Welding Handbook Section Two Welding Processes Gas, Arc and Resistance

Welding Handbook
Sixth Edition
SECTIO N TWO
Welding Handbook
Sixth Edition
SECTION TWO
Welding Processes:
Gas, Arc and Resistance
Macmillan Education
Welding Handbook
IN FIVE SECTIONS
1 Fundamentals of Welding
2 Welding Processes: Gas, Are and Resistance
3 Special Welding Processes and Cutting
4 Metals and Their Weidability
5 Applications of Welding
Prepared under the directlon of

THE WELDING HANDBOOK COMMITTEE
Chairman L. F. LOCKWOOD The Dow Chemical Co.

Editor ARTHUR L. PHILLIPS American Welding Society
Assistant Editor STANLEY T. WALTER American Welding Society
C. E. JACKSON Onio State University
P. W. RAMSEY A. 0. Smith Corp.
STANLEY WEISS University of Wisconsin
D. V. WILCOX Reynolds Metals Co.
Large Medium vo., 708 pp.

339 line and 65 halftone illustrations
98 tables
Copyright American We1ding Society 1969
Softcoverreprint of the bardeover 6th edition 1969 978-0-333-04773-6
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof must not be reproduced in any form without
the written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-349-00326-6 ISBN 978-1-349-00324-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-00324-2
Preface
The Handbook Committee has introduced a
number of changes into Section Two of the Welding Handbook
with a view to improving the chapter arrangement, eliminating
outdated material and providing a more logical sequence of sub-
ject matter. The chapter on arc welding equipment, for example,
has been eliminated. It was considered preferable to include
discussion of the equipment in the chapter describing each arc
process rather than to describe the various arc welding proc-
esses and refer the reader to a subsequent chapter for details
about the related equipment.
Because of the many new developments in arc welding power
sources, it was decided to provide a special chapter on the sub-
ject for this edition. The chapter includes many schematic
diagrams relating to generating equipment used in the arc weld-
ing processes, together with detailed explanations and valuable
information about standard systems of classification.
The revision of the gas shielded-arc welding and submerged
arc welding chapters reflects the modem speed of technological
development. Despite the fact that these chapters were revised
and rewritten five years ago, the amount of new material now
available has rendered necessary another complete revision, in-
cluding additional tabular data and new illustrations.
Changes in nomenclature, as well as advances in technology,
have resulted in a considerably revised chapter on spot, seam
and projection welding. Similarly, the chapter on flash, upset
and percussion welding reflects recent improvements in the upset
and percussion processes. Resistance welding equipment that
was experimental when Section Two of the Fifth Edition was
published has now received industrial acceptance and is de-
scribed in this volume.
The chapter on metallizing, which formerly appeared in Sec-
tion Three, has undergone substantial changes and revisions.
The name has been changed to Thermal Spraying, which is more
descriptive of the process. This new chapter includes such re-
cently developed techniques as detonation gun spraying and
plasma spraying.
Because stud welding is an arc welding process, the stud weld-
ing chapter from Section Three has been placed, in revised form,
in Section Two, where the other arc processes are found.
Some of the chapters that appeared in the Fifth Edition of
this Section-Carbon Arc Welding, for instance-have been
omitted from the Sixth Edition. Such processes have been largely
superseded in modern production operations, and the Welding
Handbook is concerned primarily with contemporary industrial
practice.
The new A WS welding symbols, and welding and cutting
terms and definitions, have been included in this Section. The
old symbols were printed in Section One but, since the old sym-
bols will be in use for some years to come, it was decided to
include both the old and the new symbols in the Sixth Edition
for the convenience of readers.
Manufacturers, fabricators and educators connected with the
welding industry have contributed their time, skill and knowl-
edge toward the preparation of this Section of the Handbook.
Companies have generously contributed technical data from
their research files, and committees have worked tirelessly to
produce a volume that will be of significant value to the entire
industry. We would like to express our sincere thanks to all who
have shared in this effort.
ARTHUR L. PHILLIPS, Editor

Contents
Chapter Page
Preface........................................................................ v
21 Standard Welding Symbols ................ ........................ 21.1
22 Shielded Metal-Arc Welding ...................................... 22.1
23 Gas Shielded-Arc Welding ........................................ 23.1
24 Submerged Arc Welding ............................................ 24.1
25 Arc Welding Power Sources................................... 25.1
26 Spot, Seam and Projection Welding ............................ 26.1
27 Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding ........................ 27 .I
28 Resistance Welding Equipment.................................... 28.1
29 Thermal Spraying........................................................ 29.1
30 Stud Welding .............................................................. 30.1
Appendix Standard Welding and Cutting Terms and Definitions
_ _ _ _CHAPTER 21
STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS
Introduction 21.4
Basic Symbols 21.5
Basic Types of Joints and Welds 21.6
General Provisions 21.6
Fillet Welds 21.13
Plug Welds 21.17
Slot Welds 21.20
Spot Welds 21.21
Seam Welds 21.23
Groove Welds 21.25
Back or Backing Welds 21.28
Surfacing Welds 21.29
Flange Welds 21.30

Welding Symbols Chart 21.32
The chapter on Standard Welding Symbols is normally
published in Section 1 of the Handbook. However, since the
publication date of the Handbook in 1968, a new edition
of this standard, AWS A2.0-68, was issued. Because the
revisions are fairly extensive, and because of their impor-
tance in conveying information on engineering drawings,
this standard is being included in Section 2.
PREPARED BY THE A WS COMMITTEE ON DEFINITIONS AND SYMBOLS:
M.D. THOMAS E. A. HARWART

General Motors Institute-Chairman Atomics International
W. E. McKENZIE J. R. HENRY
U.S. Naval Weapons Laboratory- Haveg Industries
Vice Chairman
R. K. LEE
R. NESPECO Alloy Rods Co.
American Welding Society-
Secretary A. W. MARNER
S. A. AGNEW
Union Carbide Corp.
Airco Welding Products Div. J. MIKULAK
I. M. BARTA Worthington Corp.
CVI Engineering Co. W.G.MORGAN
I. G. BETZ Arvin Industries, Inc.
Frankford Arsenal
NAVAL SHIP ENGINEERING CENTER
BUREAU OF WEAPONS U. S. Navy Department
U. S. Navy Department
J. M. PAYNE
H. C. CAMPBELL Butler Manufacturing Co.
Arcos Corporation
R. L. PEASLEE
J. CAPRAROLA Wall Colmonoy Corp.
Airco Welding Products Div.
H. B. CARY H. E. SCHULTZ
Hobart Brothers Co. General Electric Co.
R. J. CHRISTOFFEL W. SCOTT
General Electric Co. Westinghouse Electric Corp.
J. F. DEFFENBAUGH C. S. SHIRA
McKay Machine Co. North American Rockwell Corp.
T. F. ELLIS P.R. WHITE
Kaiser Jeep Corp. Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
T.C.HACKER
The Boeing Company R. E. THIEMER, Alternate
J. R. HARRISON D. E. WOODLING
North American Rockwell Corp. U. S. Coast Guard
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 21
INTRODUCTION
THE WELDING HANDBOOK COMMITTEE HAS established a policy not tO repro-
duce standards in the Welding Handbook, since space is at a premium and
welding standards are readily available in printed form. Standard Welding
Symbols, however, is in a category all its own. Symbols are regarded as so
important that their reproduction in full is considered essential. It was for this
reason that a departure has been made from established policy to permit the
major portion of this standard to be included in the Welding Handbook.
Welding cannot take its proper place as an engineering tool unless means are
provided for conveying the information from the designer to the workmen.
Such practices as writing "To be welded throughout" or "To be completely
welded" on a drawing, in effect transfer 'the responsibility for design of all at-
tachments and connections from the designer to the welder, who cannot be
expected to know what strength is necessary. This practice, in addition to being
dangerous, may also be costly, for certain shops in their desire to be safe use
much more welding than is necessary.
These symbols provide the means of placing complete welding information
on drawings. In practice many companies will probably need only a few of
the symbols, and if they desire, can select only such parts of the scheme as fit
their needs. If this is done universally, all will be speaking the same language
even though some use but a few of the symbols contained herein.
The tail of the symbol is used for designing the welding and cutting proc-
esses as well as the welding specifications, procedures or other supplementary
Note: By publication of this standard, the American Welding Society does not insure anyone
utilizing the standard against liability arising from the use of such standard. A publication of a
standard by the American Welding Society does not carry with it the right to make, use or sell
any patented items. Each prospective user should make an independent investigation.
Basic Symbols/ 21.5
information to be used in the making of the weld. If a welder knows the size
and type of weld, he has only part of the information necessary for making that
weld. The process, identification of filler metal that is to be used, whether or
not peening or root chipping is required, and other pertinent data must be
known. The notation to be placed in the tail of the symbol indicating these
data will usually be established by each user. If notations are not used, the tail
of the symbol may be omitted.
This edition of this Standard (AWS 2.0-68) contains many changes from
the former edition (AWS 2.0-58); most important among them are the changes
to the spot and seam weld symbols. The new symbol for all spot welds is a
circle; the new symbol for all seam welds is a circle transversed by two hori-
zontal parallel lines. These new concepts were felt desirable in order to keep
abreast of national and international thinking and to reduce the complexity
inherent in providing symbols for a variety of ways of making the same type of
weld. There will no longer be an attempt to provide symbols for different ways
of making a spot weld, such as resistance, arc and electron beam welding. Now
one symbol, a circle, will suffice for all spot welds regardless of the welding
process used. The same concept is used for seam welds. One symbol will suffice
for all seam welds regardless of the way they are made.
As a consequence of these actions the old symbols for arc-spot, arc-seam,
resistance-spot and resistance-seam welds should no longer be used. These old
symbols are presented in an Appendix of Nonpreferred Symbols in the Standard;
they are not, however, reproduced in the Welding Handbook. In addition, the
symbols for projection and flash or upset welds are relegated to this Nonpre-
ferred Appendix. It is felt that the new symbol for a spot weld will be adequate
for projection welds and the present square-groove weld symbol will be adequate
for flash or upset welds. Further explanation of this Appendix is made in the
Introduction to the Appendix.
BASIC SYMBOLS
101. DISTINCTION BETWEEN WELD SYMBOL AND WELDING
SYMBOL
This standard makes a distinction between the terms weld symbol and weld-
ing symbol. The weld symbol is the ideograph used to indicate the desired
type of weld. The assembled welding symbol consists of the following eight
elements, or such of these elements as are necessary:
Reference line Supplementary symbols
Arrow Finish symbols
Basic weld symbols Tail
Dimensions and other data Specification, process or other references
102. BASIC WELD SYMBOLS

Basic weld symbols shall be as shown in Fig. 21.1. Specification and process
references should be shown in the tail of the welding symbol (Article 306).
103. SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS

Supplementary symbols to be used in connection with welding symbols shall
be as shown in Fig. 21.2.
21.6 j Standard Welding Symbols
104. STANDARD LOCATION OF ELEMENTS OF A WELDING

SYMBOL
The elements of a welding symbol shall have standard locations with respect
to each other as shown in Fig. 21.3.
BASIC TYPES OF JOINTS AND WELDS

201. BASIC TYPES OF JOINTS
The basic types of joints are shown in Fig. 21.4, and the types of welds by
which the members are frequently joined are listed thereon.
202. BASIC TYPES OF WELDS

The basic types of welds indicated by the basic weld symbols are illustrated
in Figs. 21.5 to 21.24, inclusive.
GENERAL PROVISIONS
301. WELD SYMBOLS
Weld symbols shall be shown only as part of the welding symbol.
302. LOCATION SIGNIFICANCE OF ARROW

(a) In the case of fillet, groove, flange, and flash or upset welding symbols,
the arrow shall connect the welding symbol reference line to one side of the
joint, and this side shall be considered the arrow side of the joint. The side
opposite the arrow side of the joint shall be considered the other side of the
joint (Figs. 21.6, 21.7, 21.12 to 21.19, inclusive, 21.22, 21.23 and 21.24).
(b) In the case of plug, slot, spot, seam and projection welding symbols,
the arrow shall connect the welding symbol reference line to the outer surface
of one of the members of the joint at the centerline of the desired weld. The
member to which the arrow points shall be considered the arrow-side member.
The other member of the joint shall be considered the other-side member (Figs.
21.8 to 21.11, inclusive).
(c) When a joint is depicted by a single line on the drawing and the arrow
of a welding symbol is directed to this line, the arrow side of the joint shall be
considered as the near side of the joint in accordance with the usual conventions
of drafting (Figs. 21.6, 21.7, 21.12 to 21.19, inclusive, 21.22, 21.23 and 21.24).
(d) When a joint is depicted as an area parallel to the plane of projection
in a drawing and the arrow of a welding symbol is directed to that area, the
arrow-side member of the joint shall be considered as the near member of the
joint in accordance with the usual conventions of drafting (Figs. 21.8 to 21.11,
inclusive) .
(e) Flash and upset weld symbols have no arrow-side or other-side signifi-
cance, although supplementary symbols used in conjunction with them may
have such significance. Spot and seam weld symbols may or may not have
arrow-side or other-side significance. Supplementary symbols used in conjunc-
General Provisions / 21.7
tion with them may have such significance. (Articles 706 and 806). Spot, seam,
flash and upset weld symbols should be drawn thus:
RSW~ ~RSEW ~~~
303. LOCATION OF WELD WITH RESPECT TO JOINT

(a) Welds on the arrow side of the joint shall be shown by placing the weld
symbol on the side of the reference line toward the reader, thus: (See also, Figs.
21.6A, 21.8A, 21.9A, 21.10A, 21.11A, 21.12A, 21.13A, 21.14A, 21.15A,
21.16A, 21.17A, 21.18A, 21.22A and 21.23A.)
(b) Welds on the other side of the joint shall be shown by placing the weld
symbol on the side of the reference line away from the reader, thus: (See also,
Figs. 21.6B, 21.8B, 21.9B, 21.10B, 21.11B, 21.12B, 21.13B, 21.14B, 21.15B,
21.16B, 21.17B, 21.18B, 21.22B and 21.23B.)
(c) Welds on both sides of the joint shall be shown by placing weld symbols
on both sides of the reference line, toward and away from the reader, thus:
(See also, Figs. 21.7, 21.12C, 21.13C, 21.14C, 21.15C, 21.16C, 21.17C and
21.18C.)
304. METHOD OF DRAWING SYMBOLS

Symbols may be drawn mechanically or freehand, as desired.
305. USE OF INCH, DEGREE AND POUND MARKS

Inch, degree and pound marks may be used on welding symbols or not, as
desired, except that inch marks shall be used for indicating the diameter of
spot and circular projection welds and the width of seam welds, when such
welds are specified by decimal dimension.
306. LOCATION OF SPECIFICATION, PROCESS OR OTHER

REFERENCES
(a) When a specification, process or other reference is used with a welding
symbol, the reference shall be placed in the tail, thus:
835~
(b) When the use of a definite process is required, the process shall be
indicated by one or more of the letter designations shown in Tables 21.1 and
21.2 (pp. 21.10 and 21.11), thus: (See also, Figs. 21.10, 21.11 and 21.41.)
Ptsw)---/"' ~W~TB
(c) When no specification, process or other reference is used with a welding
symbol, the tail may be omitted, thus:
307. USE OF SYMBOLS WITHOUT REFERENCES

When desired, symbols may be used without specification, process or other
references in the following instances:
(a) When a note such as the following appears on the drawing: "Unless
otherwise designated, all welds are to be made in accordance with Specification
No. _ _."
(b) When the welding procedure to be used is prescribed elsewhere.
388. USE OF GENERAL NOTES

When desired, general notes such as the following may be placed on a draw-
ing to provide detailed information pertaining to the predominating welds, and
this information need not be repeated on the symbols.
"Unless otherwise indicated, all fillet welds are 5/16 inch size."
"Unless otherwise indicated, root openings for all groove welds are 3/16 inch."
309. USE OF WELD-ALL-AROUND SYMBOL

Welds extendin~ completely around a joint shall be indicated by means of
the weld-all-around symbol, thus:
General Provisions / 21.9
310. USE OF FIELD WELD SYMBOL

Field welds (welds not made in a shop or at the place of initial construction)
shall be indicated by means of the field weld symbol, thus:
311. USE OF MELT-THRU SYMBOL

(a) The melt-thru symbol shall be used only where 100% joint or member
penetration plus reinforcement is required in welds made from one side only
(Pig. 21.5).
(b) Melt-thru shall be shown by placing the melt-thru symbol on the side
of the reference line opposite the weld symbol (Fig. 21.5).
(c) No dimensions of melt-thru, except height of reinforcement, shall be
shown on the welding symbol. If it is desired to specify other dimensions, they
shall be shown on the drawing, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.5.)
312. SURFACE CONTOUR OF MELT-THRU

(a) Melt-thru that is to be made flush by mechanical means shall be shown
by adding both the flush-contour symbol and the user's standard finish symbol*
to the melt-thru symbol, thus:
(b) Melt-thru that is to be mechanically finished to a convex contour shall

be shown by adding both the convex-contour symbol and the user's standard
finish symbol* to the melt-thru symbol, thus:
'¥--< <
H
G ( f)
313. EXTENT OF WELDING DENOTED BY SYMBOLS
(a) Symbols apply between abrupt changes in the direction of the welding
or to the extent of hatching or dimension lines, except when the weld-all-around
=
• Finish symbol!i used herein indicate the method of finishing ("C" = chipping; "G" = grinding;
= =
"M" machining; "R" rolling; "H" hammering) and not the degree of finish. For indicating
degree of finish, see USA Standard B46.1, Surface Texture.
21.10 I Standard Welding Symbols
Table 21.1-Designation of welding processes by letters*

Letter
Welding Process Designation
Infrared Brazing ..•••..•.......••...•.•... IRB

Torch Brazing ...••............•.......•.. TB
Furnace Brazina ..•.............•••....... FB
Induction Brazing ........••......•••...••. IB
Brazlna Resistance Brazing .•........••............ RB
Dip Brazing .•..•......•...••••..•.....••• DB
tTwln-Carbon Arc Brazing .••.•.•••.•.....•. TCAB t
tBiock Brazing....•.•.•...•......••••...... BBt
tF1ow Brazing ...........•..•......•....... FLBt
Oxyacetylene Welding .......•.•........... OAW
Gas Welding Oxyhydrogen Welding ...•.........•.••.... OHW
Pressure Gas Welding ...................... PGW
fAir-Acetylene Welding ..................... AAWt
Resistance-Spot Welding .................•. RSW
Resistance-Seam Welding ................... RSEW
Resistance Welding Projection Welding ........................ RPW
Flash Welding .•..•..................•.... FW
Upset Welding .................••...•..... UW
Percussion Welding ........................ PEW
Stud Welding ............................. SW
Plasma-Arc Welding ....................... PAW
Submerged Arc Welding .................... SAW
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, ................ GTAW
Gas Metal-Arc Welding .................... GMAW
Flux Cored Arc Welding ................... FCAW
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding ................ SMAW
Arc Welding Carbon-Arc Welding., ....•................ CAW
tBare Metal-Arc Weldmg ................... BMAWt
tGas-Shlelded Stud Welding ................. GSSWt
tAtomic Hydrogen Welding ................. AHWt
tTwin-Carbon Arc Wel!iing .................. TCAWt
tGas Carbon-Arc Weld1ng ................... GCAWt
tShielded Carbon-Arc Welding .......•....•.. SCAWt
Thermlt Welding .......................... TW
Laser Beam Welding ....................... LBW
Induction Welding ......................... IW
Other Processes Electroslag Welding ....................... EW
l
Electron Beam Welding .................... EBW
Nonpressure Thermit Welding ............•. NTWt
Pressure Thermit Welding ......•........... PTWt
Flow Welding ............................. FLOWt
Ultrasonic Welding ........................ USW
Friction Welding .......................... FRW
Forge Welding ............................ FOW
Solid State Welding Explosion Welding ......................... EXW
Diffusion Welding ......................... DFW
Cold Welding ............................. CW
tRoll Welding ..................•.......... RWt
tDie Welding ..............••.•..•......... DWt
tRammer Welding .............•.........•. HWt
Table 21.2-Designation of cutting processes by leHers*

Cutting Process Letter Designation
Arc Cutting .................................. AC

Air Carbon-Arc Cutting ..................... AAC
Carbon-Arc Cutting ......................... CAC
Metal-Arc Cutting .......................... MAC
Plasma-Arc Cutting ......................... PAC
Oxygen Cutting......•........................ OC
Chemical-Flux Cutting ...................... FOC
Metal Powder Cutting ....................... POC
-------- Oxygen-Arc Cutting ......................... AOC
oOThe following suffixes may be used if desired to indicate the methods of applying the above processes:
Automatic Cutting -AU
Machine Cutting -ME
Manual Cutting -MA
Semi-Automatic Cutting -SA
tProcesses included in the 1961 edition of the AWS Master Chart of Welding Prog:sses. These will
not be included in the forthcoming edition of the Master Chart and their definitions have been relegated
to obsolete or nonpreferred status due to present usage.
General Provisions I 21.11
Table 21.1 A-Alphabetical cross-reference to Table 21.1

Letter Designation Welding Process
tAAW ........................ Air-Acetylene Weldingt
tAHW ....................... Atomic Hydrogen Weldingt
tBB ......••.................. Block Brazingf
tBMAW ...................... Bare Metal-Arc Weldingf
CAW ........................ Carbon-Arc Welding
CW ......................... Cold Welding
DB ......................•.. Dip Brazing
DFW ........................ Diffusion Welding
tDW ......................•.. Die Weldingf
EBW ........................ Electron Beam Welding
EW ......................... Electroslag Welding
EXW ....................... Explosion Welding
FB .......................... Furnace Brazing
FCAW ...................... Flux Cored Arc Welding
tFLB ........................ Flow Brazingf
tFLOW ...................... Flow Weldingt
FOW ........................ Forge Welding
FRW ........................ Friction Welding
FW ......................... Flash Welding
tGCAW ...................... Gas Carbon-Arc Weldingf
GMAW ...................... Gas Metal-Arc Welding
tGSSW ....................... Gas-Shielded Stud Weldingt
GTAW ...................... Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
tHW .......................... Hammer Weldingt
IB .......................... Induction Brazing
IRB ......................... Infrared Brazing
IW .......................... Induction Welding
LBW ........................ Laser Beam Welding
tNTW ....................... Nonpressure Thermit Weldingt
OAW ........................ Oxyacetylene Welding
OHW ..•.................... Oxyhydrogen Welding
PAW ........................ Plasma-Arc Welding
PEW ........................ Percussion Welding
PGW ........................ Pressure Gas Welding
tPTW ........................ Pressure Thermit Weldingf
RB .......................... Resistance Brazing
RPW ........................ Projection Welding
RSEW ...................... Resistance-Seam Welding
RSW ........................ Resistance-Spot Welding
tRW ......................... Roll Weldingt
SAW ........................ Submerged Arc Welding
tSCAW ....................... Shielded Carbon-Arc Weldingf
SMAW ...................... Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
SW ......................... Stud Welding
TB .......................... Torch Brazing
tTCAB ....................... Twin-Carbon Arc Brazingf
tTCAW ...................... Twin-Carbon Arc Weldingf
TW ......................... Thermit Welding
USW ........................ Ultrasonic Welding
UW ......................... Upset Welding
Table 21.2A-Aiphabetical cross-reference to Table 21.2

Letter Designation Cutting Process
AAC ........................ Air Carbon-Arc Cutting
AC .......................... Arc Cutting
AOC ........................ Oxygen-Arc Cutting
CAC ........................ Carbon-Arc Cutting
FOC ........................ Chemical Flux Cutting
MAC ........................ Metal-Arc Cutting
OC .......................... Oxygen Cutting
PAC ........................ Plasma-Arc Cutting
POC ........................ Metal Powder Cutting
--------
•The following suffixes may be used if desired to indicate the methods of applying the above processes:
Automatic Cutting -AU
Machine Cutting -ME
Manual Cutting -MA
Semi-Automatic Cutting -SA
tProcesses included in the 1961 edition of the AWS Master Chart of Welding Processes. These will
not be Included in the forthcoming edition of the Master Chart and their definition have been relegated
to obsolete or nonpreferred status due to present usage.
symbol is used (Figs. 21.28, 21.29, 21.320 and 21.33C).

