compounds are
distributed in several parts of the plant (El-Mostafa, et al.. (2014), but
many of them are lost by culinary treatments. Therefore, the secondary
metabolites may be overestimated in scientific reports concerning
popular food. Secondary metabolites are synthesized by living organ­
isms for physiological activities and defense mechanisms. A study of
cladodes of the genus Opuntia showed the presence of several metabo­
lites. These are Gallic, vallinic, p-hydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic, and p-
coumaric acids; flavonoids quercetin, isorhamnetin, rutin, and apigenin.
The presence of secondary metabolites is modified, but fluctuation is not
identifiable (López-Palacios and Peña-Valdivia (2020). The secondary
metabolites type is determined by several factors, including age, variety,
and soil nutrition. In recent years, several authors have identified many
secondary metabolites. Many of them are precursors to other metabo­
lites. Some are chemical isomers with similar biological activity in vitro
and in vivo. These activities include antioxidants, anti-carcinogenic,
hypocholesterolemia, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antimicrobial,
among others studies (Bensadón, Hervert-Hernández, Sáyago-Ayerdi, &
Goñi, 2010; Figueroa-Pérez, Pérez-Ramírez, Paredes-López, Mondragón-
E. Hernández-Becerra et al.
Jacobo, & Reynoso-Camacho, 2018; Mena et al., 2018; Ressaissi et al.
2016; Osuna-Martínez, Reyes-Esparza, & Rodríguez-Fragoso, 2014).
3.2. Polyphenols, flavonoids, and phytosterols
Many chronic and degenerative diseases such as cancer, hyperten­
sion, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases can be controlled and pre­
vented through diets, including specific chemical compounds present in
nopal powders obtained at different maturity stages (Halmi et al., 2013;
Morán-Ramos et al., 2012; Nuñez-López et al., 2013).
The nopal effect on chronic degenerative diseases has been reported
in both clinical and preclinical studies. Most of them refer to a contri­
bution of some constitute of nopal. Such secondary metabolite high­
lights phenolic compounds and flavonoids. (Medina-Torres, et al., 2011)
studied the effect of convection drying on flavonoids, carotenoid, and
ascorbic acid, reporting that the drying at 65 ◦ C decreases the secondary
metabolite content. (Guevara-Figueroa, et al., 2010) studied the
phytochemical and flavonoid content in wild and commercial samples of
nopal. They found that the phytochemical and flavonoid content
decreased in tablets of commercial nopal due to the drying method.
Later, the effect of cooking bioactive component contents versus raw
nopal was evaluated (Ramírez-Moreno, et al., 2013). In general, they
reported a negative impact of temperature on bioactive components of
the nopal. In consequence, the effects of raw nopal can be over­
estimated. The analysis found that bioactive compounds are distributed
in different parts of the nopal, highlighting the presence of flavonoids,
sterols, minerals, fatty acids, and anthocyanins. (El-Mostafa et al., 2014;
Astello-García, et al., 2015) confirm the presence of such structures in
different parts of the plant. In addition, they reported the presence of
fatty acids, mainly: medium-chain fatty acids and eight essential amino
acids.
Figueroa-Pérez et al. (2018) shows the inhibitory activity of these
compounds on alfa amylase, aminoglycosides, and lipase enzymes.
However, many mechanisms are not established at present. A complete
analysis of the main secondary metabolites and their biological activity
found in nopal Opuntia ficus indica as a function of the maturity until now
were shown and classified as phenolic compounds, flavonoids, saponins
and phytosterols in their work. Missaoui et al. (2020) studied the
chemical and antioxidant components of nopal. They found eleven
compounds between phenolic acids and flavonoids, with piscidic acid
and isorhamnetin derivatives being the most abundant. The polyphenol
bioaccessibility was very high. Nopal cladodes showed a good capacity
for radical scavenging measured by DPPH and ABTS methods. In the
same way, the results obtained by Blando, Russo, Negro, De Bellis, &
Frassinetti (2019) studied two stages of nopal pads maturity. They
observed a remarkable antioxidant activity in immature nopal cladodes.