(b) The welding on hidden joints may be covered as shown below when
welding of the hidden joint is the same as that of the visible joint. In this case,
a section is desirable but is not necessary. The drawing shall indicate the
presence of hidden members. If the welding on the hidden joint is different
from that of the visible joint, specific information for the welding of both shall
be given.
314. WELD PROPORTIONS

All welds shall be continuous and of user's standard proportions unless other-
wise indicated.
315. FINISHING OF WELDS

Finishing of welds, other than cleaning, shall be indicated by suitable con-
tour and finish symbols (Articles 312, 409, 506, 604, 706, 806, 905 and 1003).
316. CONSTRUCTION OF SYMBOLS

Fillet, bevel- and J-groove, flare-bevel-groove and corner-flange weld symbols
shall be shown with the perpendicular leg always to the left, thus: (See also,
Figs. 21.6, 21.7, 21.14, 21.16, 21.18 and 21.23.)
317. USE OF BREAK IN ARROW OF BEVEL- AND J-GROOVE

WELDING SYMBOLS
When a bevel- or J-groove weld symbol is used, the arrow shall point with
a definite break toward the member which is to be chamfered, thus: (See also,
Fillet Welds/ 21.13
Figs. 21.14 and 21.16.) (In cases where the member to be chamfered is obvious,
the break in the arrow may be omitted.)
I v <
318. READING OF INFORMATION ON WELDING SYMBOLS

Information on welding symbols shall be placed to read from left to right
along the reference line in accordance with the usual conventions of drafting,
thus:
319. COMBINED WELD SYMBOLS

For joints having more than one weld, a symbol shall be shown for each
weld, thus: (See also, Figs. 21.25 and 21.36.)
320. DESIGNATION OF SPECIAL TYPES 01.1' WELDS

When the basic weld symbols are inadequate to indicate the desired weld, the
weld shall be shown by a cross section, detail or other data, with a reference
thereto on the welding symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
OWG.234
DWG.233
FILLET WELDS
401. GENERAL
(a) Dimensions of fillet welds shall be shown on the same side of the refer-
ence line as the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Figs. 21.26, 21.27 and 21.28.)
(b) When no general note governing the dimensions of fillet welds appears
on the drawing, the dimensions of fillet welds on both sides of the joint shall be
shown as follows:
( 1) When both welds have the same dimensions, one or both may be
dimensioned, thus:
OR' ~ 1\. 6 ;
·~
4
(2) When the welds differ in dimensions, both shall be dimensioned thus:
>--tt7¥
" cl-1\. • / OR
i6
(c) When there appears on ,the drawing a general note governing the
dimensions of fillet welds, such as "All fillet welds 5116 in. size unless otherwise
noted," the dimensions of fillet welds on both sides of the joint shall be indicated
as follows:
( 1) When both welds have dimensions governed by the note, neither
need be dimensioned, thus:
(2) When the dimensions of one or both welds differ from the dimensions
given in the general note, both welds shall be dimensioned, thus:
402. SIZE OF FILLET WELDS

(a) The size of a fillet weld shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol,
thus: (See also, Figs. 21.26A, 21.26B, 21.26C and 21.260.)
>1\V /
(b) The size of a fillet weld with unequal legs shall be shown in parentheses
to the left of the weld symbol, as shown below. Weld orientation is not shown
Fillet Welds I 21.15
by the symbol and shall be shown on the drawing when necessary. (See also,
Fig. 21.26D.)
403. LENGTH OF FILLET WELDS

(a) The length of a fillet weld, when indicated on the welding symbol, shall
be shown to the right of the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.26F.)
(b) When fillet welding extends for the full distance between abrupt changes
in the direction of the welding (Article 313), no length dimension need be
shown on the welding symbol (Fig. 21.26E).
(c) Specific lengths of fillet welding may be indicated by symbols in con-
junction with dimension lines, thus: (See also, Figs. 21.28A and 21.28C.)
404. EXTENT OF FILLET WELDING

(a) When it is desired ·to show the extent of fillet welding graphically, one
cJi.t.~<
type of hatching with or without definite end lines shall be used, thus:
(b) Fillet welding extending beyond abrupt changes in the direction of the
welding shall be indicated by means of additional arrows pointing to each
section of the joint to be welded, as shown in Fig. 21.29A, except when the weld-
all-around symbol is used.
405. DIMENSIONING OF INTERMI'ITENT FILLET WELDING

(a) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of intermittent .fillet welding shall
be shown as the distance between centers of increments on one side of the joint
(Pia- 21.27.)
(b) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of intermittent fillet welding shall

be shown to the right of the length dimension, thus: (See also,_ Fig. 21.27.)
>
(c) Chain intermittent fillet welding shall be shown thus: (See also, Fig.
21.27B.)
~
""v . s •
(d) Staggered intermittent fillet welding shall be shown thus: (See also,
Fig. 21.27C.)
(e) Chain and staggered intermittent fillet weld dimensions shall be shown
on both sides of the reference line. (Figs. 21.27B and 21.27C).
406. TERMINATION OF INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDING

(a) When intermittent fillet welding is used by itself, the symbol indicates
that increments shall be located at the ends of the dimensioned length (Fig.
21.27).
(b) When intermittent fillet welding is used between continuous fillet weld-
ing, the symbol indicates that spaces equal to the pitch minus the length of one
increment shall be left at the ends of the dimensioned length (Fig. 21.28A).
407. COMBINATION OF INTERMITTENT AND CONTINUOUS

FILLET WELDING
(a) Separate welding symbols shall be used for intermittent and continuous
fillet welding when the two are used in combination along one side of the joint
(Fig. 21.28A).
(b) Separate weld symbols (within the same welding symbol) shall be used
for intermittent and continuous fillet welding when the two are used in com-
bination on opposite sides of the joint (Fig. 21.28B).
408. FILLET WELDS IN HOLES AND SLOTS

Fillet welds in holes and slots shall be shown by means of fillet weld symbols.
Plug Welds / 21.17
409. SURFACE CONTOUR OF FILLET WELDS

(a) Fillet welds that are to be welded approximately flat-faced, convex-, or
concave-faced without recourse to any method of finishing shall be shown by
adding the flush-contour, convex-, or concave-contour symbol to the weld
symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
(b) Fillet welds that are to be made flat-faced by mechanical means shall be
shown by adding both the flush-contour symbol and the user's standard finish
symbol* to the weld symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
'~c /
~
(c) Fillet welds that are to be mechanically finished to a convex contour

shall be shown by adding both the convex-contour symbol and the user's stand-
ard finish symbol* to the weld symbol, observing the usual location significance,
thus:
(d) Fillet welds that are to be mechanically finished to a concave contour

shall be shown by adding both the concave-contour symbol and the user's
standard finish symbol* to the weld symbol, observing the usual location signifi-
c:ance, thus:
PLUG WELDS
501. GENERAL
(a) Holes in the arrow-side member of a joint for plug welding shall be
= =
• Finish symbols used herein indicate the method of finishing ("C" chipping; "G" grinding
=
"M" machinina) and not the degree of finish. For indicating degree of finish, see USA Standard
846.1, Surface Texture.
indicated by placing the weld symbol on the side of the reference line toward
the reader, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.8A.)
DESIRED PLAN OR SECTION OR

ELEVATION END VIEW
SYMBOLS
(b) Holes in the other-side member of a joint for plug welding shall be
indicated by placing the weld symbol on the side of the reference line away
from the reader, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.8B.)
DE SIRED PLAN OR SECTION OR

ELEVATION END VIEW
SYMBOLS
(c) Dimensions of plug welds shall be shown on the same side of the
reference line as the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.30.)
~
/"~"' .....
(d) The plug weld symbol shall not be used to designate fillet welds in holes
(Article 408).
502. SIZE OF PLUG WELDS

The size of a plug weld shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol, thus:
(See also, Fig. 21.30A.)
503. ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK

Included angle of countersink of plug welds shall be the user's standard
Plug Welds I 21.19
unless otherwise indicated. Included angle of countersink, when not the user's
standard, shall be shown thus: (See also, Fig. 21.30B.)
\ LJ<
30•
504. DEPm OF FILLING

Depth of filling of plug welds shall be complete unless otherwise indicated.
When the depth of filling is less than complete, the depth of filling, in inches,
shall be shown inside the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.30C.)
\[378]<
505. SPACING OF PLUG WELDS
Pitch (center-to-center spacing) of plug welds shall be shown to the right
of the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.30D.)
>
506. SURFACE CONTOUR OF PLUG WELDS
(a) Plug welds that are to be welded approximately flush without recourse
to any method of finishing shall be shown by adding the flush-contour symbol
to the weld symbol, thus:
(b) Plug welds that are to be made flush by mechanical means shall be
symbol* to the weld symbol, thus:
~ c
• Finish symbols used herein indicate the method of finishing ("C" =chipping; "G" = grinding;
=
"M" machining; "R" =rolling; "H" ==hammering) and not the degree of finish. For indicating
21.20 / Standard Welding Symbols
SLOT WELDS
601. GENERAL
(a) Slots in the arrow-side member of a joint for slot welding shall be indi-
cated by placing the weld symbol on the side of the reference line toward the
reader, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.9A.)
DESIRED SYMBOL
(b) Slots in the other-side member of a joint for slot welding shall be indi-
cated by placing the weld symbol on the side of the reference line away from
the reader, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.9B.)
DESIRED SYMBOL
(c) Dimensions of slot welds shall be shown on the same side of the refer-
ence line as the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.31.)
) DE T "A"Ii2£1
/
/
OWG.23 [iii) <
(d) The slot weld symbol shall not be used to designate fillet welds in slots
(Article 408).
602. DEPm OF FILLING

Depth of filling of slot welds shall be complete unless otherwise indicated.
When the depth of filling is less than cemplete, the depth of filling, in inches,
shall be shown inside the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.31B.)
> [172]
>----'~\
603. DETAILS OF SLOT WELDS

Length, width, spacing, included angle of countersink, orientation and loca-
Spot Welds I 21.21
tion of slot welds cannot be shown on the welding symbol. These data shall be
shown on the drawing or by a detail with a reference thereto on the welding
symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.31.)
\ET."c" LJ
\ DWG.I13 CJ (
\
604. SURFACE CONTOUR OF SWT WELDS

(a) Slot welds that are to be welded approximately tlush without recourse
to any method of finishing shall be shown by adding the flush-contour symbol to
the weld symbol, thus:
(b) Slot welds that are to be made flush by mechanical means shall be
symbol* to the weld symbol, thus:
~c
SPOT WELDS
701. GENERAL
(a) The spot weld symbol, in accordance with location in relation to the
reference line, may or may not have arrow-side or other-side significance.
(b) Dimensions shall be shown on the same side of the reference line as the
symbol, or on either side when the symbol is located astride the reference line
and therefore has no arrow-side or other-side significance, thus: (See also,
Fig. 21.10.)
'~ / ~
~ / ~-.........
(c) The process reference shall be indicated in the tail of the welding
symbol.
(d) When projection welding is to be employed, the spot weld symbol shall
be used with the projection welding process reference in the tail of the welding
symbol. The spot weld symbol shall be centered above or below (not on) the
reference line to designate in which member the embossment is placed, observ-
ing the usual location significance.
• Finish symbols used herein indicate the method of finishing ("C" =chipping; "G" = grinding;
"M" = machining; ''R" =rolling; "H" =hammering) and not the degree of finish. For indicating
702. SIZE AND STRENGTH OF SPOT WELDS

(a) Spot welds shall be dimensioned by either size or strength, as follows:
( 1 ) The size of spot welds shall be designated as the diameter of the
weld expressed in fractions of an inch, or decimals, and shall be shown
with or without inch marks (Article 305) to the left of the weld symbol,
thus: (See also, Fig. 21.32A.)
(2) The strength of spot welds shall be designated in pounds per spot,
and shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig.
21.32B.)
703. SPACING OF SPOT WELDS

The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of spot welds shall be shown to the
right of the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.32C.)
704. EXTENT OF SPOT WELDING

When spot welding extends less than the distance between abrupt changes
in the direction of the welding, or less than the full length of the joint (Article
313), the extent shall be dimensioned, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.320.)
705. NUMBER OF SPOT WELDS

When a definite number of spot welds is desired in a certain joint, the
number shall be shown in parentheses either above or below the weld symbol,
thus: (See also, Fig. 21.32E.)
~ 17)
Seam Welds I 21.23
706. FLUSH SPOT WELDED JOINTS

When the exposed surface of either member of a spot welded joint is to be
flush, that surface shall be indicated by adding the flush-contour symbol to the
weld symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
707. MULTIPLE JOINT SPOT WELDS

For spot welds, when one or more pieces are inserted between the two outer
pieces, the same symbol as for the two outer pieces shall be used regardless of
the number of pieces inserted.
SEAM WELDS
dOl. GENERAL
(a) The seam weld symbol, in accordance with location in relation to the
reference line, may or may not have arrow-side or other-side significance.
(b) Dimensions shall be shown on the same side of the reference line as the
symbol, or on either side when the symbol is located astride the reference line
and therefore has no arrow-side or other-side significance, thus: (See also,
Fig. 21.11.)
(c) The process reference shall be indicated in the tail of the welding symbol.
802. SIZE AND STRENGTH OF SEAM WELDS

(a) Seam welds shall be dimensioned by either size or strength, as follows:
( 1 ) The size of seam welds shall be designated as the width of the weld
expressed in fractions of an inch, or decimals, and shall be shown with
or without inch marks (Article 305) to the left of the weld symbol,
thus: (See also, Fig. 21.33A.)
(2) The strength of seam welds shall be designated in pounds per linear
inch, and shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol, thus: (See also,
Fig. 21.33B.)
~~
~ / ....,.,..,
803. LENGTH OF SEAM WELDS

(a) The length of seam, when indicated on the welding symbol, shall be
shown to the right of the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.33A.)
(b) When a seam weld extends the full distance between abrupt changes
in the direction of the welding (Article 313) no length dimension need be
shown on the welding symbol.
(c) When a seam weld extends less than the distance between abrupt
changes in the direction of the welding, or less than the full length of the joint
(Article 313), the extent shall be dimensioned, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.33C.)
804. DIMENSIONING OF INTERMITTENT SEAM WELDS

(a) The pitch (center~to-center spacing) of intermittent seam welds shall
be shown as the distance between centers of the weld increments.
(b) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of intermittent seam welds shall
be shown to the right of the length dimension, thus: (See also, Fig 21.33A.)
' .p..,_ .. / ~
~ / ...,..2-4'\
805. ORIENTATION OF SEAM WELDS

(a) Unless otherwise indicated, intermittent seam welds shall be interpreted
as having length and pitch measure<! parallel to axis of the weld (Fig. 21.33).
Groove Welds / 21.25
(b) When the orientation of seam welds is not as in 805 (a), a detailed
drawing shall be used to show the weld orientation, thus:
SEE DETAiu-,,,.,.:=-,~
~ 3-2
'------l--J
--J-1
_j
A-A
SYMBOL
806. FLUSH SEAM WELDED JOINTS

When the exposed surface of either member of a seam welded joint is to be
flush, that surface shall be indicated by adding the flush-contour symbol to the
weld symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
807. MULTIPLE JOINT SEAM WELDS

For seam welds, when one or more pieces are inserted between the two outer
pieces, the same symbol as for the two outer pieces shall be US(od regardless of
the number of pieces inserted.
GROOVE WELDS
901. GENERAL
(a) Dimensions of groove welds shall be shown on the same side of the
reference line as the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.40B.)
(b) When no general note governing the dimensions of groove welds appears
on the drawing, the dimensions of double-groove welds shall be shown as
follows:
21.26 /Standard Welding Symbols
( 1) When both welds have the same dimensions, one or both may be
dimensioned, thus:
(2) When the welds differ in dimensions, both shall be dimensioned,

thus:
35"
~ 45°
(c) When there appears on the drawing a general note governing the dimen-
sions of groove welds, such as "All V-groove welds shall have a 60° groove
angle unless otherwise noted," the dimensions of double-groove welds shall be
indicated as follows:
(1) When both welds have dimensions governed by the note, neither
need be dimensioned, thus:
(2) When the dimensions of one or both welds differ from the dimensions
given in the general note, both welds shall be dimensioned, thus:
5o•
60° I
~
/ ~ /i'- '\... ~ 50°
go•
902. SIZE OF GROOVE WELDS

(a) The size of groove welds shall be shown to the left of the weld symbol,
thus: (See also, Figs. 21.34, 21.35 and 21.36.)
/.25 7'\ <

(b) The size of groove welds with no specified root penetration shall be
shown as follows:
( 1) The size of single-groove and symmetrical double-groove welds, which
extend completely through the member or members being joined, need
not be shown on the welding symbol (Figs. 21.34D and 21.34E.)
(2) The size of groove welds, which extend only partly through the mem-
Groove Welds /21.27
ber or members being joined, shall be shown on the welding symbol

(Figs. 21.34A, 21.34C and 21.34F.)
(c) The size of groove welds with specified root penetration except square-
groove welds shall be indicated by showing both the depth of chamfering and
the root penetration, separated by a plus mark and placed to the left of the
weld symbol. The size of square-groove welds shall be indicated by showing
only the root penetration. The depth of chamfering and ·the root penetration
shall read in that order from left to right along the reference line, thus: (See
also, Figs. 21.35 and 21.36.)
(d) The size of flare-groove welds is considered as extending only to the

tangent points* as indicated below by dimension lines: (See also, Fig. 21.19.)
fLARE- BEVEL-GROOVE FLARE -V-GROOVE
903. GROOVE DIMENSIONS

(a) Root opening of groove welds shall be the user's standard unless other-
wise indicated. Root opening of groove welds, when not the user's standard,
shall be shown inside the weld symbol, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.37.)
(b) Groove angle of groove welds shall be the user's standard, unless other-
wise indicated. Groove angle of groove welds, when not the user's standard,
shall be shown thus: (See also, Fig. 21.38.)
~ 20"
so• ~
(c) Groove radii and root faces of U- and J-groove welds shall be the user's
standard unless otherwise indicated. When groove radii and root faces of U-
and J-groove welds are not the user's standard, the weld shall be shown by a
cross section, detail or other data, with a reference thereto on the welding
symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
) NOTE 1 8 )
NOTE 19
* The extension beyond tbe point of tangency shall be treated as an edge or lap joint.
904. DESIGNATION OF BACK AND BACKING WELDS

Bead-type back and backing welds of single-groove welds shall be shown by
means of the back or backing weld symbol (Article 1002).
905. SURFACE CONTOUR OF GROOVE WELDS

(a) Groove welds that are to be welded approximately flush without recourse
to any method of finishing shall be shown by adding the flush-contour symbol
to the weld symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus: (See also,
Fig. 21.39A.)
(b) Groove welds that are to be made flush by mechanical means shall be
symbol* to the weld symbol, observing the usual location significance, thus:
(See also, Fig. 21.39B.)
'> &-/
~~~-
lA
G C
(c) Groove welds that are to be mechanically finished to a convex contour

shall be shown by adding both the convex-contour symbol and the user's stand-
ard finish symbol* to the weld symbol, observing the usual location significance,
thus: (See also, Fig. 21.39C.)
>A \
M
..........
G
R<
BACK OR BACKING WELDS
1001. GENERAL
The back or backing weld symbol shall be used to indicate bead-type back
or backing welds of single-groove welds (Fig. 21.20).
1002. USE OF BACK OR BACKING WELD SYMBOL

(a) Back or backing welds of single-groove welds shall be shown by placing
a back or backing weld symbol on the side of the reference line opposite the
groove weld symbol, thus: (See also, Figs. 21.20, 21.25A and 21.25B.)
• Finish symbols used herein indicate the method of finishing ("C" =chipping; "G" =grinding·
=
"M" == machining; "R" ==rolling; "H" hammering) and not the degree of finish. For indicating
Surfacing Welds j 21.29
(b) No dimensions of back or backing welds except height of reinforcement

shall be shown on the welding symbol. If it is desired to specify other dimen-
sions, they shall be shown on the drawing.
1003. SURFACE CONTOUR OF BACK OR BACKING WELDS

(a) Back or backing welds that are to be welded approximately flush with-
out recourse to any method of finishing shall be shown by adding the flush-
contour symbol to the back or backing weld symbol, thus:
<: ?; <
(b) Back or backing welds that are to be made flush by mechanical means
shall be shown by adding both the flush-contour symbol and the user's standard
finish symbol* to the back or backing weld symbol, thus:
(c) Back or backing welds that are to be mechanically finished to a convex

contour shall be shown by adding both the convex-contour symbol and the
user's standard finish symbol* to the back or backing weld symbol, thus:
SURFACING WELDS
1101. GENERAL
The surfacing weld symbol shall be used to indicate surfaces built up by
welding (Fig. 21.21).
1102. USE OF SURFACING WELD SYMBOL TO INDICATE

SURFACES BUILT UP BY WELDING
(a) Surfaces built up by welding, whether by single- or multiple-pass sur-
facing welds, shall be shown by the surfacing weld symbol, thus: (See also,
Fig. 21.21.)
* Finish symbols used herein indicate the method of finishing ( "C" == chipping; "G" ==grinding;
"M" =machining; "R" =rolling; "H" =hammering) and not the degree of finish. For indicating
(b) The surfacing weld symbol does not indicate the welding of a joint, and
hence has no arrow-side or other-side significance. This symbol shall be drawn
on the side of the reference line toward the reader and the arrow shall point
clearly to the surface on which the weld is to be deposited (Fig. 21.21).
(c) Dimensions used in conjunction with the surfacing weld symbol shall
be shown on the same side of the reference line as the weld symbol, thus: (See
also, Fig. 21.21.)
~ 8
1103. SIZE (HEIGHT) OF SURFACES BUILT UP BY WELDING

(a) The size of a surface built up by welding shall be indicated by showing
the minimum height of the weld deposit to the left of the weld symbol, thus:
(See also, Fig. 21.21A.)
~ 16
(b) When no specific height of weld deposit is desired, no size dimension

need be shown on the welding symbol.
1104. EXTENT, LOCATION AND ORIENTATION OF SURFACES

BUILT UP BY WELDING
(a) When the entire area of a plane or curved surface is to be built up by
welding, no dimension other than size (height of deposit) need be shown on
the welding symbol (Fig. 21.21C).
(b) When a portion of the area of a plane or curved surface is to be built
up by welding, the extent, location and orientation of the area to be built up
shall be indicated on the drawing (Fig. 21.210).
FLANGE WELDS
1201. GENERAL
The following welding symbols are intended to be used for light-gage metal
joints involving the flaring or flanging of the edges to be joined:
(a) Edge-flange welds shall be shown by the edge-flange weld symbol, thus:
(this symbol has no both sides significance) (See also, Fig. 21.22.)
Flange Welds /21.31
(b) Corner-flange welds shall be shown by the corner-flange weld symbol,

thus: (this symbol has no both sides significance) (See also, Fig. 21.23.)
1202. DIMENSIONS OF FLANGE WELDS

(a) Dimensions of flange welds shall be shown on the same side of the
reference line as the weld symbol:
(b) The radius and the height above the point of tangency shall be indi-
cated by showing both the radius and the height separated by a plus mark, and
placed to the left of the weld symbol. The radius and the height shall read
in that order from left to right along the reference line: (See also, Fig 21.24A.)
~
/ hi-lf
(c) The size of flange welds shall be shown by a dimension placed outward
of the flange dimensions, thus: (See also, Fig. 21.24A.)
~~ " /
~
/ 6
i6
(d) Root opening of flange welds shall not be shown on the welding sym-
bol. If it is desired to specify this dimension, it shall be shown on the drawing.
1203. MULTIPLE JOINT FLANGE WELDS

For flange welds, :when one or more pieces are inserted between the two
outer pieces, the same symbol as for the two outer pieces shall be used regard-
less of the number of pieces inserted, as follows: (See also, Figs. 21.24B and
21.24C.)
21.32 /Standard Welding Symbols
AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY
lOCATION
SIGNIF I CANCE
AltJIOW 510[
O f HUt SID[
flACK 0~ BACKING WUO SYMBOL
SURFACING WElD SYM.I!OL INDICATING 8UILT•UP SUI'iiF"ACE
CHA.IN INTERMITTENT FillET W(LOIN(i S'I'MIIIoOl
-1 " l.''"0' X III "'' ' ' )

.;;;-n .. II•~U.,.CI 11 1 "'11~
1n .. n ••l o• "'~••,.• l'lo t\
$fAGGEAI£0 lttfUMtTTUH ,-tU.ET WfL.OING 5'1'Po\150L
Supplementary Symbols Used with Welding Symbols ~

W(L0-At.l -AilQUNO $YM!il01. NElf · THffU $'1'MISOI.
Basic .Jolnts-ldentlllcatlon of Arrow Side and Other Side of .Joint and
. . ~:, 4'~::t·· .... ~~.

' " ' " ,....
........ ' '(I ... l
~···
::::;-~~~;~'
t;., ..., :. '
,~...... \~' {
.e.,•...-·~ , r. '
• • ~ l>o~ A~;'
rfico,.• ,._.,.,.c
~ ... ~---'
11
Welding Symbols Chart / 21.33
WllOING SYMBOI.S FOR COM81 NIE:O Wf.:1.~

PLASh OA UPSU WHOtNO SYM8()l
)>--4<-t:....._,/) ~ )'-~ ~ w-
I PIIIJC.I U • UI -1"'4..1
V U)I I I 1,11\10 HI
"~~·•I~ ~(KI~\
\.tl (Dill CIP IOIOU • I -octH
:;;"c~..".,=~}-
!;It"~; 01 l lll•~t> ,,.,
0"''"""'~""··'
IIUi"i(;. 1\ lfl:)...._ll\11 1
Arrow-Side and Other-Side ~ of .Joi nt
OUIO.NAn(U~ ot
cu:n1tta ""ocrsus ., unus
~:r;..r-.J..<o.!l''"'!.
......., ..
· · ·~"'~C.t'!-c
~ ~~
...~-··'~·e..-~,
...... .-..c.,....._ Cc)~IIJI'N 11(16., by fl">e
oc
'"' •• I . "'""
.. ;..._.a
,_. :.11 ,.....,.~:;~.. • t
AME RICAN WEL DING SOCIETY
""'
lo.)
I Ft;,';,StE TOR} GROOVE FLANGE
PLUG SPOT OR :OACK SUR-
FILLET OR PROJE C- SEAM OR
F LARE- F L ARE- F ACING
SLOT T I ON SQUARE v BEVEL u J
v BE VEL BACKI NG EDGE CORNER
-w
olio
.........
~ D 0 :(d: II v v y ~ ")( i( = C>C7 JL IL ~
ARC-.;)EAM RES I S- PROJEC- RES IS- FLASH

OR
ARC-SPOT
TA~CJ;;
"l"lON TANC£ OR
t
SPOT SEt~~ UPSET ~
:0:0:\PREFtfH~EO S'il'lBOLS: USE PREFERRED S'Jlol.-
~
D ao:.. '"l7H PROCESS REFEREt\CE IN THF. TAIL ~·
X 'lXX I ~
- -- - - ----
Fig. 21.1.-Basic weld symbols
... ~J F I NI SH SYMB O L - - - - - - - - - - - - - - GROOVE ANGLE ; I NCL UDED
~
0"
CONTOUR SYMBOL - - - - - - - - - " " ' \ ANGL E OF COUNTERS I NK <::l
FOR PLUG WELDS t;'
WELD CONT OUR

FIELD
ALL MELT-THRU
WE!..D
A ROUND FLUSH CONVEX CONCAVE
- \J
fr- ,---- - ~
" ~
Fig. 21 .2.-Supplementary symbols
SPEC IF I CAT I ON, F I EL D WELD SYMBOL

OR OTHER REF ERENCE WELD ALL AROUND SYMBOL
TAIL (MAY BE OMITTED
WHEN REF ERENCE ELEMENTS
Fig. 21.3.-Standard location of elem ents of a welding I S NOT USED} I N T HIS A RE A
BASIC WELD SYMBOL I' REMA I N AS SHOWN
symbol WHEN TAI L AND ARROW
OR DETAIL RE F ERENC E
ARE REVERSE D
Applications of Welding Symbols I 21.35
APPLICABLE WELDS
Square-Groove Flare-V-Groove
V-Groove Flare-Beve 1-Groove
Bevel-Groove Edge-Flange
U-Groove Flash
J-Groove Upset
{A) BUTT JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
Fillet Flare-Bevel-Groove
___ _
/
, / /
Square-Groove Edge-Flange
-...-----
/
(- V-Groove Corner-Flange
~.::::: Bevel-Groove Spot
U-Groove Projection
J-Groove Seam
Flare-V-Groove Flash
(B) CORNER JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
Fillet Flare-Bevel-Groan
Plug Spot
Slot Projection
Square-Groove Seam
Bevel-Groove Flash
J-Groove
(C) TEE JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
Fillet J-Groove
Plug Flare-Bevel-Groove
Slot Spot
Bevel-Groove Projection
Seam
{D) LAP JOINT

/
....,. :::/1
/
/ I
/
/
I APPLICABLE WELDS
,C.- I
I
I PIUI J-Graove
I I Slet Edge-Flange
I I Square-Groove Corner-Flange
Bevel-Groove Spot
I I --,.I V-Groove Projection
I / U-Groove Seam
/
I
/
I_,
lc'_ _:_y . . . . JOINT
(E) EDGE JOINT
Fig. 21.4.-Basic types of joints

,., UHtOW • SIOt; fll.U;T WE I..OIHG SYWIOL
Of.SIAtO WtLO S'I'Mf.Ql
"'
c:tib
.
~
,.,
OUIIlU WUO SYM.01.
'"
4
DE~IIU;O Wti.O
9 u•tOL
'"
OTo~[R-';10[ FIL.LI:T *£LOIIIIG !HIIII01.
Fig. 21.5.-App/ication of melt-thru Fig. 21.6.-Application of fillet welding

symbol symbol
... ,., Aft RO N·$10( Pl.UG WELOUHO SYWIOI.
OC$1A(0 Sf: C TION' Off r . (VAfi()N

Wf LO ( lifO V I[ W
JtCTIOI't Olt (li:V& TION

Ot'S IR(O W[LO ( NO V I(Y
IOTM· SIOES ,ILL£f WE I.OI M; SYIIIIIOL 'O" TWO JOINTS
'" "'
OTH[R ~ StOE PL.VG WELDING SY.,_II:OL
Fig. 21.7.-Application of fillet welding Fig. 21.8.-Application of plug welding

symbol symbol
Applications of Welding Symbols / 21.37
m
SH II ('\ (It
~w
( "~ \I ILio
l.i:IROW•SIO( SPOT W[l OLNI; '•1" ~.• 9.CL
lfio6S H.N(,.S JE: ·J · •~c •,f"C ' j
&FIR'OY,. SIC[ !llOT W(t.OIHG SYWI!IOl

"'
H.l ...Allt •
0 11-i [ A-S t::l[ SPOT YIE"I. OI N(o $'1' •.!80:.

(il) (£ LHT FtON tU. A'...t ""Of)
lll
Cll SUttO W(l. D
OTHER - "0( SLOT WELDING SYMBOl.

(LIVUIOIII
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USINU:
'-llEl
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l '.(,l vu.w
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AR!=<OY)'·OR OfM(R-St OC REF[R[ N(.[ OR o;:;t(;NtF' t( AIIo(.r

U.f"A.TIC..t.
((j (1-o!E$t$TAN(E S POT)
Fig. 2/.I.J.-App/ication of slot welding Fig. 21.10.-A pplication of spot welding

symbol .1 ymbul
1 / L.,·
t~~·~c. aCT I Oil OII:
•hllo [~ VI ('If
"'"'ROW · 510 £ S[ A.M WELDING S'tM8 0 L
rES
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.
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R5£fh7
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• tL D [Htl V I [ W
~ II 0 H.f" · S IOE S OUAitE • QROOVE WE l DIN!; '5 YWI OI.
ur -M
••
UC;IC>.ll 0"
~EW
l llVATIO""
( 111tl 't U-"
NO A.~'IOW·OR OTH[R ·SIDE REFERENCE 0A SGHIF'~A!<Q
"'
f(l (~ES LSTA~[ 'S(A.U) I OTH - IIDII!:S SOUA"(·GRO OVE WE lDI NQ S YIIUIOL
Fig. 2/.ll.-Application of seam weld- Fig. 21.12.-Application of square-

ing symbol grom·e welding symbol
DESIRED SECTION OR DESIRED SECTION OR

WELD END VIEW ELEVATION ELEVATION
WELD END VIEW
Ill ARROW-SIDE V-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL lA) ARROW-SIDE BEVEL-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL
DESIRED SECTION OR
WELD END VIEW
ELEVATION DESIRED SECTION OR
,.,
ELEVATION
WELD END VIEW
OTHER-SIDE V-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL IBl OTHER-SIDE BEVEL-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL

WELD END VIEW !:LEVATION
WELD ENO VIEW ELEVATION
'" BOTH~SIOES V-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL {C) BOTH-SIDES BEVEL-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL
Fig. 21.13.-Application of V-groove Fig. 21.14.-Application of bevel-groove

welding symbol welding symbol
tv<B
DESIRED SECTION OR DESIRED SECT ION OR
END VIEW
ELEVATION WELD END VIEW ELEVATION
(Al ARROW-SIDE U-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL lA) ARROW-SIDE J-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL
(B)
DESIRED
WELD
SECTION OR
END VIEW
OTHER-SIDE U-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL

ELEVATION
(8)
~ DESIRED
WELD
OTHER-SIDE
SECTION OR
END VIEW
J-GROOVE WELDING
ELEVATION
SYMBOl.

WELD END VIEW ELEVATION END VIEW ELEVATION
(C) BOTH-SIDES U-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL IC\ BOTH-SIDES J-GAOOVE WELDING SYMBOL
Fig. 21.15.-Application of U-grool'e Fig. 21.16.-Application of !-groove

welding symbol welding symbol
Applications of Welding Symbols j 21.39
(A) ARROW-SIDE FLARE-V-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL

(A)
~~~ WELD END VIEW
Al'tROW-SIDE FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL
~Jk!D
'"
~r.~
..
~ ..
WELD
- .... "'"'_,_.,~,
END VIEW
"'"' ""'"
(B)
~
~ DESIRED
WELD
SECTION 00
END VIEW
OTHER-SIDE FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELDIN$ SYMIOL
(C)
@~~
DESIRED
WELD
SECTION OR
END VIEW
BOTH-SIDES FLARE-V-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL
E:t.EVAT ON
(C)
"'" ' Bt~
WELD
I END VIEW
BOTH-SIDES FLA.'tE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELDING SYMBOL
Fig. 21.17.-Application of flare-V- Fig. 21.18.-Application of flare-bevel-

groove welding symbol groove welding symbol
GROOVE WELD MADE BEFORE
WE~
~f L BACK WELD
,.,
DESIRED WELD SYM!!IOL
USE OF BACK OR BACKING WELD SYMBOL TO INDICATE
SINGLE-PASS BACK WELD
rn
WE~
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
~f LaACK WELD
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
lBI MULTIPLE-PASS BACK WELD
'=
GROOVE WELD t.IAOE AFTER
WE~
t___V___1
~~
LBAGKING WE~O
DESIRED WELD SVMIOL
tel SINGLE-PASS BACKING WELD
SI'IOOVE WELD MADE AFTER ~
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
+'"'~~ BACKING WELD

DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
(0) USE OF BACK OR BACKINCi WELD SYMBOL TO INDICATE
101 MULTIPLE-PASS SACKING WELD
Fig. 21.19.-Application of flare-bevel- Fig. 21.20.-Application of back or

and flare-V-groove welding symbols backing weld symbol
21.40 /Standar d Welding Symbols
CESUU:O WELD SYMIOL

(A) SIZE: OF SURFACE BUILT UP BY WELDING
~·-1§.
DESIIt£0 IEGTION Ott ILIYATION
WELD END YII!W
(A) ARROW-SIDE EDIE-,LANIE WELDINI SYMBOL

DISIRIED WELD SYMBOL
ltl WIDTH AND L!NGTH OF SURFACE BUILT UP BY WELDING
......-~~
DIEIIRED WIELD
(C} ENTIRE SURFACE BUILT UP BY WELDING
(Dl
~[t]J
OESIRIED WIELD SYMBOL
PORTION OF SURFACE BUILT UP BY WELDING
DESIRED
WELD
SECTION Olt
lEND VIEW
(I) OTHER-SID! EDIE-FLANSE WELDINI IYMIOL
Fig. 21.21.-Ap plication of surfacing Fig. 21.22.-Ap plication of edge-flange

weld symbol to indicate surfaces built welding symbol
up by welding
~~
T -li
-r
OESIIIII:D WELD IY•IOL
DUIRIED SECTION OR ELEVATION

,.,
END VIEW
(A) ARROW-SIDE CORNER-FLANGE WELDING SYM~OL
+
DEIIIt£0 WELD
~
IYMIOL
Ill
SECifiON Oft
lND VI[W
IELlVo\TIUN
~
DESIRED *fi.D
~
ITMIOL.
(ll OTHER-SIDE CORNER-FLANGE WELDtNG SYMBOL

I' I
Fig. 21.23.-Ap plication of corner- Fig. 21.24.-Ap plication of edge- and

flange welding symbol corner-flange welding symbols
(A)
~~
DESIRED WELD
SIZE OF SINGLE-F"ILLET
SYMBOL
WELD
L~
~
DESIRED WELDS SYMIOL
Ill
~~
DESUUD WELD
SIZE OF EQUAL DOUBLE-FILLET WELDS
SYIIIIIOL
lA l SINGLE-BEVEL-GROOVE AND BACK OR BACKING WELD SYMBOLS
Fl·~ ~~
DESIRED WELD S'I'MSOL
!C) SIZE OF UNE.QUAL DOUBLE-FILLET WELDS
DESIRED WELDS SYMBOL
~
(ll BACk OR IACI<ING,SINGLE-J-GROOVE AND FlUET WELD SYMBOlS
(tXt
[ =:::=)ORtlNTATION
SHOWN ON
DRAYfiN'
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
101 SIZE OF FILLET WELD HAVING UNEQUAL LE&5
DESIRED WELDS SYMBOL
IC) FILLET AND DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD SYMBOLS

DIIIRlD WlLD SYMIOL
..~ ~ r•f:\l
(El CONTINUOUS FILLET WELD
~
~ DESIRED WE:LD
I SYMIOL
\DJSINGLE-BEYEL-GROOVE AND DOUBLE-FI-LLET WELD SYMBOLS (F} LENGTH OF FILLET WELD
Fig. 21.25.-Combination of weld Fig. 21.26.-App/ication of dimensions

symbols to fillet welding symbols
\LOC"T£ WELDS ATEJrtOS OF JOINT-,
C0 .. 8tNEO INfER .. oTTENT AND C:ONTINUOU$ WELD.N~

<OI tDN€ """' 0~ ..0'~'1
LENGTH AND PITCH OF INCREMENTS

OF INTERMITTENT WELDING
'"
$YMIOL

OF CHAIN INTERMITTENT WELDING
Ill
~~
,-, ' '
I *l~Oi IIAf . . *•·~~~ u•
*"Ul •o.O<It T"l •o·~• t
OF STAGGERED INTERMITT[NT WELDING
!Cl
Fig. 21.27.-Application of dimensions Fig. 21.28.-Designation of location

to intermittent fillet welding symbols and extent of fillet welds
[J [jf
DESIRED WELD
SYMIOL.
ff
~!l::L:~~O C~NR=E~~ES. I I
[8]
rGr
DESI"£0 WELD
OfSI!t£0 WELD SYMBOL
~"
-·-···· \
I
~
I
SYMBOL
q;rr
OUIR£0 WELD
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL

O[StiUO WE:LO
lA I WELD WITH ABRUPT CHANGES IN DIRECTION (01

WELO
Fig. 2129
. . -D esrgn.ation
. of extent of Fig. 21.29 (cant) D .
weldrng extent ~i--;;;ez~f~~nation of
IAI
f
~t
SECTION OF
DESIRED WELD
IB) INCLUDED ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK OF' PLUG WELDS
!CI PLUG WELDS
lEI u:iu;F ~~~~~:E~MBOL SHOWING

DIMENSIONS
Fig. 21 ·30·-Applicat ion 0 · . Fig. 21.31.-Applic ation 0 f d'

to plug welding symfbdrmenswns
ols to slot welding sym bols
rmensions
Applications of Welding Symbols/ 21.43
·-·
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
Dllllt!D WELDS SYMBOL
DIAMETER OF SPOT WELDS
(GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC SPOT) EXTENT OF SPOT WELDING
IAI
@'o"'.,uw
IDI (GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC SPOT)
• I
~
..
T·'o
1
T •o"
m t~
A A-A
DESIRED WELD IVMIOL DESIRED WELDS
SYMBOL.
SHEAR STRENGTH OF SPOT WELDS SPECIFIED NUMBER OF SPOT WELDS

LOCATED AT RANDOM
~ §'-
(ELECTRON BEAM SPOT)
Ill lEI I ELECTRON BEAM SPOT)
)----•;--!
- ' -
-i----
I - - 0 ---·~·~~~~-ON - -
-
- .25-
~~~~~~ I ,
•
A-A -1 I
2
~~-.:..-'--""""',;..'~I t.
DESIRED WELDS RSW D!SIRED WELDS SYMIOL
SYMBOL
SPOT WELDING SYMBOL SHOWING USE OF
PITCH OF SPOT WELDS COMBINED DEMENSIONS
(RESISTANCE SPOT) IFI (RESISTANCE SPOT}
ICI
Fig. 21.32 .-Application of dimensions Fig. 21.32 (cont.).-Application of di-

to spot welding symbols mensions to spot welding symbols
DESIRED WEI..D SVMIDI..

(AI
,,,
~~~
~_L &
ill
DESIRED WELD
SYYBOI..
tTTn- ~. .,£\:-t
SIZE, LENGTH AND PITCH OF INTERMITTENT SEAM WELDS DESII'IED WELDOI
CAl (RESISTANCE SEAM)
MIN. ACCEPTABLE
.L :-r
•t
cer
_l_
SYMIOI..
ICI DESIRED WELD!
DESIRED WELD SYMBOL
STRENGTH OF SEAM WELDS SYMBOl..

tal (ELECTRON BEAM SEAM) IDI
f
DESI"ED WELD SYMBOl..
lEI
L6!J~- . ' _l_

OUIIti!D WILD IIYMBOL
DESUIEO WELD
t SYMBOL
EXTENT OF SEAM WELDS IFI

(GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC SEAM)
Fig. 21.34.-Designation of size of
lei
Fig. 21.33.-Application of dimensions groove welds with no specified root

to seam welding symbols penetration
Tl:'t
"'
l..__,_r___.T< (
~ '·IIOOT Pt:IIITII&TIIIIII
DESIIII!D WELDS
Ill DESIUD Wt:LD
ICI DllllllD WELD

t r
~"" ""'""'" =-E":t;.ff-<11(
t ~ +1 ·C ( 4-
,,.:::.T,. It ••~~~AP -r ~
011/ltlO WELD IYIUOL
Ill
Fig. 21.35.-Designation of si<;e of Pig. 21.36.-Designation of size of com-

r;roove welds with specified root pene- bined welds with specified root penetra-
tration tion
·H·k SYIIIIOL
OESIAED WELD
db~
&
D£SIM0 W(LO SYUIOL CESIIIIED WELD
i
-
~1:.-•o_..J.l_ __,;jl.
meEt
DlStlt£0 WELD 5TMIOL
0£51111[0 WELD
SYWIOL.
db
_&<
uj
OlSI"£0 WELD SYMIOL
.f 03 f ~--go•~ SYMBOL
-U·-i
DlSIItlD WELD
SYIIIIOL
O[SIA[O WELD
Dlllllt:D WILD SYMIOL

U]}0[51111[0 WELD SYMBOL
Pig. 21.37.-Designation of root open- Fig. 21.38.-Designation of groove

ing of groove welds angle of groove welds
OlSIII[O W'f~O
,,, ARROW-SlOE ft.USH-COHTOVft SYNBOL.

OUIII(O '4111.~0
F1\..L..£f W£L01NG '9YIUOL. SHOWINQ
U~E OF' COW&It.l£0 OIWEN'310H S
:!o'rWIOL
,., OTH£R · SIO£ FLUSH·CONTOU" SYt.I80L.
f-ill
,UIIIINt:O TO SWOOTtt COiif'tt:X
.
IDUUUO •(~ 0
Ot:SIIIUI WI: L.O
IOTH· t10U COtfVE:JC-C.ONTOUR SYWIOL. GJ1100V£ WELOIH15 $Y111801.. 9H0_...

ltl
IJSE: OF COWIINED DIWENSIO .. S
Ill
Fig. 21.39.-Application of flush- and Fig. 21.40.-A pp/ication of dimensions

coll\·ex-contour symbols to groOI-'e weld- to fillet and grom·c welding symbols
ing symbols
Jl_, >~t~
..ert,I'.&.U IO• lfiii&IM.
IIRC · OIIIiAS - WO..OtO SfUI:IS
OUIIItO ST WI OI.
Fig. 21.41.- Application of brazing Fig. 21.42.- Use of welding symbols to

symbols indicate the welding of studs
......,
k
..........
8 r+-A v,
"' I i s
~ I 'I ! I if I
~ 'if DETAIL ''A" ) -I ) ""
~
.v ~
) 1=- = ::.=1 : ,,,
I I I,,,
: : I II I ~·
~
I I I I( I
I ' I
v,
'l ::
r---- a::==:c=::j 1111 §
_____-;::::: =----- 1,,, 1:1-
DETAIL "B" - - - - - :::_,.~T-J
~ I
~
,,It
1/8 X 3/8 M.S. BACKING II
iO BE REMOVED AFTER ,,
WELDING UPPI::R SIDE I(
01' JOINT ,,
ETAIL"B''
" -
~ It ~=--- It J,
I 'I - I - -- - - - -
---:=1...=-- -- ' "-'1~ - - "':j II( K
-.J.-~_-_::.}--------:1
'4 DETAIL "c" ~~~~";!:::: '.t-'l..l Jot ·--------
----1..--
L..A
SECTION A-A
Fig. 21.43 .-Use of welding symbols on machinery drawing

.... ....
*·
1<
'
..,._ ..,._ ~
~
B.
~·
.Q..
..,._ .....
~
~
1~- v 27 ~·
~
;;:
c::r-
0
SECTION 11 A-A• SECTION" B-B" ~
.........
BULKHEAD 67
~
Fig. 21.44.-Use of welding symbols on marine drawing -~

~
~
-
CXI
so•
"-
V:l
IS'
~
4~4PL.
'~ ..
EXPANSION BEARING ~
~
DETAIL "A" ~
so•
;:::
I ~·
~
§
~
';'J \ ] 4~" ~-~-~~~<SECTION "A·A" 0
l:;"'
~3-l
FIXED BEARING DETAIL"B"
46 1-6 11
17'-3"
NOTE: CAlliER li
45• GIRDER
Fig. 21.45.-U se of welding symbols on structural drawing

CHAPTER 22
SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING
Definition and General Description 22.2
Principles of Operation 22.2
Process Variables 22.1 I
Bibliography 22.26
PREPARED BY A COMMITTEE CONSISTING OF:
J. 1. REVELT D. C. HELTON
Lincoln Electric Co. Alloys Rods Co.
Chairman Division of Chemetron Corp.
J. M. CAMERON R. LABOUNTY
General Dynamics Corp. Inland-Ryerson Construction
Electric Boat Div. Products Co.
CHAPTER 22
SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING
DEFINITION AND GENERAL DESCRIPTION
SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING is an arc welding process wherein coalescence

is produced by heating with an electric arc between a covered or "coated"
metal rod called the electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from decom-
position of the electrode covering, and filler metal is obtained from the elec-
trode's metal core and metallic particles in the covering. The source of the
shielding and filler metal varies with electrode design. The shielding and filler
metal largely control the mechanical, chemical, metallurgical and electrical
characteristics.
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Shielded metal-arc welding is by far the most widely used of the various
electric arc welding processes. Like the other electric arc welding processes, it
employs the heat of the electric arc to bring the work to be welded and a con-
sumable electrode to a molten state. The work is made part of an electric circuit
known as the welding circuit (Fig. 22.1). This circuit includes a source of
power, welding cables, an electrode holder, a ground clamp and the consum-
Principles of Operation I 22.3
able welding electrode. One cable carrying current from the power source is
attached to the work, and another cable is attached to the electrode holder.
Welding begins when an electric arc is formed or struck between the metallic
electrode and the work. The intense heat of the arc melts the electrode and
the surface of the work adjacent to the arc. Tiny globules of molten metal
rapidly form on the tip of the electrode and transfer through the arc into the
molten weld pool or weld puddle on the work's surface. If the welds are flat
or horizontal, the actual transfer is induced by the force of gravity, molecular
attraction and surface tension. Molecular attraction and surface tension are
the forces that induce metal transfer from the electrode to the work where the
weld is being made in the vertical or overhead position. The arc is moved
along the work, melting and fusing the metal as it progresses. Since the arc is
one of the hottest commercial sources of heat (temperatures above 9000° F I
5000° C have been measured at its center), this melting takes place almost
instantaneously as the arc is applied to the metal.
Welding Machine AC or DC
[ Power Source and Controls
_ _ _.., Electrode Holder-~
Electrode o.,;::~.,
Fig. 22 .I.-Elements of a ty pica[ welding circuit for shielded metal-arc welding
COVERED ELECTRODES
In addition to establishing the arc and supplying filler metal for the weld
deposit, the electrode introduces other materials into the arc, around it, or in
both areas. Depending upon the type of electrode being used, the electrode
covering performs one or all three of the following functions:
1. "Shielding the arc" and preventing atmospheric contamination of the
molten metal in the arc stream and the weld puddle.
2. Providing scavengers and deoxidizers to refine the grain structure of the
weld metal.
3. Producing a slag blanket over the very hot molten puddle and the solidified
weld.
Functions 1 and 3 prevent the pickup of oxygen and nitrogen from the air by
the molten metal in the arc stream and weld puddle and the red hot solidified
weld metal. This prevents the formation of oxides and nitrides, which can
embrittle the weld metal. All the functions are necessary to assure the strength
and quality of the weld being made. When properly made, shielded metal-arc
welded joints are as strong or stronger than the metal being joined.
22.4 / Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
The electrodes for shielded metal-arc welding are manufactured by extrud-

ing and dipping. The extruded and dipped electrodes, usually referred to as
covered (or coated) electrodes, contain most of the shielding, scavenging and
deoxidizing materials in the covering that surrounds a solid metal core. Al-
though most shielded metal-arc welding electrodes have a solid metal core,
there are some types that are of a tubular design. The core of the tube contains
alloying materials for producing high-alloy deposits. These electrodes, like the
conventional designs, can have an extruded or dipped covering.
In addition to improving the mechanical properties of weld metal, the cov-
ered electrode makes possible the use of alternating-current power sources.
An arc goes out 120 times a second with 60 cycle alternating current. This
makes arc stability a problem, and it becomes necessary to have a gas in the
arc stream that will remain ionized during the reversal of current. The presence
of this ionized gas makes possible the reignition of the arc. These gases are
available from a variety of potassium compounds; the incorporation of these
compounds in the various types of electrode coverings makes possible satis-
factory a-c operation.
Another development in the evolution of arc welding electrodes has been
the addition of iron powder to the covering or core. The iron powder is metal
available for deposition in addition to that of the core wire. The presence of
iron powder in the covering also makes more efficient use of the available arc
energy. The thick covering increases the "crucible" effect at the end of the
electrode, concentrating the heat and giving an automatically consistent arc
length. When powdered iron is added in relatively large amounts, weld metal
deposition rate and welding speed usually increase, and weld bead appearance
is improved.
Powdered iron covered electrodes also reduce the degree of welder skill
needed to run these electrodes, since the thick covering permits dragging the
tip of the electrode along the work's surface without shorting out and freezing.
For this reason, the heavy powdered iron covered electrodes are frequently
called "drag rods."
ARC SIDELD
The arc shielding action is essentially the same for the covered electrodes,
as illustrated in Fig. 22.2, and for the fabricated electrodes. But the actual
method of arc shielding and volume of slag produced varies with different
electrode types.
The bulk of the core or covering materials in some electrodes is converted
to a gas by the heat of the arc, and only a small amount of slag is produced.
This type of self-shielding electrode, depending largely upon a gaseous shield
to prevent atmospheric contamination, can be identified by the incomplete or
light slag covering of the completed welds.
In the other extreme in self-shielding electrode design, the bulk of the
covering material is converted into slag in the arc heat and only a small volume
of shielding gas is produced. With this type, the tiny globules of metal being
transferred in the arc stream are entirely coated with a thin film of molten
slag. This slag floats to the surface of the molten weld puddle before solidifying.
These electrodes are identified by the heavy slag deposit that completely covers
the surface of the finished weld. In between these extremes there is a wide
Principles of Operation / 22.5
ELECTRODE COATING
CORE WIRE
SHIELDING ATMOSPHERE
ARC POOL
ARC STREAM
DEPTH
BASE METAL
Fig. 22.2.-Schematic representation of the shielded metal arc

variety of electrode types having the ability to use various combinations of gas
and slag shielding.
These variations in slag action and arc shielding also influence the "per-
formance characteristics" of the many different types of self-shielding elec-
trodes available for use in maintenance and manufacturing. For example, an
electrode that has a heavy slag action also has a high deposition rate, and is
suited for making large welds in the flat or downhand welding position. An
electrode that develops a gaseous arc shield also has a low deposition rate and
smaller molten weld puddle; therefore, it is suited for making welds in the
vertical and overhead positions. It is because of the presence of these and
many other performance characteristics that one type of self-shielded electrode
is preferred over all others for a specific weld in a specific position.
POWER SOURCES
The arc welding process requires electric current (amperes) sufficient in
amount to produce melting of the base and filler metal, and a proper voltage
(volts) to maintain an arc. The sizes and types of electrodes currently avail-
able for shielded metal-arc welding define arc voltage requirements as 17 to
45 volts and current requirements of 10 to 500 amperes. This current may be
either alternating or direct, but it must be provided through a source that can
be controlled to meet the complex variables of the arc welding process.
The electrical phenomena entailed in the transfer of metal in shielded metal-
arc welding involve the physics of the welding arc. The subject is covered in
detail in Chapter 3, Physics of Welding, of Section 1 of the Sixth Edition of
the Welding Handbook. However, some of the power source characteristics
that concern the practical aspects of shielded metal-arc welding should be
mentioned here.
Performance of Power Sources
The most important factor to be considered in a power source is perform-
ance. What type of machine will make the job easiest to do and enable better
welding to be done at a lower cost? There is one best way to do every welding
job. A study of the type of welding to be done will generally tell whether
22.6 /Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
alternating or direct current should be used for the job. This, in turn, will
result in the selection of either an a-c or d-e power source or, as applications
often justify it, a combination a-c/ d-e power source. The performance charac-
teristics of any one of these three power sources, however, must be the
constant-current rather than the constant-voltage type. The constant-voltage
machine is preferred for certain metal-arc welding processes particularly suited
to mechanized welding. Figure 22.3 illustrates the typical static volt-ampere
curves for these two different types of power sources.
100
Constant voltage performance
Constant current performance
80
60
1
"
"'
E
0
> 40
20 \ \ \
~
\ ~\
200 300 400 500 600
Current (amps}
Fig. 22.3.-Typical volt-ampere curves for constant-current and constant-voltage
power sources
The constant-current type of power source is preferred for manual welding
since it is difficult for the welder to hold a constant arc length. The changing
arc length causes arc voltage to increase or decrease, which in turn produces
a change in welding current. The steeper the slope of the volt-ampere curve
within the welding range, the smaller the current change for a given change
in arc voltage.
There is some need, however, for variations from the true constant-current
design. For example, maintaining constant current will achieve maximum
welding speed and quality in some welding jobs. These characteristically are
applications involving large diameter electrodes and high amperages. In such
cases, therefore, a steep volt-ampere characteristic is desirable.
For other jobs, a less steep volt-ampere characteristic is desirable. This type
of power source performance enables the welder to control welding current
jp. a specifi.c range by simply changing the length of the arc as welding pro-
Principles of Operation / 22.7
gresses. This ability is preferred for out-of-position welding, for maintenance

welding applications where more precise arc control is desired and for deposit-
ing the root passes on joints having varying fitup.
The graph in Fig. 22.4 presents these differing volt-ampere curves. Even
though they differ considerably, the power sources are still considered to be
the constant-current type. The change in performance characteristics is accom-
plished by altering both the open-circuit voltage and current settings of the
machine.
100
-.,g 50
-
I
Q)
0)
0
~
32 --long arc length--~~-,·---
Normal arc length } Arc.· voltage
221---Short arc length ---+---,,c.
200
Current-amps
Fig. 22.4.-Constant-current volt-ampere characteristics of a power source
Steep curve (A) gives minimum current change; flatter curve (B) lets welder
control current by changing the length of the arc
22.8 j Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
Open-Circuit Voltage
Open-circuit voltage, which is set on the machine, does not refer to the arc
voltage, which is determined by the arc length. The open-circuit voltage is the
voltage generated by the welding machine when no welding is being done. The
arc voltage is the voltage between the electrode and the work during welding.
Open-circuit voltages generally run between 50 and 100 volts; arc voltages are
between 18 and 36. The open-circuit voltage drops to the arc voltage when the
arc is struck and the welding load comes on the machine. The arc length and
the type of electrode determine what this arc voltage will be. If the arc is
lengthened, the voltage increases and the current decreases. If the arc is
shortened, the arc voltage decreases and the current increases. Just how much
the current will change with a change in arc length is determined by the open-
circuit voltage setting.
Not all power sources are capable of offering this control of open-circuit
voltage. It is obvious, however, that this control is not needed for all arc
welding jobs. For a very detailed discussion of power source performance char-
acteristics and the relation between open-circuit voltage, arc voltage and cur-
rent, see Chapter 25, Arc Welding Power Sources.
Selection of Power Source