3.3. Antinutritional compounds in nopal
The tannins content of nopal was modified depending on their
maturation stage. The content of the antinutritional factors in the nopal
remained undefined, and did maintain a relationship with the matura­
tion state, as noted in the case of minerals. In general terms, a higher
content of tannins in the nopal was detected at 500–550 g of weight. In
this regard, it was established that a high concentration of this anti­
nutritional component in food could give them an astringent taste, clot
alkaloids, and albumins, in addition to being a chelating agent and se­
questrating heavy metals (Otero & Hidalgo, 2004). Regarding tannins
content, an increase is observed as the nopal age increases, suggesting
that old cladodes samples have antinutrient action. In contrast, old
nopal has the advantage of implementing an antioxidant action. The
oxalates in the nopal, form indigestible complexes at the intestinal level
with components like calcium (McConn & Nakata, 2004). However,
Contreras-Padilla et al. (2011) demonstrated that the molar ratio be­
tween oxalate and calcium in all states of maturity was lower than 1.
This result indicates that the bioavailability of this mineral has not been
5
Journal of Functional Foods 95 (2022) 105183
compromised. Also, results suggest that nopal cladodes in advanced
maturity stages can be a natural source of calcium that might be
included in human diets.
Welegerima, Zemene, and Tilahun (2018) determined the antimi­
crobial activity of Opuntia ficus indica cladodes extracts against some
selected bacterial isolates. The extracts showed the presence of phenolic
substances, tannins, glycosides, alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, steroids,
alkaloids, and amino acids. The results indicated antibacterial activity
against Gram-positive (B. subtilis and S. pneumoniae) and Gram-
negative bacteria (E. coli and S. typhimurium).
3.4. Nopal intake in non-transmissible chronic diseases
Among the most studied nopal species in preclinical experiments are
the Opuntia Ficus Indica and Streptacantha Lemaire. Its effects have
focused on controlling glucose metabolism associated with metabolic
syndrome. The potential of the nopal as an adjuvant in glucose control
and glycosylated hemoglobin levels was reported in rats administered
intraperitoneally with nopal extract plus insulin. The hypoglycemic ef­
fect was maintained after removing the insulin from the treatment
(Trejo-González et al., 1996). Similar results were found years later in
healthy rats and diabetic mice (Son, Yoon, Lee, & Kim, 2011; Butterweck
et al., 2011), respectively. The first approaches aimed at knowing the
mechanisms of action of the nopal on the glucose metabolism include
the study conducted by (Cárdenas-Medellín, Serna Saldívar, & Velazco
de la Garza,1998)) through fasting tests to evaluate the hypoglycemic
effect and glucose tolerance tests to know the antihyperglycemic activity
in rats. In a bifactorial experimental design with two levels, they
compared the effect of the administration of different doses of raw and
cooked nopal (6 and 12 %) on lipid metabolism and glucose control.
Only raw nopal at a concentration of 12 % was found to show a statis­
tically significant reduction in LDL cholesterol levels of 34 % compared
to the control group, but glucose levels did not decrease. The lack of
standardization of the nopal used can explain these controversies. Most
studies using nopal do not consider the state of maturity to determine its
biological effects. Several reports point out that important nutrients and
chemical composition change as a function of age (Rodriguez-Garcia
et al., 2007; Hernández-Urbiola et al., 2010; Contreras-Padilla et al.,
2011).
In hyperlipidemic rat models, (Zhao et al., 2012; Halmi et al., 2013)
found the same in rabbits. Until then, the coincidences in the beneficial
effects of nopal consumption on important parameters of metabolic
syndrome. However, the mechanisms of action were not clearly defined.
An interesting study discarded the hypoglycemic effect of nopal by
polysaccharides extracted from two species of Opuntia Ficus Indica and
Opuntia Streptacantha Lemaire, when it is subcutaneous administrated
(Alarcon-Aguilar et al., 2003). However, when administered intra­
gastrically, the antihyperglycemic effect was observed with a possible
reduction in intestinal glucose absorption. Andrade-Cetto and Wie­
denfeld (2011), Nuñez-López et al. (2013) found hypoglycemic and
antihyperglycemic effects in the Opuntia Strptacantha Lemaire adminis­
tered. In another research, (Laurenz, Collier, & Kuti, 2003) observed the
hypoglycemic effect in the diabetic pig model induced with streptozo­
tocin but not in the healthy-one. The use of lyophilized raw nopal
Opuntia Ficus Indica confirmed these findings and suggested that the
presence of some compounds could mediate a decrease in the parame­
ters related to lipid metabolism, such as LDL (low-density lipoproteins)
cholesterol, and triglycerides. In contrast, an increase of HDL (High-
density lipoproteins) cholesterol was observed (Galati, Tripodo, Tro­
vato, Aquino, & Monforte, 2003). Other species, such as Opuntia Dillenni,
have also shown hypocholesterolemic effects in healthy rats (Ennouri
et al., 2006).