If the study of the welding applications suggests a d-e power source (Fig.
22.5), further consideration must be given to final selection since three different
power sources are available-the welding generator, the three-phase rectifier
and the combination a-c/ d-e, single-phase transformer-rectifier welding ma-
chines. This analysis is complicated and involves consideration of all factors,
including performance, welding characteristics and equipment maintenance.
The ability of the motor-generator set to maintain a stable welding current
output in spite of power line voltage variations is sometimes desired since it
results in less interference with the operator's manipulative technique. In
certain types of electrodes, such as any of the EXXlO types, and for certain
welding jobs, such as sheet metal and
pipe welding, power line voltage vari-
ations are not tolerable. U sing the
motor-generator set on these appli-
cations will result in better welds at
higher speeds; it should also be re-
membered that the motor-generator
set offers the ability to vary the open-
circuit voltage in the manner that
has been discussed above.
The three-phase rectifier d-e power
source lists among its advantages
quiet operation, no moving parts and
simple control.
The three-phase rectifier d-e power
source has the same application po-
tential as the motor-generator set,
Fig. 22.5.-Type of gage metal applica-
tion for which d-e power source is unless line voltage variations should
usually preferred constitute a problem.
Principles of Operation I 22.9
Selection of power source should also take into considerail:ion the type of
input power available. Motor-generator and rectifier-type welding machines
normally perform only on three-phase power.
When only single-phase power is available, power source selection is reduced
to making a choice between the a-c or combination a-c/ d-e welding machines.
The combination a-c/ d-e source has the same advantages cited above for the
three-phase, d-e rectifier since it can supply either straight or reverse polarity,
d-e current. In addition, this power source offers alternating current at the out-
put terminals. This greatly enhances the usability of the welding machine. Un-
fortunately, since the a-c or combination a-c/ d-e machine operates on a single-
phase power supply, the d-e current arc is not as smooth as that produced by
either the motor-generator or the three-phase rectifier design.
If the welding study suggests selection of an a-c power source, final selection
involves only consideration of type of current control. The options include the
simple plug-in or switch types that offer specific fixed current settings through-
out the range of the welding machine, or the continuous-current controlled
types, which offer an unlimited number of current settings from the minimum
through maximum output of the machine.
Alternating-current power sources are the most efficient available. Rating
power sources with respect to the amount of power consumed for a given job
places a-c or combination a-c/ d-e units first, three-phase rectifiers second and
the motor-generator sets third. When all other factors have been considered and
found equal, this may be the deciding factor; but it should not be given
preference over those that influence welding performance--deposition rate,
welding speed, etc.
The final decision with respect to power sources concerns the size or output
capacity of the welding machine. The size or rated output of a power source
for a given job depends on ;the thickness of the metal to be welded and the
amount of welding to be done. There is no need to buy more capacity than
will be required for the job. It is essential, however, to check the duty cycle
rating of the power source. Duty cycle identifies the arc time percent of total
time that the machine will operate at its rated output without overheating;
this percentage is based on a ten-minute time lapse. Most industrially rated
machines have increasingly higher duty cycle ratings as the current output is
reduced below the rating of the machine. Continued operation of a power
source beyond its rated capacity will shorten its service life. Here again, many
industrially rated machines are capable of exceeding ;their rated output. How-
ever, when higher than rated amperages are being used, the arc time should
be reduced below that suggested by the power source's duty cycle. For more
information on duty cycles, refer to Chapter 25, Arc Welding Power Sources.
ELECTRODE HOLDER
The electrode holder is simply a clamping device for holding and trans-
ferring the welding current into the electrode. The insulated handle separates
the operator's hand from the welding circuit. Since the welding current is
conveyed to the welding electrode through the jaws of the electrode holder,
they must be kept in good condition to assure minimum resistance in this
contact and :thereby reduce heating in the electrode holder. A poor electrode-
to-jaw contact can impair welding performance and lower weld quality.
22.10 I Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
The holder should be designed to hold the electrode securely in position, yet
permit quick and easy change of electrodes and provide good electrical collltact.
It should be light enough to permit ease of handling, yet sturdy enough to
withstand rough usage. There are two general types of holders, insulated and
noninsulated. The first type has insulating material around the jaws to prevent
grounding the holder, if it is touched to the work.
GROUND CLAMP
A ground clamp is a device for connecting the ground welding cable to the
work. It should furnish a strong positive connection, yet be capable of quick,
easy attachment and removal. It should be designed to withstand abuse.
HEADSHIEI.D
The purpose of the headshield is to protect the operator's face and eyes from
the direct rays of the arc and flying weld sparks. Some headshields also have
an optional "flip lid," which permits the dark lens over the opening in the
shield to be flipped up out of position while the welder chips slag from the
weld. This permits the operator to keep the headshield in position and protect
his face and eyes from the flying slag. The slag can cause serious injury if
it strikes the unprotected face and eyes, especially if it is being chipped while
still hot.
Headshields are generally constructed of some kind of pressed fiber or fiber-
glass insulating material, and are usually dark colored to reduce reflection. The
shields should be lightweight and designed to give the greatest possible comfort
to the welder.
Protective shields are provided with a glass window, the standard size being
2 X 4 1/8 inches. Larger openings are available should the application or
the operator's needs demand this. The glass in this opening should be capable
of absorbing infrared rays, the ultraviolet rays and most visible rays em-
anating from the arc. In selecting the welding lens, it is important to consider
the manufacturer's reputation and his experience in the use of welding equip-
ment, as well as results of scientific tests of the lens. Most available lenses are
guaranteed to absorb 99% or more of the infrared and ultraviolet rays gen-
erated by the arc.
The welding lens in the headshield should be protected from molten spatter
and from breakage by a lens of clear glass, or other suitable material. The arc
should never be observed with the naked eye at close quarters. Forty feet is
the recommended distance at which the unprotected eye should see the electric
arc. This distance, however, can vary with arc intensity. If other workmen must
be active in the arc area, they can be readily protected by a movable or
portable screen.
Failure to observe these rules will result in various degrees of eye-bum.
Eye-burn is similar to a sunburn of the skin and is extremely painful for 24 to
48 hours. A normal eye-burn will not permanently injure the eyes, but intense
suffering is usually experienced. Various commercial solutions are available to
soothe the eyes during the period of irritation following eye-burn, and to help
relieve the pain. Aspirin and cold compacts provide additional comfort.
Process Variables I 22.11
PROTECTIVE CWTHING
During welding, some sparks or globules of molten metal are always thrown
out from the arc. This condition becomes more serious when welding is per-
formed oUJt of position, or when extremely high welding amperages are in use.
To ensure protection from possible burns under these conditions, the operator
should wear leather gloves, a protective apron and a leather jacket. It may
also be desirable to provide protection to the operator's ankles and feet since a
globule of molten metal dripping into the shoe can cause a painful burn to the
foot. Turning the pants cuffs down (or wearing cuffiess pants), plus the use
of work shoes with high sides can answer the needs in this instance.
WELDING CABLES
The welding cables connect the electrode holder and work to the power
source. They are either insulated copper or aluminum. The current flow through
these cables is in one direction with d-e, but it constantly changes direction
with alternating current. This cable consists of thousands of very fine wires
enclosed in a durable jacket of natural or synthetic rubber.
The size of the cables depends upon the capacity of the power sources and
the distance between the power source and the work. Careful consideration
should be given to selecting the correct cable size since it has definite bearing
on weld production and efficiency. Table 22.1 indicates cable sizes for various
lengths and different capacity power sources. Lengths stipulated are the dis-
tance from the welding machine to the work and back to the welding machine
again. Cable sizes are increased for greater lengths primarily for the purpose
of minimizing cable drop.
Table 22.1-Copper cable sizes recommended for various uses
Cable Sizes for Combined Lengths

of Electrode and Ground Cables
Machine
Size in Duty
Amperes Cycle 0 to 50 to 100 to 150 to 200 to
50 ft. 100ft. 150ft. 200ft. 250ft.
-------- - - - - ----- --·---
100 20 8 4 3 2 1
180 2()-30 4 4 3 2 1
200 60 2 2 2 1 1/0
200 .50} 3 2 1 1 /0
260 30 3
300 flO 1/0 l/0 1/0 2/0 3/0
400 60 2/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
500 60 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0
600 60 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 2-3/0
PROCESS VARIABLES
ELECTRODE TYPE
Two variables must be considered with respect to selecting the correct

electrode for making a good weld under given conditions. These are: electrode
type (as to covering and deposited analysis) and electrode diameter. The
selection of type and size is based on a knowledge of:
1. The position in which the work is to be welded.
2. The type and thickness of the metal being used.
3. The preparation of the work with regard to fitup.
4. The type of available welding current.
5. The class of work; that is, whether the chief essential is deep penetration,
surface quality, obtaining certain mechanical properties or meeting code
requirements.
The American Welding Society and the American Society for Testing and
Materials have concurrently established specifications for the performance of
welding electrodes to fulfill the above job requirements. The following specifi-
cations have been issued:
Mild Steel Covered Arc-Welding Electrodes, A5.1
Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Arc-Welding Electrodes, A5.3
Corrosion-Resisting Chromium and Chromium-Nickel Steel Covered Weld-
. ing Electrodes, A5.4
Low-Alloy Steel Covered Arc-Welding Electrodes, A5.5
Copper and Copper-Alloy Arc-Welding Electrodes, A5.6
Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Covered Welding Electrodes, A5.11
Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes, A5.13
Welding Rods and Covered Electrodes for Welding Cast Iron, AS .15
In addition to the material contained in these specifications, Chapter 9 5, Filler
Metals, of Section 5 of the Handbook contains detailed data on these elec-
trodes-their identification, performance characteristics, mechanical properties
and applications.
CARBON AND LOW-ALLOY ELECTRODES
The mild and low-alloy steel electrodes are classified with a numbering sys-
tem for simple identification. A typical four-digit classification is E6010. The
prefix "E" designates an electrode. In the specification for mild steel covered
arc welding electrodes (A5.1), the first two digits stand for a minimum
tensile strength of the deposited metal in the as-welded condition in 1000
psi. On the other hand, in the specification for low-alloy steel covered
arc welding electrodes (A5.5), these first two digits represent a minimum
tensile strength of the deposited metal in the stress-relieved condition in
thousands of pounds per square inch (ksi); in certain exceptional cases,
however, they represent the as-welded condition. (Consult the specification for
details.) The third digit stands for the welding position or positions in which
the electrode will make a satisfactory deposit, and the last digit classes the
performance characteristics of the electrode and identifies the types of power
sources on which it can be used.
Since mild steel welding represents approximately 90% of all arc welding,
the following brief descriptions of mild steel electrode types are included.
The significance of the various classification digits as explained for these
electrodes is consistent throughout the E70, E80, E90, El 00 and El OOXX
series of steel electrodes. Table 22.2 gives classification characteristics and
uses for steel electrodes.
Table 22.2--Characteristics of steel electrodes
Class Work Current Arc

No. Position• Supplyf Effect Penetration
All Position, Deep Penetrating-Good Properties
EXXlO All DC+ Digging Deep

EXXU All AC Digging Deep
(DC+)
All Position, Light Penetrating
EXX13 AU AC Soft Medium

(DC-)
EXX14 AU AC Soft Medium
(DC-)
Production Welding
EXX12 AU DC- Mild Medium·

AC
EXX24 HF-F AC Mild Light
(DC-)
Deep Groove Heavy Section
EXX20 HF-F DC- Mild Medium

AC Deep
AC
EXX30 F DC- Mild Medium
AC
Low Hydrogen-Difficult to Weld
EXX15 All DC+ Mild Medium

EXX16 All AC Mild Medium
DC+
EXX18 HF-F AC Mild Medium
DC-
(AC)
•HF = Horizontal fillet position

F = Flat position
tCurrent supply in parentheses indicates that, for production welding, some sacrifice in advantages must
be made using the designated snpply.
DC+ = Direct current, reverse polarity
DC- - Direct current, straight polarity
AC = Alternating current
Basic Applications for Steel Electrodes

EXXlO-Designed to produce good mechanical properties consistent with
good radiographic inspection quality. Application is usually structural where
multipass welding is employed, e.g., shipbuilding, bridges, buildings, piping
and pressure vessels.
EXXll-Designed to do the work of the EXXl 0 electrode, but to employ
an a-c current source; slightly higher tensile and yield strength.
EXX12-Especially recommended for single-pass, high-speed, high-current,
horizontal fillet welds. It is characteristically easy to handle and useful in
cases of poor fitup, botlt groove and fillet, where a wide range of currents is
used. The EXX12 electrode has reduced penetration but can meet radiographic
standards with single-pass welds.
EXX13-Designed for light sheet metal work, but now used widely as an
electrode having light penetration. Frequently used in vertical down welding,
even though it produces a flat bead. Particularly well designed for use with
low-voltage, a-c transformers.
EXX14-An iron powder electrode designed to do the work of the EXX13
electrode with increased deposition rate; the EXX14 electrode, however, has
lower deposition rates than EXX24 and EXX27 electrodes. EXX13 and
EXX14 electrodes have similar welding speeds in the fixed position. The
EXX14 electrode has improved weld appearance and ease of welding in drag
technique.
EXX15-0ffers exceptional properties and best X-ray quality. A low-
hydrogen electrode for difficult-to-weld materials such as high-carbon or
low-alloy steels, free-machining, high sulfur bearing steels and armor plate.
Frequently preheating and postheating may be eliminated or reduced by using
a low-hydrogen electrode. The electrode covering cannot perform properly
with included moisture. This electrode should be heated before use as
recommended by the manufacturer, or stored in a moisture-free area.
EXX16-An electrode similar to the EXX15 electrode, designed to be
used with a-c and d-e, reverse polarity (electrode positive).
EXX18-A 30% iron powder titania type electrode similar to the EXX15
electrode with a higher deposition rate and an improved weld appearance;
offers better slag removal and higher usable current than the EXX16 type.
EXX20-A high-production electrode designed for heavy sections, such as
pressure vessels, heavy machine bases and structural parts; the weld has good
quality and is frequently used where deep fillet techniques are required.
EXX24-An iron powder type electrode ideal for fillet welds. The iron
powder in the electrode covering assists in increasing the deposition rate over
that obtained with EXX12 electrodes. The EXX24 electrode can be used in
drag technique with ease of handling and good weld appearance; it requires
better fitup than the EXX12 electrode, but is of similar application (although
limited as to position).
EXX27-When this high iron powder electrode is used in the drag tech-
nique, it is 50% faster than the EXX20 electrode. It is primarily a downward,
deep-groove electrode, well suited for heavy sections. Second only to the
EXX24 electrode in welding speed, but with properties superior to it; they
are equally easy to handle.
EXX28-A, 50% iron powder lime type electrode, yielding the highest
deposition rates of the low-hydrogen group; the covering produces an easily
maintainable arc with a smooth, wide bead.
EXX30-Capable of higher deposition rates than EXX20 electrodes; de-
signed for welding of heavy plate in the flat position and good in deep-
groove welding; has less fluid slag than the EXX20 electrode.
CELLULOSE-COVERED ELECTRODES, EXXlO AND EXXll

The relatively thin coverings of these electrode types contain a high per-
centage of cellulose. The arc is very penetrating, and lhe relatively quickly
Proc~s~ Y ariabl~s I 22.15
solidifying slag promotes rapid fusion of the molten weld puddle. The cov-
ering principally produces a gaseous shield with minimum slagging action,
which enhances its ability for out-of-position operation. The weld metal has
excellent mechanical properties. Some of the applications are welding of
pipe, ships, machinery, structures (especially field erections), jigs and fixtures.
Types E6010 and E6011 Electrodes

These types may be classified as general-purpose electrodes since they are
used for a wide variety of work and possess high average mechanical prop-
erties. The E6010 is best suited for direct current, reverse polarity (electrode
positive).
The 3/16 in. diameter and smaller sizes are capable of depositing any type
of weld in all positions-flat, horizontal, vertical and overhead. It has deep
penetration qualities and is used very satisfactorily on square-groove butt
joints where the electrode actually scarfs or melts the plates as welding pro-
gresses. It produces a rather flat bead shape.
The E6011 electrode is essentially an E6010 electrode designed for a-c or
either polarity d-e operation. The d-e polarity, either reverse or straight (elec-
trode negative or electrode positive) , depends on the type of work being
performed. The characteristics of E6011 are similar to those of E6010 elec-
trodes. The covering is high in cellulose, and for this reason the arc is
penetrating and has a quickly solidifying slag action; protection of the arc
and molten metal is principally achieved through a gaseous shield. Like the
E6010 electrode, the E6011 electrode is well suited for making vertical and
overhead fillets and butt welds. The applications are the same as for E6010
electrodes. There are several electrodes for welding low-alloy, high-tensile
steel of the same general characteristics (E7010, E9010, etc.).
Titania-Covered Electrodes (EXX12, EXX13)

The medium-thick coverings of these electrodes contain a relatively high
amount of titania. This type of covering produces in the weld crater a medium
volume of molten slag that floats to the surface before weld metal or slag
solidifies, providing complete coverage of the weld bead. These electrodes can
be used in all positions, but are more difficult to control out of position than
the cellulose types.

The E6012 electrode has a medium-thick covering and is used with d-e,
straight polarity (electrode negative) or with alternating current. Diameters
of 3/16 in. and smaller are suitable for all positions. The sizes with diameters
larger than 3/ 16 in. are suitable for welding in the flat or horizontal welding
positions. The electrode may be used for fillet welding, single or multiple pass,
and can be used for Vee-groove or U-groove butt welds. Its medium deposi-
tion characteristics and ability to build up make it particularly suited to han-
dling joints with poor fitup. The arc is less penetrating than that of an E601 0
or E6011 electrode, but adequate when correct welding procedures are used.
The larger amount of slag gives a better coverage, producing a finer ripple
with a more pleasing bead surface.
The E6012 electrode has a higher usable deposition rate with lower spatter,
than either an E6010 or an E6011 electrode. It is ideally suited for horizontal

and flat fillet welds on steel having characteristics that give poor mechanical
properties with electrodes producing greater penetration. Because it does not
penetrate deeply, it is used in cases where dilution of weld and base metal is
not desirable. Bead shape is somewhat convex. The weld metal has higher
tensile strength and slightly lower elongation than that produced by the E6010
or E6011 types. Some typical welding applications include sheet metal, duct
work, tanks, machine guards and structural work.
The a-c operation of the E6013 electrode is better than that of the E6012
electrode; the E6013 electrode also develops a smoother bead appearance.
Penetration is similar to that of the E6012 electrode, so that the E6013 elec-
trode works well on poorly fitting joints; these electrodes are also more suitable
for gage metal welding than are E6012 electrodes. The bead has a tendency to
become convex in making horizontal fillets. The applications are similar to
those for E6012 electrodes.
Mineral-Covered Electrodes, EXX20

The thick coverings of these electrodes contain a relatively high percentage
of minerals; they are characterized by a high deposition rate and a substantial
volume of molten and solidified "friable" slag that cleans very easily. These
electrodes are limited to horizontal and flat position welding.
Mineral-Covered Electrodes, E6020

The E6020 electrodes have a heavy covering containing iron oxide and can
be used for flat or horizontal position welding with either polarity d-e current
or a-c current. Because their dominant characteristic is a high deposition rate,
they are not suitable for making vertical or overhead welds. Although at one
time they were widely used for production applications, the advent of the
heavy iron powder covered electrode has gradually reduced their industrial
use to the point where their selection today is the exception rather than
the rule.
Iron Powder Electrodes

The iron powder covered electrodes have an exceptionally heavy covering
containing a large quantity of iron powder (Fig. 22.6). This type of covering
makes welding with these electrodes faster and easier. The use of this type of
electrode can often double the welding speed experienced with the E6012 type.
Weld appearance is smoother, slag is almost self-cleaning and spatter is
eliminated almost completely.
All these advantages result from the nature of the iron powder covering,
which more efficiently utilizes the
heat of the arc. Welding currents can
be increased as much as 40 % for a
given diameter electrode. This pro-
duces a greater deposition rate with-
out introducing the difficulties of
Fig. 22.6. -Iron powder electrodes
excessive penetration, gouging, un-
(right) have much heavier covering than dercutting and spatter normally en-
electrodes without iron powder (left) countered when welding with higher
Process Variables / 22.17
currents on different electrode types of the same electrode diameters. The

higher melt-off rate of iron powder or even low-hydrogen electrodes is particu-
larly advantageous in certain production applications.

The E7024 and E7027 electrodes operate on alternating or either polarity
direct current, but alternating current is preferred. They are ideally suited for the
contact or "drag" welding techniques, although an arc may be held if desired.
The E7024 type of electrode has a titania covering with powdered iron,
and is designed especially for welding flat and horizontal fillets. It is widely
used for the production welding of farm and construction equipment, ma-
chinery and machine tools, and structural fabricating.
Type E6027 Electrodes

The E6027 type of electrode has a mineral covering with powdered iron,
and is designed especially for welding flat, deep-groove butt welds with alter-
nating or direct current, either polarity. The E6027 electrode has almost
completely replaced the E6020 electrode for code work. The bead has excellent
wash-in properties and makes a smooth cover pass. The "friable" slag is readily
removable under all conditions.

Iron powder has been added to the covering to produce this modified version
of the E6013 type electrode. The result is an electrode that has the iron powder
characteristics plus the feature of suitability for out-of-position use up to 45°
downhill. Although classified all-position, it is rarely used for vertical and
overhead welding.
UME-COVERED, "LOW-HYDROGEN" ELECTRODE TYPES, EXX15,

16, 18 AND 28
The low-hydrogen electrode consists essentially of a rimmed-steel core wire

upon which a carbonate of soda, "lime" type covering is applied. Each
diameter of this electrode has a slightly thicker covering than normal, and
the electrode is slightly harder to use because of the procedural requirements
for a short arc and the globular-type metal transfer. The arc is moderately
penetrating, the slag is easily removed and the bead shape is slightly convex
(except for the EXX28 type, where the bead shape is flat or slightly concave).
The as-welded mechanical properties of the deposit of the low-hydrogen
type electrodes have been found to be superior to those of E6010 and E6011
electrodes depositing weld metal of the same composition. Numerous tests
have indicated that the as-welded mechanical properties of the all-weld-metal
deposits from these electrodes are as good as, or better than the properties
of stress-relieved deposits of conventional electrodes. Whereas the properties
of deposits of conventional electrodes change when they are stress relieved, the
deposits of low-hydrogen electrodes are changed only slightly. The reduced
tendency for underbead cracking and the high quality of as-welded deposits
of these electrodes materially reduce the preheat and postheat requirements,
thus making for better welding conditions and reduction in cost.
22.18 1 Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
Low-hydrogen electrodes operate best on d-e, reverse polarity (electrode

positive), but some types can also be used with alternating current. They
are developed for welding higher strength, high-carbon and alloy steels
in which the ordinary electrodes are subject to underbead cracking. Under-
bead cracks occur in the parent metal near the line of fusion between it
and the weld metal. Because they are caused by the hydrogen present in the
conventional electrode covering, eliminating the hydrogen tends to eliminate
the underbead cracking.
Another use for low-hydrogen type electrodes is the welding of high-
sulfur steels. A weld made with ordinary electrodes on these steels (which
contain 0.10 to 0.25% sulfur) is badly honeycombed with voids. Low-hydrogen
type electrodes can be used to weld these steels with less difficulty. Many of
the newer high-tensile steels produced today call for low-hydrogen electrodes,
for example, the El2018 type electrodes, that range up to 120,000 psi tensile
strength.
The low-hydrogen electrode was developed during World War II for the
welding of armor plate; in addition to its use on alloy steels, high-carbon
steels and high-sulfur steels, it has been found useful on malleable iron, on
spring steels and for welding the mild steel side of clad plates. This electrode
has also had extensive use in welding steels that are to be enameled, and
is capable of producing sound welds on steels containing selenium. It is an
excellent maintenance electrode, since it can usually produce sound welds
on steels whose analysis is unknown or questionable.

The E7015 electrode was the first of the low-hydrogen types made for the
welding of carbon steels. It was designed exclusively for d-e, reverse polarity
(electrode positive) operation. The smaller diameters through 5/32 in. can
be used in all positions. The larger diameters are suitable for flat and horizontal
fillet and butt welds.

The E7016 low-hydrogen electrode has all the characteristics of the E7015
classification and may be used with either d-e, reverse polarity or a-c current.
The core wire and covering are very similar to those of the E701 5 electrodes,
except for the addition of a certain amount of potassium silicate or other
potassium salts to provide arc stabilization and to facilitate its use with
alternating-current power sources. All that has been said of the E7015 elec-
trode applies equally well to the E7016 electrode.

Iron powder has been added to the covering of the now obsolete E6018 type
electrode thus producing a higher deposition rate. This low-hydrogen electrode
has smoother operating characteristics than the E6018 electrode, which is now
an obsolete type. The E7018 electrodes have the advantages of low-hydrogen
properties plus the improved performance characteristics typified by the iron
powder coverings. All that has been said of the E7015 and E7016 types
equally applies to the E7018 type electrode. This electrode operates well in all
positions, since the powdered iron content in its covering is only 30 percent.

The E7024 electrodes operate on either alternating or direct current of
either polarity, but alternating current is preferred. They are ideally suited for
the contact or "drag" welding techniques, although an arc may be held if
desired.
This type of electrode was designed especially for welding flat and horizontal
fillets. It is widely used for production welding, farm and construction equip-
ment, machinery and machine tools, and structural fabricating. ·

The E7028 classification of electrode combines the advantages of the
low-hydrogen types and the heavy covered powdered iron types. The electrode
manufactured under this classification has a high deposition rate. However, it
is limited in application to horizontal and flat position welding.
Types E7015-Al Through E12018-M Electrodes

There are a number of higher tensile, low-hydrogen electrodes currently
available for industrial use. They are designed for use with the newer high
tensile steels. The mechanical properties of these electrodes are specified;
furthermore, the chemical composition of the deposited metal is a mandatory
part of the specification. Performance characteristics closely resemble those
of the E7018 electrodes listed previously.
SPECIAL ELECTRODES
In addition to those mentioned above, there are many other designs for
shielded metal-arc welding of materials other than the carbon steels. These
include electrodes for hardsurfacing, and for welding copper and copper
alloys, aluminum, cast iron, manganese and nickel-manganese steels, stain-
less steels and nickel alloys. Extensive discussion of these types is found
in Chapter 95, Filler Metals, Section 5 of the Handbook.
Special electrodes differ widely in their composition and are usually de-
signed to match the base metals on which they are to be used. Hard-
surfacing electrodes, however, are designed to produce a weld deposit that
has specific performance characteristics to resist abrasion, impact, corrosion
or some other abusive action that tends to remove the base metal or weld
deposit.
In some instances, special electrodes may be used to weld metals other
than those matching their composition. Examples are found when nickel or
bronze electrodes are used for welding cast iron, austenitic stainless steel,
manganese or high carbon tensile steels, etc. Composition of the coating on
these special-purpose electrodes depends entirely on the purpose for which
they are to be used.
A variety of stainless steel electrodes now being manufactured can produce
weld metal similar to the composition of most base metals. However, the
analysis of the core wire may differ from that of the base metal in order
to improve corrosion resistance of the weld deposit, eliminate underbead
cracking or minimize carbide precipitation. In the transfer of metal through
the arc, very little nickel is lost from nickel-bearing stainless electrodes.
There is a slight loss of chromium and a greater loss of some of the

other elements, but this loss may be compensated for by alloy additions to
the coverings.
Manganese and silicon are included in the stainless steel electrode cov-
erings to reduce oxidation; titanium is added to promote weldability, to pro-
duce an easily removable slag and to prevent carbide precipitation. In most
designs, columbium is used to prevent carbide precipitation. Lime has been
an extremely important ingredient in the covering since it tends to eliminate
hydrogen, the formation of which, as stated earlier in regard to low-hydrogen
electrode coverings, leads to underbead cracking. Any material that is high
in carbon is excluded because of the affinity of chromium for carbon, espe-
cially at welding temperatures. The low-hydrogen type covering used on
stainless electrodes is similar to that employed on the low-hydrogen type
carbon steel welding electrodes.
ELECTRODE DIAMETER
Each diameter electrode has specific limitations on current capacity. Exces-

sive currents traveling the length of the electrode cause the covering to
overheat and break down, thus impairing the quality of the weld being
made.
The diameter of the electrode to use for a given job depends largely on
material thickness, joint position and edge preparation. Larger diameter
electrodes are normally used on thicker materials to assure the presence of
sufficient heat to melt the base metal and the welding electrode, and to
gain proper fusion. The larger sizes are also picked to give the highest pos-
sible welding speed.
With respect to joint position, the force of gravity is continually trying to
cause the molten metal to flow out of the weld puddle when welding is per-
formed in the vertical and overhead positions. This tendency is controlled
by reducing the size of the weld puddle, which generally requires the use
of smaller diameter electrodes for a specific weld size.
The type of joint and edge preparation may also limit electrode diameter.
Here the problem becomes one of selecting an electrode small enough to be
assured of establishing correct arc length and reaching the root of the joint.
In Vee-groove joints, for example, small diameter electrodes are frequently
used for the initial passes, followed by larger diameter electrodes to com-
plete the weld.
Finally, the experience of the welder often influences the selection of elec-
trode size. This is particularly true for out-of-position welding, since the
welder's manipulative skill governs the size of the molten crater that he can suc-
cessfully handle to produce a weld of the required strengt1't and appearance.
The largest possible electrode size should be used to assure the lowest
welding cost, unless such a choice would result in overwelding. Not only is
overwelding costly, but, in some instances, it is actually harmful. Any sudden
change in the section of a joint, such as is caused by excessive reinforcement,
creates stress concentrations. It is obvious that the correct diameter electrode
is one that, when used with the correct welding current and travel speed,
produces a weld of the required quality and size at the greatest possible speed.
CURRENT TYPE
The melting rate in the arc zone is directly related to the electrical energy
supplied to the arc. Part of this energy is used to melt base material and part
is used to melt the electrode core wire and covering. The electrical polarity
and the constituents of the electrode covering determine the balance of the
energy.
Satisfactory welding can be accomplished with either alternating or direct
current. Each, however, has certain advantages that produce maximum effi-
ciency under certain conditions; therefore, there is a correct type of welding
current for every job.
Direct-Current Power Source
A d-e power source permits setting electrode polarity to meet job require-
ments. Where :the arc energy is more associated with the base metal (d-e,
reverse polarity), penetration is deeper. Where the arc energy is more asso-
ciated with the electrode (d-e, straight polarity), the burn-off rate of the
electrode is greater. Since alternating current continually changes the elec-
trode polarity, both penetration and deposition rate are a compromise less
than the best d-e performance. (The exception to this conclusion is the
situation involving arc blow, as described later.)
The inherently more stable arc and ·the smooth, unidirectional, spray-type
metal transfer are characteristics of d-e current. These characteristics produce
a better wetting action, and metal transfer that is accentuated at low currents
and on joints where the required weld size is so small that it is not important.
For this reason, direct current is particularly suited to sheet metal welding
applications. Also, some electrode types operate better on direct current
because their performance requires better arc stability. They include the stain-
less steel electrodes, some hardsurfacing electrodes, most low-hydrogen elec-
trodes and :the nonferrous electrodes. Direct current is preferred, too, for
out-of-position welding or where the arc must be crowded. The d-e arc has
less tendency to short out as globules of metal bridge the arc.
Alternating-Current Power Source
Alternating 60 cycle current reverses direction 120 times a second. This
fact produces both advantages and disadvantages. It was noted earlier that
this current reversal posed arc stability problems. This same reversal, on
the other hand, minimizes "arc blow," a problem present with larger electrodes
and higher welding currents. The magnetic field generated around the elec-
trode and in the work metal by :the flow of current is constantly building up
and collapsing with the reversing current. Thus, it never develops the field
strength that occurs with d-e current of the same amperage. This, in effect,
reduces the magnetic field's ability to deflect or "blow" the arc from its in-
tended path.
Alternating current is less susceptible to arc blow than direct current.
Thus, when using a-c current it is not usually necessary to adopt the speed-
reducing and :time-losing precautionary measures needed with d-e current.
Such precautionary measures include: (1) lowering the welding current, (2)
using smaller diameter electrodes and ( 3) substituting a type of electrode
having slower speed.
Generally speaking, higher currents and larger diameter electrodes can be

used with ac than with de; therefore, a-c current is preferred for production
welding of plate. This is particularly true on short seams with currents above
the 250 ampere level. Also, certain electrodes (specifically, those with iron
powder in their coverings) have been designed for higher current operation
with alternating than with direct current. For these reasons, the highest manual
welding speeds can be obtained by using ac with these electrodes on down-
hand production welding jobs.
AMOUNT OF CURRENT
After determining the type of current to be used on a giVen application,

it is necessary to select the amount of current to be used. For practical pur-
poses, it can be considered that the amount of current or amperage delivered
at the end of the arc welding electrode determines the amount of heat and,
therefore, the rate at which base metal and electrode will be melted. Figure
22.7 shows the plot of current versus deposition rate for various types of
3!16 in. diameter electrodes. The current of 150 amperes is used with a 5/32
in. diameter electrode. If a change is made to a 3!16 in. electrode without
increasing the current, the rate of deposition will not be increased. In addition,
the lower current density on the electrode would usually produce problems
with respect to obtaining proper fusion between the work and the weld deposit.
11
10 J
I
v
EGO~~
9
-
8 .. ~024
!T- ]"
,!)
j
E7028
if-...l ,j
7
6
4
,
~ E7018 ~ ~7014
5 ~
4 ~ ~
t E6012
E6013
1111 ~ If'
E6010 (de)
3 1--
E6r'
2
125 175 225 200 250 300 225 275 325 200 250 300
Fig. 22.7.-Curves comparing current range and deposition rate for various types
of 3 I 16 in. diameter mild steel electrodes
Electrode manufacturers generally indicate the current range for each

diameter of each type of electrode.
WELDING SPEED
The welding speed can be expressed in two ways: arc or travel speed, in
inches per minute; or feet of joint welded per hour. In either case, the figure
is usually based on a 100% operating factor.
Arc or travel speed is defined as the rate of travel of the electrode along
the seam, or the rate of travel of the work under the electrode along the
seam, and it is expressed in inches per minute. Arc speed is given for single-
pass welds. For multiple-pass welds, arc speed is given for the first pass only,
since this pass is important in obtaining proper penetration. The arc speed for
succeeding passes and the total number of passes to make the joint varies
with individual operators, but the "feet of joint welded per hour" is the same,
regardless of the arc speed per pass or the number of passes, as long as the
recommended plate preparation, fitup, current and build-up are used.
"Feet of joint welded per hour" is based on actual welding time only.
No factor has been included for setup, electrode changing, cleaning, or other
elements, which vary greatly with the type of work being done. In order to
use the number of "feet of joint welded per hour" in cost calculations, this
figure must be multiplied by an operating factor that can be estimated or
determined by .trial for the job in question.
Arc speed is influenced by several factors:
Electrode melt-off rate Welding position
Type of joint Weld size
Joint preparation Material thickness
Joint fitup Material analysis
The melt-off rate, as determined by the electrode type and size and current
used, is the rate at which metal is deposited into the joint. For single-pass
welds that require a large volume of weld metal, the speed with which the
electrode is moved along the joint is directly proportional to the melt-off rate.
The higher the melt-off, the faster the electrode can be moved, making a weld
of a given definite size.
For sheet metal applications, the speed of travel is largely determined by
the skill of the operator in filling the crater as the electrode progresses along
the joint.
For out-of-position welds, the limit to travel speed is the ability of the
welder to keep the molten metal in position, and to avoid undercut and poor
surface appearance.
N with the choice of amount of current and arc length, the travel speed
should be somewhere between the maximum without underwelding and the
minimum without overwelding. Fillet welds should be made as close as possible
to the required size; they should have equal legs, and be as flat as possible.
Butt welds should be made with minimum reinforcement.
Some general statements can be made regarding arc speed or speed of
travel. Increasing the speed of travel and maintaining constant arc voltage
and current reduces the width of bead and also increases penetration until
an optimum speed is reached at which penetration is maximum. Increasing
22.24 1 Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
the speed beyond this optimum will result in decreased penetration. Actually,
the limiting speed is usually the highest speed at which the surface appearance
remains satisfactory.
The speed of welding and the rate of heat input affect the structure and
hardness of the weld. If a smaller weld bead is produced by higher speed,
with no other change, it will have less heat input per unit of length. This
results in faster cooling and, consequently, greater hardening. If the same
size of weld bead is produced by higher current as well as higher speed, it
will have the same heat input per unit of length, but the rate of heat input and
the rate of cooling will be higher; hardening, therefore, will be even greater.
For more information on welding speed and costs, see Chapter 7, Factors and
Data Involved in Estimating Costs, Section 1, Sixth Edition of the Handbook.
ARC LENGm
Arc length is important to low-cost welding through its effect on the speed
of welding and efficiency of metal deposition. An arc that is too long dissipates
heat into the air, and the stream of molten metal from the electrode to the
work is scattered in the form of spatter. Speed of welding is slower, since it
requires a longer time to deposit the required amount of metal. A long arc
is more susceptible to arc blow than a short arc.
Arc length control is largely a matter of operator skill, which, in turn,
depends on knowledge, visual perception and manual dexterity. Although arc
length changes with changing conditions, certain fundamental principles can
be given as a guide to good procedure.
Position of welding influences arc length. For highest speeds and uniformity,
in downhand welding of plate or welding sheet metal on an incline, it is
best to drag the tip of the covering lightly along the joint. This is especially
true of the iron powder electrodes. The arc length is then automatically de-
termined by the burn-off of the electrode, and is uniform. Electrode manipula-
tion is reduced to a minimum, thus minimizing operator fatigue. For vertical
or overhead welding, the arc length is held by the welder and varied to permit
him to best control the molten crater under the conditions that prevail. The
effects of varying the foregoing parameters are illustrated in Fig. 22.8.
Similarly, other variables influence the selection of the best arc length
for the job at hand. The joint is important. For fillet welds, the arc is
crowded into the joint for highest speeds and best penetration; the same is
true of root passes in butt welding pipe joints. Material differences between
plate and sheet metal, stainless and mild steel, ferrous and nonferrous materials
require different procedures. Direct current, when arc blow conditions are
encountered, calls for as short an arc as possible. Different electrodes have
widely differing operating characteristics, which require different arc lengths.
It is important, therefore, for the welder to have the knowledge of the effect
of different arc lengths, and the ability to control arc length to meet job require-
ments.
ANGLE OF ELECTRODE
The angular position of the electrode relative to the work may determine to
a marked degree the quality of the weld. Upon this position may depend the
ease with which the filler metal is deposited, the freedom from undercutting
and slag inclusions, and the uniformity of fusion and weld contour. Recom-
mendations of manufacturers should be followed in all cases.
Fig. 22.8.-E/Jects of varying current, arc length (arc voltage) and travel speed
illustrated by surface and cross-sectional views of shielded metal-arc welds: left to
right--current, arc length and travel speed normal; current too low; current too high;
arc length too short; arc length too long; travel speed too slow; travel speed too high
The lead angle of the electrode is the angle between the joint and the elec-
trode taken in a longitudinal plane, whereas the work angle is the angle between
the electrode and the work taken in a plane normal to the joint plane (Fig.
22.9). Increasing the lead angle in the direction of welding ordinarily builds
up a bead. Too large a work angle may result in undercutting. With some
electrodes, such as the low-hydrogen types, the control of electrode angle as
well as arc length is very important in maintaining weld quality.
Fig. 22.9.-Electrode work angle and lead angle

JOINT PREPARATION
Joint geometry is determined by economic design considerations and estab-

lished specifications or codes. The method of joint preparation can be one of
the following: machining, chipping, shearing, oxygen cutting (oxyacetylene or
oxy-fuel gas combinations), carbon or metal-arc cutting, grinding and flame
or arc gouging. The method used depends on joint shape, facilities available,
quality desired, etc. Further details are provided in Chapter 8, Design and Per-
formance of Welded Joints, in the Sixth Edition, Section 1 of the Handbook.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Vertical Welding-Now a Two-Way Street," C. D. Nickey and H. F. Reid, Weld-
ing Journal, 47 (6), 482-486 (1968).
"The New 1964 AWS-ASTM Specifications for Steel Electrodes for Mild Steel and
Low-Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes," W. T. Delong, Ibid., 44 (2), 87-89 (1965).
"Metal Powders in Welding Electrodes," Donald Harvey and P. V. Chapman, Ibid.,
43 (8), 686-689 (1964).
Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding Design and Practice, 11th ed., Lincoln
Electric Co., Cleveland (1957).
Welding Engineering, Boniface E. Rossi, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York
(1954).
Welding for Engineers, Udin, Funk and Wulff, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
York (1954).
Weldability of Steels, R. D. Stout and W. D. Doty, Welding Research Council, New
York (1953).
"Heat Effects in Anode Spots of High-Current Arcs," T. B. Jones, W. B. Kouwen-
hoven and M. Skolnik, Welding Journal, 28 (10), 46ls-465s (1949).
"Arc Phenomena with Electrodes Moving at High Speed," W. B. Kouwenhoven
and T. B. Jones, Ibid., 27 (9), 470s-475s (1948).
"An Investigation of Methods for Evaluating Welding Arc Stability and Their
Application," R. A. Wyant, L. P. Winsor and L. Schetky, Ibid., 27 (10), 502-514
(1948).
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 23
GAS SHIELDED-ARC WELDING
Definition and General Description 23.2

Principles of Operation-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.3
Major Process Variables-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.5
Electrodes-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.10
Shielding Gases-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.11
Applications-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.14
Equipment-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.22
Base Metals-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding 23.26
Principles of Operation-Gas Metal-Arc Welding 23.27
Major Process Variables-Gas Metal-Arc Welding 23.29
Applications-Gas Metal-Arc Welding 23.48
Equipment-Gas Metal-Arc Welding 23.57
Base Metals-Gas Metal-Arc Welding 23.60
Safety 23.61
Bibliography 23.62
G. R. ROTHSCHILD F. G. HARKINS
Airco Welding Products Div. Solar Division
Air Reduction Co., Inc. International Harvester Co.
Chairman R. E. MONROE
A. J. DEARING Battelle Memorial Institute
A. 0. Smith Corp. B. C. MOTL
P. B. DICKERSON Harnischfeger Corp.
Alcoa Process Development Lab. R. T. TELFORD
Aluminum Company of America Linde Div., Union Carbide Corp.
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 23
GAS SHIELDED-ARC WELDING

IN GAS SHIELDED-ARC WELDING, coalescence is produced under the shield of a
protective gas by the heat of an electric arc maintained between the end of a
metal electrode, either consumable or nonconsumable, and the part to be welded.
The shielding gas may or may not be inert; pressure may or may not be used;
and filler metal may or may not be added.
There are two different types of gas shielded-arc welding process. One is
termed gas tungsten-arc welding, and employs a nonconsumable tungsten elec-
trode. The other is termed gas metal-arc welding. It employs a continuously fed
electrode which melts in the intense arc heat and is deposited as weld metal.
Throughout this chapter the two variations of the gas shielded-arc welding
process will be referred to as gas tungsten-arc welding and gas metal-arc welding.
The official A WS definition of each follows.
Gas tungsten-arc welding is an arc welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by heating with an arc between a single tungsten (nonconsumable)
electrode and the work.* Shielding is obtained from a gas or gas mixture.
Pressure may or may not be used and filler metal may or may not be added.
The basic features of the equipment that is used for the process are shown in
Fig. 23.1.
Gas metal-arc welding is an arc welding process wherein coalescense is pro-
duced by heating with an arc between a continuous filler metal (consumable)
electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained entirely from an externally supplied
gas, or gas mixture. The basic features of the equipment that is used for this
system are shown in Fig. 23.2.
• Most gas tungsten-arc welding Is done with a single electroae. However, multiple electrodes
are sometimes used.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding/ 23.3
NOTE: SOMETIMES A WATER

CIRCULATOR IS USED.
GAS
SUPPLY
Fig. 23.1.-Schematic diagram of gas tungsten-arc equipment
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION-
GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING*
The necessary heat for gas tungsten-arc welding is produced by an electric

arc maintained between a nonconsumable electrode and the part to be welded.
The electrode used for carrying the current is a tungsten or tungsten alloy rod.
The heated weld zone, the molten metal and the nonconsumable electrode are
shielded from the atmosphere by a blanket of inert gas fed through the electrode
holder. A weld is made by applying the arc heat so that the abutting edges of
the workpieces are melted and joined together as the weld metal solidifies. The
process may be applied manually or automatically for melting and joining the
edges of parts. It also may be used for adding metal to surfaces (build-up and
hard surfacing) and for spot welding.
An electric arc is produced by the passage of current through an ionized gas.
In this welding process the inert-gas atoms are ionized. They lose electrons and
are left with a positive charge. The positive gas ions flow from the positive to
the negative pole of the arc. The electrons travel from the negative to the posi-
tive pole. The power expended in an arc, expressed in electrical units, is the
product of the current passing through the arc and the voltage drop across the
arc. The voltage drop across the arc is distributed in a manner shown in Chapter
3, Physics of Welding, of Section 1 of the 6th edition of the Handbook.
Before welding is begun, it is necessary to clean the surfaces that are to be
welded. All oil, grease, paint, rust, dirt or other contaminants should he removed.
• Also known as TIG (tungsten inert gas) welding.
23.4 /Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
NOTE: SOMETIMES A WATER

CIRCULATOR IS USED.
GAS
WIRE DRIVE
MAY BE LOCAWJD SUPPLY
IN WELDING
HANDLE OR A
WIRE REEL
WIRE
DRIVE
Fig. 23.2.-Schematic diagram of gas metal-arc equipment
This may be accomplished by mechanical means or by the use of vapor or liquid

cleaners.
Striking the arc may be accomplished in the following ways: ( 1) by touch-
ing the electrode to the work momentarily and quickly withdrawing it a short
distance, (2) by means of an apparatus that will cause a spark to jump from
the electrode to the work or ( 3) by means of apparatus that initiates and main-
tains a small pilot arc, which provides an ionized path for the main arc. The
high-frequency arc stabilizers, which may be required when alternating current
is used, provide for the second type of arc starting. Such devices are not required
or normally used when manually welding with direct current, and it is generally
only necessary to touch the electrode to the work to start the arc.
For manual welding, once the arc is started, the electrode holder (torch) is
held with the electrode positioned at an angle of about 75° to the surface of
the weld puddle. To start welding, the arc is usually moved in a small circle
until a pool of molten metal of suitable size is obtained. Once adequate fusion
is achieved at any one point, a weld is made by gradually moving the electrode
along the parts to be welded so as to progressively melt the adjoining edges.
Solidification of the molten metal follows progression of the arc along the joint
and completes the welding cycle.
Welding is stopped either by quickly withdrawing the electrode from the
workpiece or by shutting off the current. The former system is used often when
d-e power is employed. The latter is more common with a-c welding, chiefly
because the high-frequency oscillators that are normally used with alternating
current usually require on-off switching for control of the high-frequency spark.
Foot controls for current as well as for on-off switching are used for high-
quality welding, both a-c and d-e, especially in the aerospace industry.
The metal thickness and joint design determine whether or not filler metal
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding I 23.5
----
DIRECTION OF
WELDING
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A. DEVELOP THE PUDDLE
~
W##//#/$1#&
r==
B. MOllE TORCH BACK D. REMOVE ROO
W///#dff/~
E. MOllE TORCH TO LEADING
C. ADO FILLER METAL EDGE OF PUDDLE
Fig. 23.3.-In gas tungsten-arc welding, filler metal is fed manually in a manner
similar to that used in oxyacetylene welding
need be added to the joints. When filler metal is added for manual welding, it
is applied by manually feeding the filler rod into the pool of molten metal in
the arc region in much the same manner as the filler rod is added in oxyacetylene
welding. One of the most frequently used techniques for feeding filler rod is
illustrated in Fig. 23.3. When filler wire is required in automatic welding, it is
fed mechanically through a guide into the weld region in a similar manner.
The filler rod is usually held at an angle of about 15° to the surface of the
work and slowly fed into the weld puddle. During welding, the filler rod must
not be removed from the protection of the inert gas shield. Another method is
to press the filler rod in line with the weld and melt it along with the joint
edges. This method is used often in multiple pass welding of Vee joints. Still
another method, used frequently in weld surfacing and when making large
welds, is to feed filler metal continuously into the weld puddle by oscillating
the filler rod and arc from side to side. The filler rod moves in one direction
while the arc moves in the opposite direction, but the filler rod is at all times
near the arc and feeding into the weld puddle.
The joints that may be welded by this process include all the standard types,
such as square-groove and Vee-groove joints, tee joints and lap joints. As a
rule, it is not necessary to bevel the edges of metal that is 1j8 in. or less in
thickness. Heavier metal is usually beveled, in which case filler metal is always
added.
MAJOR PROCESS VARIABLES

Electrical
Of the many process variables that affect gas tungsten-arc welding, those with
a particularly strong effect on the process are the electrical variables of current,
23.6/ Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
....- I. 16 IN. DIA ElEnROOE WElDING

GENERATOR
Fig. 23.4.-Electron and gas-ion flow with electrodes connected to positive and nega-
tive terminals of the power source
voltage and power-source characteristics. Besides their obvious relation to the

amount, distribution and control of arc-produced heat, they also play a role in
arc stability and in the removal of refractory oxide from metal surfaces. They
interact with one another and are affected by the other process variables that are
discussed elsewhere in this chapter. Their interaction upon one another is in
large measure determined by the nature of the arc which is described in Chapter
3, Physics of Welding, in Section 1 of the Handbook.
Steady Direct Current.-Two electrical connections can be used for steady
direct current. The tungsten electrode may be connected to either the negative
or the positive terminal of the power source. The electrically charged particles
in the arc flow in the direction shown in Fig. 23.4. As indicated in this figure,
a positive electrode must have a larger diameter than a negative electrode for
the same current.
The negatively connected electrode (straight polarity) can be used with argon
or a mixture of helium and argon to weld all metals except aluminum, magne-
sium and their alloys. A refractory oxide on the surfaces of these metals hinders
fusion. To weld them with direct current in a shield of argon or an argon-helium
mixture, a positive electrode (reverse polarity) must be used. With this connec-
tion, the oxide film is removed from the metal surface. The current-carrying
capacity of a positive electrode is low (see Table 23 .1), and therefore, reverse
polarity current is seldom used, except with sheet metal. Adequate fusion of
aluminum and its alloys can be obtained with a negative electrode and a very
short arc length if pure helium is used. This technique is used almost exclusively
in machine welding.
Pulsed Direct Current.-Pulsed direct current with a negative electrode has
been used to weld pipe automatically. When the current is pulsed, a circum-
ferential weld in pipe can be made in the horizontal fixed position with the
same average current and voltage at all points around the pipe except at the
beginning and end. Without pulsing, the welding conditions would have to be
adjusted as the arc moved from the flat position through the vertical to the
overhead position. This type of current also may prove to have advantages in
reducing distortion and bridging gaps, but data available at the time of publica-
tion were insufficient to establish beyond doubt the existence of these advan-
tages. The pulsing takes place at a rate of several pulses per second.
Alternating Current.-By the use of alternating current, the advantage of a
positive electrode can be gained without the limitation on current that is en-
countered with a positive electrode in d-e welding. This advantage is offset to
some extent by the need to provide means for the maintenance of a stable arc.
Arc current can flow more readily in one direction than the other because
greater energy must be expended to extract the necessary electrons from the
welded metals than from the tungsten electrode. The tungsten emits electrons
more readily because it attains a much higher temperature than the metal being
Table 23.1-Recommended current ranges for tungsten and thoriated tungsten electrodes
Electrode Electrode Unbalanced Wave Balanced Wave