An interesting revision analyzes nopal products as an alternative to
synthetic sources to maintain health or prevent chronic diseases. Ac­
cording to a wide medical substance derived from the nopal Opuntia
ficus-indica (L.), these demonstrated that physical and chemical
E. Hernández-Becerra et al.
properties are beneficial for their use as functional and nutraceutical
food. Additionally, studies propose the application of Opuntia to
ameliorate water pollution by using nopal as a biological method. Also,
plants could be a bio-absorbent for removing heavy metals from polluted
water and other water contaminants (Mounir et al., 2020).
3.5. Nopal nutraceutical studies
They isolated several extracts in different phases and found that
aqueous extracts showed no significant effect in decreasing blood
glucose, but the ether extract showed a normoglycemic effect. Luo et al.
(2010); Manzano et al. (2017), Becerra-Jiménez and Andrade-Cetto
(2012) report that some extracts of Opuntia streptacantha inhibit the
activity of the alpha-glucosidase enzyme at the intestinal level, which is
responsible for the antihyperglycemic effect. Those results were also
found in the same species, in addition to demonstrating the hypogly­
cemic and hypolipidemic effects mainly due to the soluble fiber content
in young cladodes (Becerra-Jiménez & Andrade-Cetto, 2012; Leem, Kim,
Hahm, & Kim, 2016; Bouzghaya et al., 2016). They also found a pro­
tective effect in the pancreatic islets compared to the control group in a
diabetic rat model and suggested an effect of nopal extracts at the level
of the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas, promoting the production of
insulin by β-cells (Butterweck et al., 2011).
Opuntia ficus-indica could have a greater effect on cholesterol
reduction since some polyphenolic compounds inhibit the functions of
enzymes involved in the hydrolysis of carbohydrates and fats. Pancreatic
lipase is a key enzyme in the digestion and absorption of triacylglycerol
in the diet. It hydrolyzes triacylglycerol to monoacrylic glycerol and
fatty acids. It is known that dietary fat is not absorbed directly in the
intestine unless it has undergone the action of pancreatic lipase. Ac­
cording to the study in which the hypocholesterolemic effect of an
Opuntia ficus-indica extract was tested, it could be because the extract
prevents hydrolysis of dietary fat fiber possibly in the small intestine and
reduces the subsequent intestinal absorption of dietary fat. However,
until now, the main mechanisms were not clear. Therefore, the next
investigations with nopal should focus on controlling the maturity of the
used nopal and clarifying the mechanisms of action (Padilla-Camberos
et al., 2015).
3.6. Nopal on bone health (Preclinical studies)
Experiments with the Opuntia genus related to bone health include
the work done by administering the nopal himifusa species to Sprague
Dowly male rats to evaluate bone mineral density and bone health
biomarkers, such as osteocalcin and parathyroid hormone, as well as
alkaline phosphatase, among others. They suggest that Opuntia himufusa
can be used as a functional food to improve bone mineral density and
strengthen bone through hormonal regulation (Kang, Park, Choi, Igawa,
& Song, 2012). Subsequently, they showed the potential of nopal as a
functional food in rats fed during the growth stage with nopal Opuntia
ficus indica using nopal with 1000 g of weight as a sole source of calcium.
The results showed thicker trabeculae in the metaphyseal region of the
femur of male Wistar rats compared to the control group. Besides, the
bone mineral density was higher in the rats fed with nopal in the late
maturity stage than in the rat group fed with nopal in the early maturity
stage (Hernández-Becerra et al, 2017). In the same way, changes in
biomarkers (osteocalcin and procollagen amino-terminal propeptide) of
bone health were previously reported (Hernandez-Becerra et al., 2019),
indicating that the maturity stage determines their attributes for bone
health. In addition to being a vitak calcium source, the nopal contains
high magnesium and potassium concentrations that contribute to bone
formation. Posterior research found that nopal avoids the potassium and
magnesium bone loss in ovariectomized Wistar rats and improves the
bone mineral density and trabecular and cortical bone tissue micro­
structure. (Quintero-García et al., 2020; Ko et al., 2014) reported a
synergetic effect of nopal extract on menopausal symptoms in
6
Journal of Functional Foods 95 (2022) 105183
ovariectomized Sprague Dowly rats. Other interesting results from
premenopausal women showed that an intake of cladodes powder is an
efficient calcium source, improves bone mineral density (BMD) in the
hip and lumbar spine regions, and maintains basal calciuria levels
(Aguilera-Barreiro et al., 2013).
3.7. Nopal on bone health (Clinical studies)
The intake of dehydrated nopal at a high stage of maturity (600 g)
and with high calcium content could improve bone mineral density
(BMD) and calciuria and thus prevent osteoporosis (Aguilera-Barreiro
et al., 2013).