Negative Positive Alternating Current Alternating Current
Direct Current Direct Current
Electrode
Diameter Pure Tungsten Pure Tungsten
(in.) and Thoriated and Thoriated Pure Thoriated Striped Pure Thoriated Striped
Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten Tungsten
-------- ------
0.010 ........ .. '5~1·5·. . . ·5~2·0 . ······ ..
0.020 5~20 ........ 1Q-20 5~20 10~2·0.
0.040 15~80 10~0 15~80 1Q-80 20~30 20~0 20~0
1,J& 70~150
..10~2·0. 50~100 70~150 50~150 30~80 60~120 30~120 ~
%2 150~250 15~30 100~160 140~235 100~235 60~130 100~180 60~180
250--400 25--40 150~210 225~325 150~325 100~180 160~250 100~250
.,.,Ys 400~500 40~55 200~275 300~400 200~400 160~240 200~320 160~320
~
;:::
% 500~750 55~80 250~350 400~500 250~500 190~300 290~390 190~390
)4 750~1000 80~125 325~450 500~630 325~630 250~400 340~525 250~525 ~
I - - -- --
~ote: All values were obtained using argon as the shielding gas. Different values would be obtained if helium were used.
!
~
~
~
~·
.......
...,
w
~
23.8 I Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
welded. With a conventional transformer of the type used for shielded metal-
arc welding, the difference in resistance to current flow tends to produce un-
balanced current flow. The current amplitude during the half cycle when the
electrode is negative is greater than the amplitude during the half cycle when
the electrode is positive. Rectification of the current, which is a complete absence
of the half cycle during which the tungsten electrode is positive, also may occur.
To obtain balanced current flow, either series-connected capacitors or a d-e
voltage can be inserted in the welding circuit. The insertion of a d-e voltage
also could be used to increase the amplitude of the half cycle of current with
a positive electrode, but such an increase would reduce the current-carrying
capacity of the electrode. Although desirable for some applications, balanced
current flow is not essential for most manual welding operations. It is, however,
desirable for high-speed mechanized welding.
The advantages of balanced current flow are:
1. Better oxide-cleaning action is obtained;
2. Smoother, better welding action is obtained;
3. The reduction in the output rating of a given size of conventional welding
transformer is avoided because the unbalanced core magnetization that
is produced by the d-e component of an unbalanced current flow is
eliminated.
The disadvantages of balanced current flow are:
1. Larger electrodes are required;
2. The higher open-circuit voltages that are generally associated with some
wave-balancing means may constitute a safety hazard;
3. Wave-balancing systems cost more than conventional systems.
To avoid rectification, the open-circuit voltage of the transformer can be
increased. The necessary voltage also can be obtained by adding, in series with
the transformer's secondary voltage, a large high-frequency voltage. An open-
circuit voltage of about 100 volts root mean square (rms) appears to be suffi-
cient for argon, whereas approximately 150 volts rms is needed for helium.
The high-frequency voltage is generally on the order of several thousands volts,
and its frequency can be as high as several megacycles. The high-frequency volt-
age may be applied continuously or periodically. In the latter case, a burst of high-
frequency voltage is set to occur during the time when the welding current passes
through zero. The voltage is high so that it may be used for arc initiation without
touching the electrode to the work. Instead of a short burst of high-frequency
voltage at zero current, a single, accurately placed pulse of voltage may be used.
The various situations that are encountered in maintaining a stable a-c arc
are summarized in Fig. 23 .5 .,
Power-Source Characteristics.-The power-source in both d-e and a-c gas
tungsten-arc welding is of the drooping-voltage type. As the current increases,
the voltage at the terminals decreases. The slope of the volt-ampere output
curve can vary so that either the current remains relatively constant or changes
significantly as the arc length is changed. Power sources that produce either a
constant or rising voltage as the current increases are not used in gas tungsten-
arc welding. Accidental long-time contact between the electrode and work could
result in sufficient short-circuit current to damage such a power source.
A volt-ampere curve of a power source indicates the possible voltage-current
D.C. VOLTAGE
+
·vv vvv
BUT NO POSITIVE
HALF CYCLE ARC
1\ f\, -.--~---.-- C\
VOLTAGE
CURRENT
CURRENT
+ (\ I~ (\ (\ (\
~ \IVVV\J' CURRENT
VOLTAGE
Fig. 23.5.-Voltage and current waves for a-c welding: top-rectification; center-un-
balanced wave; bottom-balanced wave
combinations that can be supplied to a steady-state load by the source at a

given setting. The instantaneous relation of voltage and current as the load
changes rapidly from one steady state to another is not indicated by such a
curve.
The relation of the power-source characteristic to the operating conditions of
the arc is seen in Fig. 23.6 (p. 23.10): superimposed on power-source volt-
ampere curves for two different settings are two volt-ampere curves that represent
steady-state load conditions for two different arc lengths. The shapes of the
curves are typical for gas tungsten-arc welding. The exact position of such a
curve is a function of arc length and composition of the shielding gas. The
voltages for such curves are normally measured between ground and a point on
the welding equipment for both single-operator and multiple-operator sources
instead of directly across the arc.
For an arc length Ll and a power-source setting 2, the welding voltage and
current are shown by the intersection, A, of the power source and the arc-
length curves. If the arc length is increased slowly from Ll to L2 without
changing the power-source setting, the operating conditions during the change
will follow the power-source curve to point B, which shows the new welding
voltage and current for the increased arc length. If the increase is rapid, the
path of operating conditions may very well be like curve X. Since the power
23.10 / Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
w POWER SOURCE
en
<(
w
a::
u
z
w
\!)
<( L1
1-
-'
0
>
\!)
z
0
-'
w
:s:
L 1 AND L2 ARE ARC LENGTHS
WITH L2>L1
CURRENT ~INCREASE
Fig. 23.6.-Relation of power-source characteristics to operating conditions of arc
source has a substantial amount of reactance, the current tends to remain

constant at the first instant of change. If the power-source setting is then
changed from 2 to 1 (to achieve a lower current) while the arc length is held
constant, the operating conditions will change from B to C.
ELECTRODES
Types
Electrodes for gas tungsten-arc welding are of four types: tungsten, tungsten
with 1 or 2% thorium, tungsten with 0.3 to 0.5% zirconium and striped elec-
trodes with a longitudinal strip of tungsten with 2% thorium on pure tungsten.
The four types of tungsten electrodes are commonly available in a variety of
diameters (0.010 to 0.250 in.) and lengths (3 to 24 in.) with either clean or
ground finish. Clean finish refers to chemical cleaning of surface impurities
after the drawing or swaging operation. Ground finish refers to removal of
surface imperfections by grinding. Specifications for tungsten-arc welding elec-
trodes are given in AWS specification A5.12, "Tungsten-Arc Welding Elec-
trodes."
Tungsten electrodes of 99.5% purity are less expensive and are generally
used on less critical operations than tungsten electrodes that are alloyed with
thorium or zirconium. A pure tungsten electrode has a relatively low current-
carrying capacity and a low resistance to contamination.
Tungsten electrodes with 1 or 2% thorium are superior to pure tungsten
electrodes in several respects. They have higher electron emissivity, better
current-carrying capacity, longer life and greater resistance to contamination.
With these electrodes, arc starting is easier, and the arc is more stable.
Tungsten electrodes with 0.3 to 0.5% zirconium have properties that gen-
erally fall between those of pure and thorium-containing (thoriated) tungsten.

However, there is some indication of better performance in certain types of
welding with alternating current. Striped electrodes, when used for a-c welding,
combine the desirable stability characteristics of pure tungsten with the capacity
and starting characteristics of thoriated tungsten.
Current-Carrying Capacity
The current-carrying capacity of all types of tungsten electrodes is affected
by the type of electrode holder, the extension of the electrode from the holder,
the position of welding, the shielding gas and the type of welding current.
Approximate current ranges for electrodes were given in Table 23.1. Since the
maximum current capacity of an electrode depends on a large number of fac-
tors, the recommended ranges should be used only as a guide.
Since two thirds of the heat energy is generated at the anode and one third
at the cathode, an electrode can carry much higher current without overheating
when it is negative (straight polarity) than when it is positive (reverse polarity).
Similarly, the d-e capacity of an electrode when it is negative is greater than
its a-c capacity, and the a-c capacity with a balanced wave is less than it is
with an unbalanced wave. Electrodes with diameters of less than 0.045 in. are
not generally recommended for use as anodes because of their very low current-
carrying capacity.
The d-e capacity of a negative electrode is not increased as much as might
be expected by the addition of thorium or zirconium, even though the addition
of these elements increases electron emission and reduces the temperature of
the electrode tip; the reason is that the capacity is limited by the ability of the
electrode to withstand electrical-resistance heating. At excessive currents, the
electrode overheats, melts and fails generally about halfway between its tip
and the collet that grips it. Alloyed tungsten electrodes are selected therefore
over pure tungsten electrodes more for good arc-starting characteristics and
contamination resistance than for any great gain in current-carrying capacity.
Shape
With a-c welding, a molten hemisphere forms at the tip of a pure tungsten
electrode at its minimum usable current, and does not become perceptibly
larger as the current is increased up to the capacity of the electrode. Thereafter,
it increases in size as it forms a droplet. The molten hemisphere tip is most
desirable for welding.
The thoriated-tungsten electrodes do not ball so readily and, therefore, cannot
be used for low currents without a tapered point. With their greater current-
carrying capacity, they can be operated readily with a point or taper for more
reliable arc starting with high-frequency ignition, and for a more stable arc.
The degree of taper affects weld penetration.
Striped electrodes form a ball almost as well as pure tungsten; they thus
combine the balling and stability characteristics of pure tungsten with the cur-
rent capacity and starting characteristics of thoriated tungsten.
SHIELDING GASES
General
The inert gases, argon and helium, are used for gas tungsten-arc welding.
Neon, xenon and krypton, the other inert gases, are not employed for welding
because of their scarcity and relatively high cost. Of the reactive gases, only
hydrogen and nitrogen have found limited use. Hydrogen is added to argon
or helium in small quantities for mechanized welding of thin stainless steel. In
Europe, nitrogen is added to argon for the joining of copper and copper alloys.
Argon
Argon is a heavy monatomic gas with an atomic weight of 40. It is obtained
from the atmosphere by liquefaction of air. After argon is refined to purities
on the order of 99.996%, it may be stored and transported as a liquid at
temperatures below - 300°F ( -184 °C). Depending on the volume of use,
argon may be supplied as a liquid or as a compressed gas. Because of the eco-
nomics of liquid distribution, bulk argon can be purchased at much lower
prices than cylinder argon.
Argon is used more extensively than helium because of the foltowing advan-
tages:
1. Smoother, quieter arc action;
2. Lower arc voltage at any given current value and arc length;
, 3. Greater cleaning action in the welding of such materials as aluminum
and magnesium with alternating currrent;
4. Lower cost and greater availability (in Europe there is virtually no helium
available) ;
5. Lower flow rates for good shielding;
6. Better cross-draft resistance;
7. Easier arc starting.
The lower arc voltage characteristic of argon is particularly helpful in the
manual welding of thin material because the tendency to burn-through is
lessened. This same characteristic is advantageous in vertical or overhead weld-
ing since the tendency for the metal to sag or run is decreased.
Helium
Helium is the lightest monatomic gas, with an atomic weight of four. It is
separated from natural gas. Welding-grade helium is refined to a purity of at
least 99.99 percent. Although some helium is distributed as a liquid, it is more
commonly transported in cylinders as a stored gas at high pressure. Special
railroad cars and trailers are also used for gaseous helium.
Because of its greater thermal conductivity, helium exhibits higher arc volt-
ages and energy inputs than argon. Consequently, the greater power of the
helium arc can be advantageous in the joining of metals of high conductivity,
and in high-speed mechanized applications. Accordingly, helium is used more
often than argon for welding heavy plate. Mixtures of argon and helium are
useful when some balance between the characteristics of both is desired.
Selection of Shielding Gas
No inflexible rule governs the choice of gas for any particular application.
Either argon or helium may be used successfully for most applications with
the possible exception of the manual welding of extremely thin material, for
which argon is essential. Argon generally provides an arc that operates more
smoothly and quietly, is handled more easily, and is less penetrating than the
arc obtained by the use of helium. In addition, the lower cost per cubic foot
and the lower flow rate requirements of .argon make argon preferable from an
economic point of view. For these reasons, argon is usually preferred for most
applications, except where the higher heat and penetration characteristics of
helium are required for welding thick sections of high heat conductivity ma-
terials, such as aluminum or copper. A guide to the selection of gases is provided
by Table 23.2.
Table 23.2-Selection of gases for gas tungsten-arc welding

-
Type of Welding
Metal Process Shielding Gas Advantages
---·-,~---
Aluminum and Manual continuous Argon Better arc starting and cleaning action;
its Alloys lower gas consumption.
Helium High welding speeds possible.
Machine continuous Argon-Helium Lower gas flow than required with
straight helium,
Magnesium and Less than '>16 in. Argon Controlled penetration; excellent clean-
its Alloys Greater than '>16 in. ing; ease of puddle manipulation; low
gas flow.
Helium Good penetration; best for d-e welding.
Carbon Steel Manual continuous Argon Ease of manipulation; freedom from over-
heating; better puddle control, espe-
dally for position welding.
Machine continuous Argon-Helium Helium addition improves penetration on
heavy-gage metal; preference depends
on joint preparation.
Spot Argon Generally preferred for longer electrode
life, better weld nugget contour, ease
of starting, lower gas flow.
Austenitic Manual continuous Argon Permits controlled penetration on thin-
Chromium- gage material (up to 15 gage).
Nickel
Stainless Argon-Helium Higher heat input and welding speeds
Steel possible on heavier gages.
Machine continuous Argon-Hydrogen Prevents undercutting; produces de-
(35% H2 max) sirable weld contour at low current
levels; requires lower gas flows.
Helium Provides highest heat input and deepest
penetration.
Copper, Nickel Argon Ease of obtaining puddle control, pene-
and their tration and bead contour on thin-gage
Alloys metal.
Argon-Helium Higher heat input to offset high heat con-
ductivity of heavier gages.
Helium Highest heat inpnt for high welding speed
on heavy metal section.
------- ~------~----·- --·
Titanium and Argon Low gas flow rate minimizes turbulence
its Alloys and air contamination of weld.
Helium Better penetration for welding of thick
sections (inert-gas backing required to
shield back of weld against contamina-
tion).
FILLER METALS
Filler metals for joining a wide variety of metals and alloys are available for
use with gas tungsten-arc welding. The filler metals are most often similar,
although not necessarily identical, to the metal that is being joined. They are
frequently modified by deoxidizers to ensure weld soundness. Sometimes, as
in the case of joining dissimilar metals, the filler metals can be completely
different. The choice for any application is a compromise involving such factors
as metallurgical compatibility, suitability for the intended operation and cost.

The tensile and impact properties, corrosion resistance and electrical or thermal
conductivities that are required in a particular weldment also must be con-
sidered. Thus the alloy to be welded and the intended service generally determine
the filler metal. The reader is referred to Section 4 of the Handbook, Metals and
Their Weldability, for detailed discussions of metals, weldability and filler
metal selection. Table 23.3 (pp. 23.16-23.17) lists recommended filler metals
for gas shielded-arc welding. The recommendations on type of electrode are
applicable to the selection of filler metal for gas tungsten-arc welding and gas
metal-arc welding alike. Other information refers to only one process.
Filler metals for gas tungsten-arc welding are available in most alloys in the
form of straight and cut lengths, usually 36 in. long, for manual welding; or
spooled continuous wire for mechanized welding. The .filler-metal diameter
ranges from about 0.030 in. for fine and delicate work to about 3/16 in. for
high-current manual welding or surfacing.
APPLICATIONS
General
Gas tungsten-arc welding, both continuous and spot, can be done manually,
automatically or by machine. In each type of application, several operating
variables must be adjusted correctly to obtain the desired level of weld quality
and economy. In this section, these adjustments are discussed in connection
with the process application. Additional details and information regarding pro-
cedures, techniques and selection of filler metals appear in Sections 4 and 5.
Electrode Holder, Nozzle and Electrode

The electrode holder in gas tungsten-arc welding must have sufficient welding
current capacity to prevent overheating. Collets must be available to accom-
modate the correct sizes of tungsten electrodes. Each diameter and type of
tungsten electrode has a recommended welding-current range (see Table 23.1).
The nozzles of an electrode holder are made from various heat-resistant ma-
terials in different diameters, shapes and lengths. Length and shape are selected
on the basis of joint accessibility and the required clearance between the nozzle
and the work. The nozzle should be large enough to provide complete inert-gas
coverage of the molten weld metal.
Power Source and Welding Current

The power source is chosen to provide the type of welding current that is
needed for the metal under consideration. The welding current may be alternat-
ing current, electrode-negative direct current (straight polarity) or electrode-
positive direct current (reverse polarity). The magnitude of the welding current
is adjusted to provide the desired amount of heat.
Alternating current is usually preferred for the manual gas tungsten-arc
welding of magnesium, aluminum and their alloys, because of the cleaning
action (oxide removal) that takes place in the electrode-positive half cycle of
the alternating current. Power sources have been designed to produce a
balanced-wave alternating current (half cycles of equal magnitude) for the
welding of aluminum and its alloys; the balanced wave increases the cleaning
action.
High-frequency current is supplied to establish and maintain the arc for
unbalanced-wave power sources. Balanced-wave power sources usually employ
the high-frequency current only for starting; it may be automatically shut off
afterward.
Electrode-negative direct current (straight polarity), thoriated-tungsten elec-
trodes and helium gas are used for welding thick sections of aluminum alloys.
Large nozzle diameter and high rate of helium flow are required for this
application.
The use of electrode-positive direct current (reverse polarity), which pro-
vides good cleaning action, is limited to welding magnesium and aluminum and
their alloys less than 0.125 in. thick. The largest practical size of tungsten
electrode melts at currents that are needed for thicker metal.
Austenitic chromium-nickel stainless steels, copper and copper alloys are
readily fabricated with electrode-negative direct current.
Straight chromium steels are generally fusion welded with electrode-negative
direct current. Alternating current is considered unstable, and large diameter
electrodes must be used to withstand the heating effect of alternating current.
The addition of filler metal helps to alleviate the formation of porosity in the
straight chromium steels.
Shielding Gas
High-purity argon, helium or mixtures of them are used for shielding. Al-
though primarily used to shield the electrode and the face of the weld, they are
used often to protect the other weld surface. Addition of oxygen or carbon
dioxide to either the primary shielding or weld backup gas is not recommended
for gas tungsten-arc welding.
The choice of shielding gas and the volume used depend mainly on the nature
of the metal that is joined and its mass.
Nitrogen occasionally is used as a weld backup gas for the welding of Type
300 stainless steels. It is not recommended for this purpose when optimum
mechanical and metallurgical properties are required.
Argon is generally the preferred gas for a wide variety of metals and welding
conditions, because it is less sensitive to operator variations and techniques.
On thin sheet, argon produces smaller welds than helium or helium-argon
mixtures under identical conditions of current and arc length.
Filler Metals
General.-Filler metals must be carefully selected to assure that they are
acceptable for gas tungsten-arc welding and have the desired mechanical prop-
erties in the finished weld. The choice is one of composition and diameter. For
machine and automatic welding, spooled or coiled wire, either preheated or at
room temperature, may be fed into the molten pool. Rods of limited length
(typically 36 in.) are preferred for manual welding.
Extra care must be exercised to keep the filler metals clean and free of all
contamination in storage as well as in use. The hot end of the wire or rod should
not be removed from the protection of the shield during the welding operation.
Cold Wire.-In machine or automatic gas tungsten-arc welding with a wire
at room temperature (cold wire), the wire is mechanically fed into the leading
edge of the molten pool of weld metal. The cold wire is melted by the radiant
,.,
!-1
0.
Table 23.3-Generally recommended filler metals for the gas shielded-art welding of various base metals
-"
I Electrode Specifications
~
Vl
Base
i I Electrode I Current
I ::::-
Metal Specific Alloy Type of Diameter* Ranges* 1\:"
Type to be Welded Electrode (In.) (Amperes) AWS ASTM Military
I I
I
Aluminum 1100 1100 or 4043 0.030 50-175 A-5.10-61 i B-285-61 M!L-E-16053*
and its 3003,3004 I 1100 or 5356 .,.. 9D-250 ~
Alloys 5052 5554 or 5356 Uo 16D-350 I
5454 5554 or 5356 225--400
~
'Al i
5083' 5084' 5456 5183, 5556 or 5356 Ys 35D-475
6061 4043 or 5356
Magnesium AZlOA AZ61A, AZ92A 0.040 18D-260 A-5.19-66 B-448-66 l\Hl,-W-6944 ~
Alloys AZ31B, AZ61A, AZ61A, AZ92A 0.045 22D-280 ~-
AZ80A
ZElOA AZ61A, AZ92A Uo 24Q-390
ZK21A AZ61A, AZ92A 'A> 33D-420
AZ63A, AZ81A, AZ92A
AZ91C, AZ92A,
AM100A
HK31A EZ33A
HM21A EZ33A
HM31A EZ33A
LA141A LA141A; EZ33A
-------
Copper Deoxidized copper Deoxidized copper l,.Je 300-470 A-5.i-66t B-259-66t MIL-R-19631 t
Silicon-G.25%
Tin-Q.75%
Manganese-0.15%
Copper- Cu-Ni alloy Titanium: l,.Je 250-300 A5.i-66t B-259-66t MIL-R-19631 t
Nickel Deoxidized
Alloy 7D-30 7Q-30 Cu-Ni
9Q-10 7Q-30 or 90-10
I
---------···- -·· - -
•Applicable only to gas metal-arc welding.

tApplicable only to gas tungsten-arc welding.
Table 23.3 (continued)
Electrode Specifications
Base Electrode Current
Metal Specific Alloy Type of Diameter Ranges i I
Type to be Welded Electrode (In.) (Amperes) AWS 1 ASTM Military
Bronzes Manganese bronze Aluminum bronze I,{, 225-300 A-5.7-66t ' B-259-66t -~~=-R-=~~~---
Aluminum bronze Aluminum bronze ~ 275-350 I
Nickel-aluminum Aluminum bronze
bronze '
Tin bronze Phosphor bronze I
Nickel Nickel Similar to base 0.035 100-150 A-5.1.1-64 B-304-64 MlL·-E-21562
and Nickel-copper metal, titanium 0.045 15Q-260
Nickel (Monel) deoxidized (see 1M 100-400
Alloys Nickel-chromium supplier)
iron (Inconel)
------+---------l---------1--------l------l------l------ -------
Carbon Steels Hot- or cold-rolled Deoxidized carbon 0.030 5Q-160 A-5.18-65• A-559-65• MIL-E-23765/1
sheet or plate. manganese 0.035 75-250
ASTM A7. A36 steel 0.045 lOQ-350 ~
A285, A373 or 1,{6 30o-450
equivalent %< 35Q-500 ~
Low-alloy Hot- or cold-rolled Deoxidized low- 0.030 50-160 MIL-E-23765/2 ~
Steels sheet or plate alloy steel 0.035 75-250 MIL-E-19822*
of various grades 0.045 lOQ-350 ~
1M 30o-450
;::
Stainless Steels 302, 304 Electrode to 0.030 75-150 A-5.9-62 A-371--{)2 MIL-E-19933
~
321, 347 match base 0.035 100-160 ~
309, 310 alloy 0.045 14Q-310
! _3_1~t~ _ I,{, 2so-350 ~
~
!S:
•Applicable only to gas metal-arc welding. s~
tApplicable only to gas tungsten-arc welding. ()()
.........
1-)
!ol
-...
heat from the tungsten and the arc, and by heat transmitted from the molten
weld pool.
Hot Wire.-When using a preheated wire (hot wire) in machine or auto-
matic gas tungsten-arc welding in the flat position, the wire is fed mechanically
to the weld pool through a holder from which argon flows to protect the wire
from oxidation. Normally a mixture of 75% helium and 25% argon gas is
used to shield the tungsten arc and the molten weld pool. The wire is electric·
resistance heated by alternating current from a constant-potential power source.
The current flow is initiated when the wire contacts the weld surface. The wire
is fed into the molten weld directly behind the tungsten arc. Deposition rate is
greater than with a cold wire and comparable to that in gas metal-arc welding.
Alternating current for heating is used to avoid arc blow. With alternating
current, the arc oscillates 30° in the longitudinal direction as long as the heat-
ing current does not exceed 60% of the arc current. The oscillation is 120°
when the currents are equal. The amplitude of arc oscillation can be controlled
by limiting the wire diameter to 0.045 in. so that the heating current need not
'exceed 60% of the arc current.
Preheated filler wire has been used successfully for the joining of 18%
nickel maraging steel, stainless steels and alloys of copper and nickel. It is not
recommended for aluminum and copper because the low resistance of these
filler wires requires high current, which results in arc blow and uneven melting.
Travel Speed
For a given current and voltage, the travel speed (usually expressed in inches
per minute) determines the amount of energy that is delivered per unit length
of weld. Changes in this energy (usually expressed in joules per inch) have a
strong effect on the shape of the weld.
Increasing the speed without changing the current reduces both the penetra-
tion and width of the weld; further reduction occurs if the current is decreased.
Decreasing the speed without changing the current increases both the penetra-
tion and width of the weld, and further increase occurs if the current is in-
creased. Simultaneous increasing or decreasing of speed and current maintain
the penetration and width of the weld.
The above rules on the direction of changes hold for all metals. The amount
of the changes in weld penetration and width for a given change in speed and
current depends on the composition and thickness of the metal being welded,
and on the joint configuration.
Position of Welding
The selection of welding position is determined by the mobility of the weld-
ment, the availability of tooling and fixtures, and the welding cost. The mini-
mum time, and therefore cost, for producing a weld is usually achieved in the
fiat position. Maximum joint penetration and deposition rate are obtained in
this position, since a large volume of molten metal can be supported; also, an
acceptably shaped reinforcement is more easily obtained in this position.
Good penetration can be achieved in the vertical-up position, but the rate of
welding is slower because of the effect of gravity on the molten weld metal.
Penetration in vertical-down welding is poor. The molten weld metal droops,
and lack of fusion occurs, unless high weld speeds tU"e USt;Q to deposit thin
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding / 23.19
layers of weld metal. The welding torch is usually pointed forward at an angle
of about 75° from the weld surface in the vertical-up and flat positions. Too
much angle causes aspiration of air into the shielding gas and consequent
oxidation of the molten weld metal.
Wind and Draft

A cross wind or draft moving at one or more miles per hour can disrupt
the shielding gas coverage. Wind-breaks or protective screens to prevent inter-
ference by the wind or draft are preferred to an increase in the flow of inert
shielding gas. A suggested rule-of-thumb for determination of the need for
protection against drafts holds that such protection is not required if smoke
from a match that is held at the electrode nozzle does not rise at an angle to
the vertical of more than 45 degrees.
Automatic or Machine Continuous Welding

The amount of automation or mechanization applied to gas tungsten-arc
welding depends on the quantity of identical welds, the accessibility, quality-
control requirements, degree of perfection that is required in the weldment
and available funding. Gas tungsten-arc welding can be controlled with various
devices that accept information about the desired values of the process variables
on punched tape or cards. In some devices, the input data is stored on a memory
drum. Less sophisticated controls that make use of cam-actuated pressure or
mechanical switches also are available.
Multiple Electrode Holders
In some applications, two holders are used either in tandem on the same
side of the weld, or in line with one another on opposite sides of the weld. In
the tandem technique, the first holder provides preheat to ease the thermal
shock on the base metal and to provide deeper penetration and higher weld
speeds. The opposed torches may be used in a similar manner with the preheat
torch approximately 3/32 in. ahead of the other. Individual power sources for
each arc are required for the best control and quality of weld. ·
Automatic Arc Oscillation

Variations in the width of the weld can be accomplished by changing the
weld speed, the welding current or both, as previously stated, by mechanical
oscillation of the electrode holder or by electromagnetic oscillation of the arc.
Frequency, magnitude and dwell time of both the mechanical and electromag-
netic methods of oscillation are adjustable to suit the individual welding
operation.
Automatic Circumferential Welding

Automated machines for circumferential welding of tubes and pipes use
either consumable inserts or mechanically fed wire to supply the weld metal.
A weld-speed programmer may be needed to compensate for the variations in
weld positions such as vertical-up, flat, vertical-down and overhead.
Pulsed Direct Current

The speed need not be changed during the circumferential traverse of a
welding head, if a pulsed welding current is used. The current is varied be-
tween adjustable high and low values.
Pulsing of the current begins at arc ignition. The magnitude of the pulse
increases gradually until it reaches the operating level. Prior to arc extinction,
the pulse magnitude decreases gradually. The periods of gradual increase and
decrease are called respectively up-slope and down-slope. Time between pulses,
time at high current level and time at low current level may be varied to suit
the individual application. The relation of current and travel speed during one
weld cycle is shown in Fig. 23.7.
w
t
"'w<t
a:
UP
SLOPE ~
-----.--- PULSED CURRENT
~
~
DOWN
SLOPE
\
\
u
~ ENVELOPE
....z
w
a:
____ 1_ __ -----... \
a:
:::>
"' \
"'
u
t
UPSLOPE
SPEED
w
"'w<t
a:
u
z
0
w
w
a..
VJ
TIME
Fig. 23.7.-Pulsed weld current wave form and weld speed program
With pulsed current, satisfactory penetration and weld-face contour can be

maintained for the welding of tubing in a fixed position. The pulsed arc agitates
the molten weld metal and thus minimizes porosity. Compared with a steady arc,
the pulsing arc increases the penetration with less heat input to the joint, but
the welding speed zone is reduced 20 to 40 percent. Nonuniform penetration
is usually caused by the use of too slow a pulse frequency. Roughness of the
weld surface on the inside of a tube or pipe may be undesirable for nuclear or
other applications of high-volume flow.
Fixtures and Tooling

Fixtures and tooling can affect the size, shape and uniformity of a weld
cross section. Care should be taken therefore in the selection of the materials
from which they are made and in the design of the contacts between the work
and the holding devices.
Stainless steels are good backing materials for argon-shielded tungsten-arc
welding with 0ne exception. When touch ~tarting is used in the welding of thin
metals, there is danger of welding the work to the edges of the groove in the
backing.
Copper is predominantly used for backing because it will not weld to thin
metals. The faster rates of weld cooling that can be obtained with it are espe-
cially useful for control of the heat from a helium-shielded arc. Rough, uneven
root penetration is usually caused by a groove that is too narrow for a uniform
quench of the weld. Materials which can be magnetized by the arc current
should not be used for fixturing in the vicinity of the welding arc in order to
avoid magnetic arc blow.
Spot Weldin~:
Gas tungsten-arc spot welding is widely used in manual, machine or auto-
matic numerical tape controlled applications. This process is quite versatile
and can be used to produce excellent quality spot welds.
Approximately 3 to 5 cubic feet per hour of welding-grade argon is used to
shield the tungsten electrode and the face of the spot weld. On materials that
require protection from air, the opposite side of the spot weld is shielded with
either argon or helium.
The high current density that is used in spot welding produces a magnetic
focusing effect on the arc plasma. This effect is stronger when the electrode tip
is tapered. If the angle at the apex of the taper is too small, molten metal will
be expelled and a crater will be retained in the weld face.
Arc length is another important variable. If it is too long, the molten weld
pool may overheat and undercut may be produced. If it is too short, the base
metal may expand enough to contact the expanding electrode. This will con-
taminate the electrode and cause erratic arc action.
Miniature wire feeders are employed for the addition of weld filler metal
during the spot welding operation. These feeders are electronically controlled
in conjunction with the spot weld programmer controls. There is a slight time
delay while the molten spot is established, then a precise amount of filler wire is
added. The filler wire is then retracted before the spot weld current starts the
downslope time. The retraction is necessary to avoid freezing the filler wire with
the spot weld metal.
The configuration of the nozzle is varied to fit the contour of the weldment.
Edge-locating devices are normally used to prevent variations in the distance
of the spot weld locations from the edge.
Penetration is controlled by adjustment of the amount of current and the
length of time it flows. A reduction in the magnitude or time of current flow
reduces the penetration and diameter of the spot weld. An increase in the time
or magnitude increases penetration and diameter of the spot weld. An increase
in the time and a decrease in the magnitude, or vice versa, causes little change
in the penetration or diameter. In some applications, multiple pulses of current
are preferred to one long sustained pulse. Variations in the shear strength,
nugget diameter and penetration of the spot weld can be minimized with an
accurate timer, an ammeter and a flowmeter, and with tungsten electrodes
that have precision-machined tips.
23.22 j Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
EQUIPMENT
Manual Continuous Welding
The required equipment for manual gas tungsten-arc welding (Fig. 23.1)
consists of ( 1) an electrode holder with gas passages and a nozzle to direct the
shielding gas around the arc and a gripping mechanism to hold a tungsten
electrode, ( 2) a supply of shielding gas, ( 3) a flowmeter and gas pressure-
reducing regulator and ( 4) a power source. If the electrode holder is water
cooled, a supply of cooling water is also required. This may come from the
plant's water supply, or a water circulator may be used.
These basic components for manual welding are normally used in conjunc-
tion with a gas flow-control valve and some means for conveniently switching
the electric power on and off at the start and_ finish of welding. The individual
components may differ considerably, however, depending upon power require-
ments, type of work and details of the design.
Various types of holders, cooled with air or water, are available to suit the
different applications. Occasionally they are fitted with gas-control valves in
the handles. All holders possess means for readily changing the electrodes and
gas nozzles. Some are adjustable, and permit the electrode angle to be changed
with respect to the handle. Collets are available with different diameters to
accommodate and fit the different sizes of electrodes. Electrode diameters and
nozzle size depend upon the amount of welding current, the electrode polarity
and the metal to be welded.
Gas-flow regulating equipment generally consists of a single- or dual-stage
pressure-reducing regulator and a gas-measuring flowmeter, both of which are
often incorporated into the same unit. Gas for shielding is supplied in cylinders,
or can be obtained in bulk tanks for high usage.
A-c or d-e power sources normally used for welding with covered electrodes
may be used with this process. Special d-e and a-c power sources that are de-
signed specifically for use in gas tungsten-arc welding are available with auto-
matic means for controlling the flow of gas and water and the start and stop
of welding. (For further details refer to Chapter 25, Arc Welding Power
Sources.)
Machine or Automatic Continuous Welding
Mechanized equipment is more complex but has the same basic components
that were shown in Fig. 23.1. Depending upon the application, various other
devices and controls, or both, may be required. These may include electronic
voltage controls for constantly checking and adjusting the holder level in order
to maintain a uniform arc length and voltage. Holder-positioning devices, seam-
tracking devices, oscillators and filler wire feeders also may be part of an
automatic installation. These are discussed in a subsequent section on auxiliaries
and accessories.
Spot Welding
Gas tungsten-arc spot welding often is done manually with a pistol-like holder
that has (1) a vented, water-cooled gas nozzle, (2) a tungsten electrode that
is concentrically positioned with respect to the nozzle, ( 3) a trigger switch for
controlling the operation (Fig. 23.8). Other shapes of gas tungsten-arc electrode
holders are available for fully automatic applications.
GAS
SUPPLY
CONTROLS
AC OR DC FOR TIMING
WELDING FLOW OF
CURRENT,
MACHINE SHIELDING
GAS
AND COOLING
WATER
GAS VENT
SPar WELD
Fig. 23.8.-Schematic diagram of setup for gas tungsten-arc spot welding
This type of welding may be done with either alternating current or electrode-
negative direct current (straight polarity). Power sources are available for both
types of power. (For further details refer to Chapter 25.) With alternating
current, arc initiation is achieved with a spark from a high-frequency generator.
When direct current is used, the holder is designed for one of the following
three starting methods: (1) high-frequency spark, (2) mechanical retract or
(3) pilot arc. A typical pilot-arc circuit is shown in Fig. 23.9 (p. 23.24).
Automatic sequencing controls are generally used for arc-spot welding because
of the relatively complex cycles. These controls automatically establish the gas
pre-arc flow, start the arc, time the arc duration and provide the proper gas
post-arc flow.
Auxiliaries and Accessories

Gas Lenses.-Gas lenses (wire screens through which the gas flows before
it exits from the gas nozzle) are available for both air-cooled and water-
cooled holders. Their use increases the effective length of the shielding gas
column beyond the nozzle by passing the gas through fine-mesh wire screens.
This results in better gas shielding, and permits electrode extensions as much
as 3/4 in. beyond the gas nozzle for increased visibility and accessibility.
Arc Starting Means.-Retract starting is used in mechanized d-e welding.
The electrode is fed down until contact is made with the work, and it is then
retracted to establish the arc.
High-frequency starting can be used with either d-e or a-c power sources
on either a manual or a mechanized application. The high-frequency gen-
erator is used to superimpose a high-frequency high voltage upon the weld-
PILOT 1\RC
POWER SUPPLY
WELDING
POWER
SUPPLY
ELECTRODE
CUP
Fig. 23.9.-Pilot-arc starting circuit
ing voltage. These generators generally consist of a spark-gap oscillator that

delivers a high-voltage output at radio frequencies. The generator output is
transferred from the spark-gap circuit to the welding circuit by means of
an air-core transformer. The high-frequency generator produces at the elec-
trode a series of closely spaced bursts of high frequency energy, which break
down the air gap between the electrode and the work. This creates an ionized
path for the current supplied to the arc by the welding power source and
permits the welder to start the arc without touching the electrode to the
work.
The addition of high-frequency energy to an a-c welding current also assists
in re-establishing the arc at points of current reversal, i.e., twice every cycle.
This phenomenon, high-frequency stabilization, finds its greatest application in
gas tungsten-arc welding of nonferrous metals.
Since radiation from the high-frequency generator may disturb radio service,
the use of this type of equipment is governed by Federal regulations. Specifically,
this type of equipment is covered by Part 18 of the Rules and Regulations of
the Federal Communications Commission. These rules are part of Volume II
of the FCC Rules and may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents,
Washington, D.C. 20402.
The gist of these rules is that equipment of this type may be operated with-
out a license if the manufacturer can give certification, based on test data, that
the equipment can meet the limitations imposed by the rules; the user must also
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding /23.25
certify that he has installed the equipment in accordance with specific instruc-
tions furnished by the manufacturer. An alternate procedure is provided for
those users in critical areas (such as near airports) where certification may be
based on actual measurements of the radiation level at the point of installation.
One important part of the regulations makes clear that, should interference
to authorized service occur, notwithstanding the existence of a radiation level
well below allowable minimums, the user must take proper steps to eliminate
such interference.
The manufacturers of high-frequency stabilized power sources can furnish
technical data to aid the customers in clearing up any troublesome interference
that may occur from the use of such equipment.
Pilot-arc starting also may be used on d-e welding apparatus. The pilot arc
is maintained between the welding electrode and an auxiliary electrode in the
holder. It is powered by a small auxiliary power source and provides conditions
for striking the welding arc in a manner analogous to the pilot light of a gas
stove. The pilot arc is generally started by a scratch technique and remains on
until turned off.
Filler Wire Feeders.-Wire feeders are used to add filler metal in gas tungsten-
arc machine welding. Either room temperature wire (cold wire) or preheated
wire (hot wire) can be fed into the molten pool of metal.
The required system for the feeding of cold wire has three components: (1) a
drive mechanism, (2) a speed control, (3) an attachment to the welding head
to introduce the wire into the molten weld-metal. The drive consists of a motor-
and-gear train to power a set of drive rolls, which push the wire. The control is
essentially a constant-speed governor which can be either a mechanical or
electronic device. The wire is usually guided from the drive mechanism to the
attachment through a flexible tube. The attachment maintains the position at
which the wire enters the weld metal and its angle relative to the electrode,
work surface and joint. In heavy-duty applications, water cooling is provided.
Wires in a range from 1/32 to 3/32 in. in diameter are fed at a constant and
smooth rate.
The equipment for a hot wire addition is similar, except that current from a
separate a-c, constant-potential power source flows through the wire before it
enters the pool of molten metal in order to raise the temperature of the wire
by electric resistance heating.
Gas Control Equipment.-A combination regulator and flowmeter is widely
used to control and measure the flow of shielding gas. High pressure in a
cylinder or cylinder manifold is reduced to a lower working pressure. The
lower-pressure gas is metered through the flowmeter and controlled by manual
adjustment of a throttle valve. The flow is indicated on the flowmeter tube
or dial.
In operations with high gas consumption, a centrally located cylinder
manifold or tank can be installed to store gas. The gas is then piped from the
storage containers to the various welding stations. In this case, the pressure
of the distribution line is regulated and individual flowmeters are mounted at
each weld station. Flowmeters are calibrated for each of the shielding gases.
When a shielding gas mixture must be used, standard proportions are com-
mercially available in cylinders. Other desired mixtures can be obtained
through the use of manually set mixers or automatic gas-ratio mixers, which
can be operated from cylinders or bulk systems.
Traversing Mechanisms.-Either the workpiece, the welding head or the

electrode holder can be moved, depending upon the size and type of work
and the preference of the user. The traversing mechanisms maintain the
position of the electrode to the seam within close limits; their speed ranges
meet the requirements for a wide range of material thicknesses; they travel
at a uniformly smooth rate without excessive vibration, and maintain preset
conditions accurately in repetitive operations.
Carriages available in various sizes can be used on tracks or directly on the
workpiece. They can be used for straight-line and contour welding, and are
also available for vertical and horizontal welding.
Side-beam carriages also are available for transporting welding heads and
allied equipment in straight-line operation. The carriage is supported on the
vertical face of a flat track. The tmck can be mounted to the side of a beam
(from which it derives its name), to construction brackets on a wall, or to
posts from the floor.
Track sections are available in incremental lengths; therefore both sys-
tems can be extended in length. The various types of carriages are fitted with
mechanical clutches so that the drive motor can be disengaged while the
head is being positioned.
Welding head manipulators are available in many sizes of booms. They
can be used for longitudinal welds and, in conjunction with a rotary weld
positioner, for circumferential seams. Rotary weld positioners also are used
for manual welding and with fixed welding-head mountings.
Oscillators.-Oscillators are mechanical or electromagnetic devices used to
impart oscillatory motion to electrode holders or the electric arc. These
are used for surfacing, vertical-up welding and other applications in which
weaving or widening the weld is beneficial. Commercially available mechanical
and electromagnetic oscillators provide motions that are uniform, harmonic
or in combinations with dwell, as required.
Foot Control.-Switches for foot control of current for manual gas tungsten-
arc welding are used to start the current flow, vary it as required during weld-
ing, and decay the current 'at the end of the weld. An on/ off switch for
starting and stopping the high-frequency current may be included in the foot
control.
Welding Cables.-For advice on selection of welding and ground cables,
refer to the section on shielded metal-arc welding.
BASE METALS
An arc from a tungsten electrode in an atmosphere of inert gas provides
an intense source of heat that is very clean and operates very quietly. The
inert gases most frequently used for shielding provide an almost ideal environ-
ment in which to melt most metals for either welding, refining or casting.
For these reasons the gas tungsten-arc welding process is admirably adapted
for welding a wide range of materials. These include almost all metals or alloys
that can be fused by the electric arc, that do not vaporize under the heat of an
arc and that can be welded without cracking.
Among the materials readily weldable by this process are most grades of
carbon, alloy or stainless steels, aluminum and most of its alloys, magnesium
and its alloys~ copper, copper-nickel, phosphor-bronze, tin bronzes of various
Gas Metal-Arc Welding/ 23.27
types, brasses, nickel, nickel-copper (Monel alloy), nickel-chromium-iron

(Inconel alloy), high-temperature alloys of various types, virtually all the hard-
surfacing alloys, titanium, zirconium, gold, silver and many others.
The process is especially adapted for welding light-gage work requiring the
utmost in quality or finish because of the precise heat control possible, and the
ability to weld with or without filler metal. It is one of the few processes per-
mitting the rapid, satisfactory welding of such tiny or light-walled objects as
transistor cases, instrument diaphragms and delicate expansion bellows.
Although the gas from the electrode holder adequately shields the top side
of the base metal, it gives no protection to the lower or penetration side. Espe-
cially in thin gages, the underside of the joint can become hot enough to oxidize
and produce a rough penetration bead. In many applications this is not impor-
tant, but for the highest quality work some backside protection is needed if a
smooth penetmtion bead and uncontaminated base metal are required. This
protection can consist of an inert-gas blanket, possibly concentrated by a
funnel-like device directly under the weld, or by a metal back-up fixture, with
or without inert-gas purging. Stainless steel and the super alloys benefit greatly
by this protection. The more reactive metals such as titanium, zirconium, tanta-
lum and columbium, of course, require nearly perfect inert-gas protection on
the backside. If they are not protected they will probably be ruined by embrit-
tlement from contamination.
The inert gases usually used for shielding the arc are relatively expensive as
compared to oxygen or acetylene used with gas welding, the average cost in
cylinders being about 5 cents per cubic foot and the average flow rate through
an electrode holder being 10 to 15 cubic feet per hour. The speed of the process
is reduced when filler metal is required to fill joints, as is usual in welding the
heavier gages of material. For these reasons the gas tungsten-arc welding proc-
ess is generally not commercially competitive with other processes for welding
the heavier gages of metal that can be readily welded by the shielded metal-arc,
submerged arc or gas metal-arc welding processes.
GAS METAL-ARC WELDING*
Gas metal-arc welding is an arc-welding process wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by heating with an arc between a continuous filler metal (consumable)
electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained entirely from an externally sup-
plied gas or gas mixture. The shielding gas protects the fluid weld metal from
oxidation or contamination by the surrounding atmosphere. The basic features
of the equipment that is used for this process were shown in Fig. 23.2.
When gas metal-arc welding was first developed, it was considered to be
fundamentally a high current density, small diameter filler wire (0.045 to 3/32
in. diameter) process involving the use of an inert gas for arc shielding. Since
then, developments have been made in connection with certain details asso-
ciated with application of the process. These include operation at lower current
density by transferring metal only during short circuit, or by using a pulsed
direct current, use of reactive as well as inert gases, and application of arc
stabilizing films or coatings to certain types of filler wires,
' Also known as MIG weldina.
Fig. 23.10 -Argon-shielded arc showing fine spray-type transfer and tapering of
electrode wire using high current density with reverse polarity
With inert-gas shielding, high density of continuous direct current, reverse

polarity (electrode positive) and aluminum filler wire, as originally utilized
for gas metal-arc welding, the arc tends to be quiet and stable. At the same
time, the metal transfer tends to be in the form of a very fine spray of tiny
metal droplets and vapor. The nature of the arc under those conditions is shown
in Fig. 23.10. This includes an over-all arc column or mantle with a well-
defined, narrow, incandescent, cone-shaped core within which the metal trans-
fers. The metal transfer rate may range from less than one hundred to several
hundred drops per second from wire that is melting off at from 100 to 800
inches per minute. This high melt-off rate, which usually exceeds 100 inches
per minute and frequently ranges from 200 to 400 ipm, obviously necessitates
mechanical feeding, as indicated in Fig. 23.2.
The mechanism of metal transfer through the arc under the foregoing condi-
tions appears to be chiefly influenced by electromagnetic forces on the molten
electrode tip and the arc plasma; the action of the latter is one of the causes of
gas jet streaming. Another cause is the vaporization of metal at the electrode
tip. These forces arise from the interaction of the current and the coaxial mag-
netic field it produces at the electrode tip. One component of force squeezes
the molten portion of the electrode and another accelerates it toward the work.
The detached drop is subjected to mechanical force of the streaming jet of gas.
These forces cause the end of the electrode wire to taper, which is one of the
characteristics of high current density, reverse polarity, inert-gas shielded arcs.
The pattern and nature of this tapering were shown in Fig. 23 .10.
Another notable detail associated with a reverse polarity, high current density
arc operating from a consumable electrode within an inert-gas shield, is a deep
papillary penetration along the weld centerline. A certain amount of th\~ was
Gas Metal-Arc Welding I 23.29
shown in Fig. 23.10; however, at higher current, it may be much more pro-
nounced.
At low current density, the penetration pattern and mode of drop transfer
are considerably different. The drops tend to transfer with large globules with
erratic motion, the penetration becomes shallower and the papillary stem dis-
appears. The degree to which these changes take place and the current levels
at which they take place differ with different types of filler metal, but always
follow the same basic pattern: that is, for low current density-globular,
erratic transfer and shallow penetration; for high current density-smooth,
uniform metal transfer and deep penetration.
The current levels and wire feed speeds at which the transfer mode changes
in welding with different sizes of aluminum and carbon steel wires (Fig. 23.11,
p. 23.30). The transition current differs for different sizes and compositions of
wire, but always increases with increase in wire size. As a result, if the wire
size selected is too large, the welding current required for satisfactory metal
transfer and welding may be too high for practical use.
The spray-type arc is best adapted for welding relatively thick parts. The
metal thickness limit, however, is not very sharp, the minimum for good spray
transfer welding ranging down to 1/ 8 in. or slightly less, although greater
thickness is more common.
For the welding of thin metal and for vertical and overhead welding, either
short-circuiting metal transfer is used or the spray type of transfer is obtained
with a pulsed direct current of low average value. In the short-circuiting method,
the metal transfer takes place chiefly during repetitive short circuits through
contact of the molten electrode with the weld puddle, rather than by drop or
spray transfer through the arc column.
In the' pulsed-current method, drops are transferred during high current
pulses with peaks above the transition current, the puddles being separated by
periods of low current during which no transfer takes place, so that the average
~alue of current is less than the transition current. As a rule, the current used
with any given diameter of filler wire is well below the level required for spray
transfer. With both methods, metal thicknesses as low as 1/32 in. can be
welded.
MAJOR PROCESS VARIABLES
Metal Transfer
General.-Metal can be transferred from the electrode to the work in two
ways. Drops may be detached from the electrode and moved through the dis-
charge between the electrode and the work. Metal also may be transferred from
the electrode to the work when the end of the electrode contacts the molten
weld metal.
Shape, size and motion of drops that are in free flight from the electrode to
the work are determined by a number of factors. Those factors that have the
most influence are: (1) the magnitude and kind of welding current, (2) the
current density in, and composition of, the electrode, ( 3) the length (exten-
sion) of the electrode between the current contact and the arc discharge, (4)
the presence of various materials on the electrode surface, (5) the composition
of the shielding gas.
In like manner, the mode of transfer by contact of the electrode and the
1200 1200
I I I I I I I r-- - II 11A I I I I I_ ..,u
ALUMINUM WIRE 1/.020 .j Co.
.015 \
POSITIVE ELECTRODE r-- ~ 0
ARGON GAS STEEL WIRE .........
r-- r- ' II POSITIVE ELECTRODE -
.025 ARGON-2% O, C)
1000 1000
~ 7 . ~
~ J -
I I ~
w w I
..... .020 ..... I 1/·030
:J :J 1/ ~
z z II
J I\ J J I
~ 800 ~ 800
I
a:: I
.030
I a::
' I 1/
/.035
I ~
~
;::
w I 1 w I v
a.. a.. ~
(/)
I ~ I (/) I II ll v ;:;::
w I
I w . II 1', 1/ v ~-
~ 600 ~ 600
z j_ z I v
I I II II
0
' lL 0
v
w J
w I
'v
w w v
a.. ! 1 ~ a.. IJ II' / .04S
(/) 400 (/) 400
w If v.047 w 1\ I/
a:: r-- r-DRO~\ , 0::
I I DROP\
J SPRAY r- j I .062.....
l/
3: ~ .0~~ ~~~AY /
lo"""
II '
IV ~ J1l' ~
200 200
/ ~ """" ._. ' C> <
.093 r--
.. """"
~--"" ·- """"" ,."""
n 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400