The increase of the calcium content in the diet during growth is an
excellent alternative to increase the peak bone mineral density and
reduce the risk of losses in the bone mineral density after 60 years
(Arjmandi et al., 2010; Hooshmand et al., 2008; Ishimi, 2009; Nomura
et al., 2005; Watkins et al., 2007). Similar results are shown in a study of
181 women aged 35 to 55 with low bone mass from a total population of
817 women, all of whom are from the central part of Mexico (Aguilera-
Barreiro et al., 2013). Four groups were formed: A regular group that
included women with normal BMD (bone mineral density) as a reference
population by Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) (n = 50), a
Control group (CG), including women with normocalciuria (n = 66),
and finally the two experimental groups with hypercalciuria (n = 65),
called Experimental group 1 (EG1), with 2.5 g of dehydrated nopal (n =
29) and Experimental group 2 (EG2), with 15 g of dehydrated nopal (n
= 36). The study had two years of follow-up and was divided into pre
and post-menopausal women. Its important remark was that after the
first semester of treatment, calciuria levels in women from both exper­
imental groups returned to normal, remaining constant for the rest of the
treatment. The percentage difference in BMD significantly increased in
the total hip region in the CG (pre 4.5 % and post 2.1 %) and EG2 (pre
1.8 % and post 2.5 %) groups compared to NG and EG1, which exhibited
a significant decrease in their BMD.BMD increased by 2.5 % for the
group EG2 (premenopausal) only for the lumbar region. This work
concludes that the maximum dehydrated nopal dose (15 g) used im­
proves BMD in premenopausal women with low bone mass in the total
hip and lumbar spine, maintaining the calciuria at normal levels. This
study is very important to prevent osteoporosis since it is known that
after 40 years of age in women, there is a negative balance in the BMD,
which is responsible for the physiological loss of bone mass (0.5 per
year). Besides, in postmenopause, it is lost from 3 to 5 % per year,
especially the trabecular bone (lumbar spine), during the first 7 years,
then, the loss is from 0.75 % per year (Riggs, Sundeep, & Melton, 2002).
4. Conclusions
The nopal cladodes are becoming an invaluable plant for human and
animal food worldwide due to their physicochemical composition
changes as a function of the maturity and physiological condition that
tolerates a low quantity of water, their nutritional values, and human
health benefits. This is an advantage in the process of climate change
that provokes a major extension of arid and semi-arid zones on the
whole planet.
According to this review, the potential applications of nopal depend
on the in-depth knowledge of all physicochemical properties consid­
ering the maturity stage that reveals strong differences in their proper­
ties, which opens a new window for potential applications of nopal
cladodes as a functional food, which can select the cladode maturity
according to food and nutrition requirements. In the same way, based on
our experience, we consider that future research using nopal for treat­
ment of different diseases such as osteopenia, osteoporosis, hiper-
calciurea, diabetes should consider the maturity state and the vari­
eties. We suggest that the nopal as functional food can be selected for
different diseases according to maturity. Future studies should clarify
macromolecules and secondary metabolites’ main action mechanisms in
E. Hernández-Becerra et al.
chronic degenerative diseases.
5. Perspectives and suggestions
Considering the nutritional values for each maturity stage of clad­
odes products, they can be included in the diet as food, thus treating or
preventing nutritional non-hereditary chronic diseases associated with
nutritional scarcity. Nopal pad powder at high maturity stages could be
an alternative fiber and mineral source to receive the daily calcium
required for bone health in developing countries. Young nopals in
human diets are recommendable because of their mucilage content and
normalizing glycemic homeostasis. To include nopal cladodes in the
diet, selecting them according to the maturity stage is a better strategy,
using adequate food products for the nutritional requirements of the
human individual.
Considering the mineral content in this vegetable, it can ameliorate
the damage of food deficiencies or prevent the development of non-
heritage chronic diseases. To treat the low mineral content in diets,
we recommend using nopal products alternative to dairy products. We
also recommend its use when there is a lactose intolerance problem, thus
solving the calcium requirement.
Ethical statement
The review paper not involved any human and animal experimental
subjects.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgment
Ezequiel Hernández thanks CONACYT-México for the financial
support of his postdoctoral fellowship pat CFATA, UNAM Campus
Juriquilla. Authors thank Beatriz Millan-Malo for the technical support.
E. Perez-Torrero thanks Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro for the
project FIN-2021-23, Fondo para el Desarrollo del Conocimiento.
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