CURRENT-AMPS CURRENT-AMPS
Fig. 23.11.-Burn-off curves of aluminum and steel gas metal-arc electrodes
molten weld metal is determined by several parameters. Those having the most
influence are: ( 1) the characteristics of the power source, particularly its
dynamic response to changes in load, (2) the magnitude of the welding current,
(3) the electrode extension, composition and diameter, ( 4) the composition of
the shielding gas.
Metal transfer by movement of drops from the electrode to the work is
herein described as being globular or spray with or without spatter and either
axially or non-axially directed. In globular metal transfer, the drops have a
greater diameter than that of the electrode. In spray transfer, the drops are
equal to or smaller than the electrode diameter. Axially directed transfer refers
to movement of drops along a line that is a continuation of the longitudinal axis
of the electrode. Non-axially directed refers to movement in any other direction.
Spatter refers to the transferred particles that do not become part of the weld.
Spatter is frequently the result of non-axial transfer. It also is generated by
the evolution of gas from the molten weld metal or the transferring drop.
In transfer by contact of electrode to weld metal; the terms globular, spray,
axially directed and non-axially directed are not applicable. Spatter can occur,
however; it is usually caused by either gas evolution or electromagnetic forces
on the electrode.
Steady Direct Current: Positive Electrode: Drop Transfer.-With a bare
positive electrode, globular transfer takes place if the current density in the
electrode is low. This is true regardless of the gas used for shielding.
Globular transfer without spatter can be achieved in a substantially inert
gas shield. The electrode must be pointed vertically downward to obtain axially
directed transfer, and the arc length must be long enough to assure detachment
of the drop before it contacts the molten weld metal. The resulting weld is
likely to be unacceptable because of a lack of fusion at the toe, insufficient
penetration or excessive convexity of the reinforcement. If the electrode is not
positioned vertically downward, the drops will still move vertically downward;
nevertheless, some use has been made of this type of transfer in the vertical
welding of large fillet welds.
Globular transfer in carbon dioxide is always non-axially directed. The de-
parture from axial motion is due to an electromagnetic repulsive force upon the
bottom of the molten drop of metal at an angle to the electrode axis. Drop
detachment is prevented until the drop has grown to a size that is greater than
that encountered in an inert-gas shield. Spatter is therefore very severe.
In a gas shield with at least 80% argon or helium, transfer changes from
globular to spray as current increases in a given diameter of electrode. For all
metals, the change takes place at a current that has been designated globular-
to-spray transition current. The reduction in drop size is accompanied by an
increase in the rate of drop detachment as illustrated in Fig. 23.12 (p. 23.32).
At a high current density in the electrode, the tip is a gradual taper with a point
from which very small drops are ejected.
The transition current increases with an increase in either the electrode
diameter or extension. Curves illustrating this change for mild steel electrodes
are shown in Chapter 3 (p. 3.38), Physics of Welding, in Section 1 of the
Sixth Edition of the Handbook. Curves for other metals are similar in form
but with different numerical values. For example, Fig. 23.11 showed that the
globular-to-spray transition currents for a 1/16 in. diameter electrode are 275
and 180 amperes respectively for carbon steel and aluminum.
If carbon dioxide is used for shielding, the globular-to-spray transition does

not occur. Drops become smaller as the current increases, but they are not all
axially directed, and there is much more spatter than with a shield of inert gas.
The spatter may be minimized by adjusting welding parameters so that the tip
of the electrode is below the surface of the molten weld metal within a cavity
generated by the force of the arc. Under this condition, most of the non-axially
directed drops are trapped in the weld metal, and spatter is on the order of 2 to
3 percent. Some of this spatter is produced when a large drop simultaneously
contacts the electrode and the work. The resulting surge of current causes the
drop to disintegrate. Spatter reduction can be achieved by using sufficient in-
ductance in the welding circuit to limit this current surge. A portion of the
spatter is generally directed upward. The type of gas nozzle in which the elec-
trode emerges along the nozzle centerline therefore becomes clogged at a much
faster rate than it does in an inert-gas shield.
300 15
u
w
(J)
. ~ 'It
0
~~
'00... )(
a: 200 IO..,z
a
1/16 IN DIAMETER
a: w
w ARGON-1% 0 2; % IN. ARC
~
LL. CARBON STEEL
(J) ::::>
z POSITIVE ELECTRODE ...J
0
<X: TRANSITIONJ
a: CURRENT I >
t- 100 5 0...
LL.
0 ~
I
0
a:
a
w
t- I
)
<l:
a:
_.._
I
100 200 300 400 500
CURRENT (AMPERES)
Fig. 23.12 .-Variation in size and transfer rate of drops from a steel electrode with a
change in welding current
In inert-gas shielded spray transfer, the drops are axially directed regardless
of the electrode position until a second transition current is reached. At this
current, the wire tip is bent by electromagnetic forces, and the drops travel at
an angle to the axis of the unbent portion of the electrode. The current is called
the spray-to-rotation transition current. Its magnitude is strongly dependent on
the electrode extension. This dependency is illustrated for carbon steel in Chap-
ter 3, Physics of Welding, in Section 1 of the Sixth Edition of the Handbook.
Inert-gas shielded arc welding is performed primarily in the spray transfer
range for several reasons. It is essentially free of spatter-typically, more than
99% of the melted electrode will be retained in the weld metal. The placement
of the molten drops can be easily controlled as a consequence of their axially
directed motion. Deep penetration can be obtained.
Steady Direct Current: Negative Electrode: Drop Transfer.-With a bare
negative electrode and either plain inert gas or carbon dioxide, the transfer is
globular and non-axially directed regardless of the current level. Much spatter
is evident and penetration is less than that obtained with a positive electrode.
Oxygen can be added to the inert gas to change the transfer. At a sufficiently
high current density with about 5% oxygen, the transfer mode is closely akin
to the axially directed spray transfer with a positive electrode.
If a negative steel electrode is coated with certain compounds of alkali,
alkaline-earth or rare-earth metals, axially directed spray transfer will occur in
plain inert gas, carbon dioxide or a mixture of inert and active gases. Similarly,
such transfer also can be achieved from a negative aluminum-alloy electrode
in plain inert gas. The amount of coating may be so small (0.01% of the
electrode by weight) as to be invisible; but a much thicker coating also can be
used. The thicker coating must be placed in depressions on the electrode surface
to achieve low electrical contact resistance between the electrode and the cur-
rent contact. Fewer compounds are available for use on a steel electrode in
carbon dioxide or on an aluminum electrode in inert gas than for a steel elec-
trode in an inert gas or mixtures of inert and active gases. Commercial applica-
tion of the coated negative electrode has been slight.
Steady Alternating Current: Drop Transfer.-With a high enough open-
circuit voltage, a stable arc can be maintained with a bare electrode. However,
transfer is not acceptable during the half-cycle in which the electrode is nega-
tive. Good transfer can be obtained by the same techniques that are used with
steady direct current and a negative electrode.
Pulsed Direct Current: Drop Transfer.-With a pulsed instead of a steady
current, the globular-to-spray transition occurs at an average current that is
lower than the steady current for this transition. This result is achieved with
bare positive electrodes in shields of substantially inert gases. The range of
average pulsed current used for axially directed spray transfer is shown in
Table 23.4, in which the low end of the range is below the globular-to-spray
transition current that was indicated in Fig. 23 .11.
The pulsed current alternates between two levels of current. The lower level
is less than the steady globular-to-spray transition current and is called the
Table 23.4--Typical current ranges for gas metal-arc welding with pulsed current
-------.,------------------------
Average Current, Amperest
Wire
Diameter 4043 Aluminum 308 i"tai nle~s AZ6lA Magnesium
(In.) Electrode• Steel Electrode t Electrode*
1--------------------------------
0.030 45-80 55-130
.65-100
0.040
0.045 ·9o.:.iso . 75_:_i25
'44 ·75.:.iao
1oo-250
.,.,\{o 90-250
150-300
11(}-250
225-375
I
---------~--------------------------------
• Argon shield.
t98% argon-2"{, oxygen shield. . ..
tAt the time of printing, use of latest equipment incticates th<~t reductions of 20 to .')0% of the lnttlal
current values shown m<ly be 1Jsed.
background current. The upper one is greater than the steady globular-to-spray
transition current and is called the pulse peak current. The upper one, if con-
tinuous, would produce spray transfer; the lower one, if continuous, would
produce globular transfer.
A typical relation between the various stages of metal transfer and current
level is shown in Chapter 3, Physics of Welding, in Section 1 of the Sixth
Edition of the Handbook. The point at which transfer takes place can vary
with: (1) the pulse form (sinusoidal, square, etc.), (2) the levels of the peak
and background currents, ( 3) the ratio of the peak to background, ( 4) the
ratio of pulse time to background time. For some pulsed currents, more than
one drop of metal is detached for each pulse. In the U. S. A., only 60 to 120
sinusoidal pulses per second are used.
Short-Circuiting Transfer.-Reduction of the usable current level for gas
metal-arc welding also can be achieved with short-circuiting transfer. Typical
current ranges are shown in Table 23.5; the range extends well below the
globular-to-spray transition current shown in Fig. 23.11. Metal is tmnsferred
from the electrode to the work only during a period when they are in contact,
but there is no transfer by movement of molten drops through the discharge.
Table 23.5-Typical current ranges for short-circuiting transfer gas metal-arc welding of steel
Welding Current, Amperes*

Wire
Diameter. Flat Position Vertical and Overhead Positions
in. -----------------------.----------
Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum
---------------------------1----------------
0.030 50 150 50 125
0.035 75 175 75 150
0.04.5 100 225 100 175
•Positive electrode.
The electrode contacts the molten pool of weld metal at a steady rate in a
range of 20 to over 200 times a second. The sequence of events in the transfer
of metal and the corresponding current and voltage are shown in Fig. 23.13.
As the electrode touches the weld metal, the current begins to increase; the
increase would continue if an arc did not form as shown at E in the figure.
The 11ate of increase must be high enough to maintain a molten electrode tip
until metal is transferred. It should not be fast enough to cause spatter by disin-
tegration of the transferring metal. The rate of increase is controlled by adjust-
ment of the inductance of the power source. The value of inductance required
is dependent on both the electrical resistance and melting point of the electrode.
Furthermore, the open-circuit voltage of the power source must be such that
an arc cannot be maintained under the existing welding conditions. A portion
of the energy for arc maintenance is provided by the inductive storage of energy
during the period of short circuit.
Electrode Melting Rate.-Regardless of the type of transfer, the melting rate
of the electrode is determined mainly by ( 1) the magnitude and direction of
the current, (2) the physical properties of the metal, (3) the electrode exten-
~ioQ, ( 4) the presence of materi&ls on the surf&ce of the electrode (if it ia
..z...
.... TIME--~
~;~~~--~====~----~~
ZERO
z
0
;: _.ARCING PERIOD--.
z z
..
...
~
..
2
v
+-SHORT--+ z
Fig. 23.13.-0scillograms and sketches of short-circuiting arc metal transfer
negative). For either substantially steady or periodically varying direct currents,

the melting rate is a function of the average current. For alternating current,
melting rate is a function of the rms current.
The electrode melting rate for a given metal increases with an increase in
current or electrode extension and a decrease in electrode diameter. Other
conditions being equal, the melting rate of a bare negative electrode is greater
than that of a positive electrode. The melting rate of a bare electrode is not
significantly influenced by the gas shield or arc length except when the arc
length is very short. As previously discussed, the melting rate of a coated nega-
tive electrode can be reduced to a level below that of a positive electrode, other
conditions being equal. In an inert gas, a reduction in melting rate of a negative
electrode also takes place if about 5% oxygen is added to the shield. The
amount of reduction will be less than the maximum possible with a coating.
The range of usable melting rates for a given electrode in flat-position weld-
ing with axially directed spray transfer can be considered as lying between two
current limits. The lower current is the globular-to-spray transition current.
There are three different upper limits: the spray-to-rotation transition current,
the current at which the gas shield is disrupted, and a current that creates an
uncontrollable pool of weld metal that cannot be uniformly fused to the base
metal. For welding positions other than flat, the upper limit is determined by the
current above which a molten pool of weld metal cannot be retained in the
weld joint. Rates of wire feed have been used as low as 100 and as high as 800
inches per minute. The variation of wire speed for two metals and a range of
electrode diameters was shown in Fig. 23 .11.
Electrical
Types of Power Sources.-Three types of power sources can be used to
supply steady direct current in gas metal-arc welding. These are distinguished
by their static volt-ampere characteristics: drooping voltage, constant voltage
and rising voltage. In the first, the voltage drops as the current increases. In
the second, the voltage remains constant or decreases slightly as the current
increases. In the third, the voltage rises as the current increases. In a stable
welding condition, one in which no change in arc or electrode melting is taking
place, the three types will perform equally well.
The drooping-voltage type was initially the most widely preferred since it
could be used for shielded metal-arc welding as well as for gas metal-arc weld-
ing. However, the far more extensively used constant-voltage type has distinct
advantages for many applications: either a substantially flat or slightly drooping
characteristic is used with adjustable constant-speed electrode feeders.
Electrode freezing to the weld is almost eliminated with the constant- and
rising-type voltages. When welding with drop transfer, if enough short-circuit
current is not produced, inadvertent dipping of the electrode into the molten
weld metal causes the electrode to freeze to the weld. The constant- and rising-
voltage power sources produce a more rapid increase in short-circuit current
than does the drooping-voltage power source.
Burnback, a fusion of the electrode and current contact as a result of exces-
sive lengthening of the arc, also is minimized with the constant- and rising-
voltage power sources. With these sources, a rapid decrease in current takes
place as the arc lengthens so that the arc can extinguish before the current
contact fuses. Burnback is usually initiated by accidental reduction in the rate
of electrode feed.
Each of the three types reacts differently when changing load conditions are
encountered. The response of a power source to changing conditions is a func-
tion of its dynamic volt-ampere characteristic, but it can be discussed more
easily by referring to the static characteristic. The method usually used is to
study the interaction of the static volt-ampere characteristic of the power source
with the static volt-ampere characteristics of the arc and the electrode feed.
Only the initial and final static conditions are considered, not the path that is
followed in going from one condition to another.
Change in Rate of Electrode Feed.-The interaction for all three types can
be best discussed by reference to Fig. 23.14, in which the static volt-ampere
characteristics of both the arc and the electrode feed have been superimposed
on the static volt-ampere characteristics of the three types of power sources.
The curves for the arc and the electrode feed are typical of those that would
be obtained by holding constant the distance from the work to the current
contact at each of a number of electrode feeds while varying the current and
measuring the resulting arc length and welding voltage. The welding voltage
is the sum of the drops across the arc, the electrode extension and the interface
between the current contact and the electrode. For each power source, only one
curve of a family of curves is shown; it represents one setting of the power-
source controls. The electrode feed characteristic is that of an adjustable
constant-speed electrode feed. This type is more widely used than an arc voltage
dependent electrode feed. Since the rates of electrode feed and melting must be
equal at any stable operating condition, the electrode feed characteristic can
also be considered a melting rate characteristic.
Assume that welding is being carried out under a stable condition, designated
S in Fig. 23.14. For this condition, the wire feed is F 1 and the arc length is L2.
With a given setting of the power-source controls, assume that a change is made
in the electrode feed. After the change is made, the new operating condition
will lie somewhere on the volt-ampere characteristic of the power source for
that setting. If the electrode feed were increased to F2, the new operating con-
ditions will be at A, B and C for respectively the rising-, constant- and drooping-
voltage power sources. With the rising-voltage power source, the arc length hac;
changed an imperceptible amount, but the change in current is greater than
with the other two types. With the constant-voltage power source, the arc length
has shortened to Ll. There is a large change in current, but it is smaller than
the current change with the rising-voltage power source. With the drooping
voltage machine, the arc length decreases to a shorter value than Ll, but the
current change is the least amount. Since the operating limits are determined
by stubbing of the electrode at a short arc length and melting of the current
contact at a long one, the rising-voltage power source permits the greatest
change of wire feed for a given setting of the power-source controls. The droop-
ing-voltage power source permits the least change. The constant-voltage power
source permits an amount of change somewhere between that of the other two
power sources.
DROOPING
t
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
POWER
SOURCE
w
<Fl
<(
w
a:
(.)
w CONSTANT
"
<(
1-
_J
VOLTAGE
POWER
0 SOURCE
>
":z0
_J
w
~
RISING
VOLTAGE
POWER
SOURCE
a) F1' AND FlARE RATES OF ELECTRODE FEED AND Fl = Fl'.
b) CURRENT CONTACT-TO-WORK DISTANCE IS GREATER
FOR Fl' THAN FOR Fl.
c) L 1, L2, AND LJ ARE ARC LENGTHS WITH LJ) L2) L 1
CURRENT -----.INCREASE
Fig. 23.14.-Interaction of power sources representing each type of static volt-ampere

characteristic
Change in Distance from Current Contact to Work.-To discuss the effect

of changes in contact-to-work distance, a set of arc and electrode feed character-
istics as shown in Fig. 23.15 is required. These characteristics are obtained by
holding constant the electrode feed at each of a number of contact-to-work
distances, and then measuring welding voltage and arc length for each distance
as the current is varied. Note that the slope of the electrode feed characteristic
is different for each distance. In Fig. 23.14, Fl is the same as Fl in Fig. 23.15.
The slopes of the arc length curves of Fig. 23.15 are less than those of Fig.
23.14.
t
uj
en
DROOPING
VOLTAGE
CONSTANT
ELECTRODE FEED
<(
w POWER
0::
u SOURCE
~
CONSTANT
VOLTAGE
w POWER
C) SOURCE
~
..J
0
>
C)
z
i5
..J
RISING
VOLTAGE
:=
w
POWER
SOURCE
a) F1 AND F2 ARE RATES OF ELECTRODE FEED WITH F2) F1

b) L1. L2, AND LJ ARE ARC LENGTHS WITH LJ) L2) L1
c) CURRENT CONTACT-TO-WORK DISTANCE IS THE SAME
FOR F1 AND F2
CURRENT --INCREASE
Fig. 23.15.-Arc and electrode feed characteristics plotted to illustrate effect of

changes in contact-to-work distance
If the contact-to-work distance is increased while the electrode feed is held

constant, the new operating conditions will lie on the intersection of the power-
source characteristic and the electrode feed characteristic for the new distance.
It is assumed that the initial operating condition is at S in Fig. 23.15 and that
the contact-to-work distance is increased to a value that is represented by elec-
trode feed characteristic Fl. After the increase, the new operating points will
be at X, Y ,and Z, respectively, for the rising-, constant- and drooping-voltage
power sources. The arc length has decreased to Ll for the rising-voltage ma-
chine; it has increased for both the constant- and drooping-voltage power
sources. The increase in arc length is very slight for the former, and is greater
than L3 for the latter. A better idea of the extent of the arc length change can
be obtained by reference to Fig. 23.16.
Arc lgnition.-With a drooping-voltage power source, metals of low elec-
trical resistance such as aluminum and copper cannot be fed toward the work
-
1 /)
1&.1
:r
0
z
DROOPING CONSTANT RISING

POTENTIAL POTENTIAL POTENTIAL
Fig. 23.16.-Arc length changes typical of the three types of static volt-ampere
characteristic
with the expectation that the arc will be ignited in contact. Ignition oan be
assured either by touching a stationary electrode to the work and starting the
electrode feed after the arc is established, or by feeding an electrode toward
the work and then retracting it immediately upon contact with the work in
order to establish the arc.
With a constant-voltage power source, arcs can be difficult to ignite with
metals of high electrical resistance such as austenitic chromium-nickel stainless
steel. The problem can be overcome either by pointing the electrode tip and
feeding it toward the work at a slower rate than will be needed after the arc is
established, or by using a so-called constant-voltage power source that has been
provided with a small droop in voltage to limit the surge of short-circuit cur-
rent. Such limitation also serves to minimize the generation of spatter during
arc ignition.
With a rising-voltage power source, starting difficulty is encountered only
with a high electrical resistance metal such as stainless steel. A long section of
wire may be blown' out at the start to form a long arc gap, The voltage that is
required to maintain an arc in this gap exceeds the voltage that can be provided
by the power source, and the arc extinguishes.
Arc Stability.-The arc from a bare positive electrode in pure argon is not
satisfactory for commercial welding of ferrous metals. The arc wanders on the
plate and produces a nonuniform weld. Sometimes porosity is produced if the
unstable arc causes entrapment of air in the shielding gas.
Some of this arc instability has been traced to variations in the amount of
iron oxide on the plate surface. Appreciable fluctuations in the cathode voltage
drop occur, with consequent erratic movements of the arc as it seeks a position
requiring the lowest drop. Cathode sputtering and cleaning of the work surface
also vary in degree; consequently, the weld metal wets poorly in some areas
and well in others.
By introducing a small quantity of oxygen or carbon dioxide into the argon
shield, a uniformly oxidized surface is developed so that the arc cathode is
anchored within the immediate vicinity of the arc crater. The arc voltage then
becomes steady and the weld deposit becomes uniform. These effects are illus-
trated in Fig. 23.17, which shows a head weld made with pure argon and one
made with a mixture of 9R% argon and 2% oxygen. At the same time, oxygen
additions often reduce the porosity in weld metal.
Fig. 23.17.-Weld beads of steel deposited with pure argon (top) and 98% argon-2%
oxygen shielding (bottom)
The amount of oxygen that is needed to develop arc stability and to minimize
porosity is dependent on the degree of deoxidation of both the plate and elec-
trode. An arc to a plate of rimmed steel is stabilized with as little as 0.5%
oxygen in the argon-oxygen mixture. An arc to a plate of fully killed steel may
need 2 to 4% oxygen. The greater the amount of oxygen present the greater
will be the loss of oxidizable elements such as silicon, manganese and titanium.
Their loss may cause a change in the metallurgical properties of the weld, the
formation of slag islands or an increase in porosity. The largest amount of
oxygen normally used is 5 percent. When large quantities of oxygen are used,
specially deoxidized wires are needed to compensate for the oxidation losses
and to prevent porosity.
Shielding Gas
General.-The primary purpose of the shielding gas in gas metal-arc welding
is to protect the molten weld from contamination and damage by the surround-
ing atmosphere. However, several other factors affect the choice of a shielding
gas. Some of these are: ( 1) arc and metal-transfer characteristics during weld-
ing; (2) penetration, width of fusion and shape of reinforcement; (3) speed of
welding; ( 4) undercutting tendency. All these influence the finished weld and
the over-all result; cost also must be considered.
Although the plain inert gases protect the weld metal from reaction with air,
they are not suitable for all welding applications. By mixing controlled quanti-
ties of reactive gases with them, a stable arc and substantially spatter-free
metal transfer are obtained simultaneously. Reactive gases and mixtures of
such gases provide other types of arcs and metal transfer. Only a few reactive
gases have been successfully used either alone or in a combination with inert
gases for welding. These include oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and possibly
one or two others. Although gases such as hydrogen and nitrogen have been
considered as additives to control the amount of the joint penetration, they are
recommended only for a limited number of highly specialized applications
where their presence will not cause porosity or embrittlement of the weld metal.
As a rule, it is not practical to use the reactive gases alone for arc shielding.
Carbon dioxide is the outstanding exception. It is suitable alone, mixed with
inert gas or mixed with oxygen for welding a variety of carbon and low-alloy
steels. Carbon dioxide shielding is inexpensive, and is widely used for welding
carbon and some low-alloy steels. All the other gases, with the sole exception
of nitrogen, are used chiefly as small additions to one of the inert gases (usually
argon).
Nitrogen has been used alone or mixed with argon for welding copper. The
most extensive use of nitrogen, however, is in Europe, where little or no helium
is available.
The principal gases and gas mixtures now used for gas metal-arc welding are
listed in Table 23.6 with brief notes regarding the characteristics and principal
Table 23.6--Shielding gases and gas mixtures for gas metal-arc welding
Chemical
Shielding Gas Behavior Remarks
Argon Inert Virtually all metals except steels.

Helium Inert Aluminum, magnesium and copper alloys for greater heat input
and to minimize porosity.
Ar +He (2Q--80% to Inert Aluminum, magnesium and copper alloys for greater heat input
50-50%) and to minimize porosity (better arc action than 100% helium).
Nitrogen Greater heat input on copper (Europe).
Ar +25-30% N, Greater heat input on copper (Europe); better arc action than
100% nitrogen.
Ar + 1-2% o, Slightly Stainless and alloy steels; some deoxidized copper alloys.
oxidizing
Ar
co,
+ 3-5% o, Oxidizing Carbon and some low-alloy steels.
Oxidizing Carbon and some low-alloy steels.
Ar + 2Q--50% co, Oxidizing Various steels, chiefly short-circuiting arc.
Ar + 10% co,+
5% o. Oxidizing Various steels (Europe).
co.+ 20% o, Oxidizing Various steels (Japan).
90% He-7.5% Ar- Slightly
2.5% co, oxidizing Stainless steels for good corrosion resistance, short~circuiting arc.
60 to 70% He-25 to 35%
Ar-4 to 5% co, Oxidizing Low-alloy steels for toughness, short-circuiting arc.
uses of each. More detailed information regarding the different types appears in
subsequent sections on the different gases and mixtures. The physical properties
of pure shielding gases are listed in Chapter 3, Physics of Welding, page 3.59,
of Section 1 of the Sixth Edition of the Handbook.
Argon, Helium and Argon-Helium Mixtures.-Argon and helium, used most
frequently for the gas metal-arc welding of nonferrous materials, are com-
pletely inert. Although the two gases are equally inert, they differ in their other
properties. These differences are reflected in their effects on metal transfer
through the arc, joint penetration, weld shape, undercut and other weld vari-
ables. The selection of argon, helium or a mixture of the two to shield a
particular metal is made to obtain the effects desired.
Helium has a higher thermal conductivity than argon. For any given arc
length and current, the arc voltage is higher with helium than with argon
shielding. The difference is shown in Fig. 23.18. Consequently, more heat is
produced at any given current with a shield of helium than with one of argon.
This tends to make helium preferable for use in welding thick metals, especially
those of high heat conductivity, such as aluminum and copper alloys. Con-
versely, argon is preferable for use in the welding of the lighter gages of metal
and metals of lower heat conductivity, because it produces a lesser amount of
heat. This is especially true for welding in other than in the flat position.
50
CONSUMABLE-ELECTRODE, STEEL, REVERSE POLARITY
I I
40
HE~IUM ~
~·
If)
1-
..J
g
..J
<(
~ 30
~ AR~ON ~
w
1-
0
0..
~ •
.I ~ ARGON+ 5%0XYGEN
u
a:
<( 2. 0 r----
0~
0 100 2.00 300 400 500
CURRENT, AMPERES
Fig. 23.18.-Arc characteristics of various gases
Helium is a very light gas with an atomic weight just over 4. Argon is about
10 times as heavy as helium and about 1 1/3 times as heavy as air; its atomic
weight is approximately 40. The heavier a gas is, the more effective it is at
any given flow rate for arc shielding. Largely because of its weight, argon, after
leaving the welding nozzle, tends to form a blanket over the weld area, whereas
helium tends to rise in turbulent fashion and disperse from the weld region.
Therefore, helium shielding generally requires higher flow rates than shielding
with argon.
Gas. Metal-Arc Welding I 23.43
That the same relation is seen with mixtures of argon and helium, particu-
larly those high in helium content, is illustrated by the graph in Fig. 23.19.
Welding was performed with straight argon and with a 75% helium-25%
argon mixture at two different nozzle-to-work distances.
St8 INCH DIAMETER NOZZLE

I
Q 6
z NOZZLE-TO-WORK
0 DISTANCE
(.)
1&.1 !5
Ill
-~16 1NCti
a::
1&.1 __9t 16 INCH
D.
4
1-
1&.1
1&.1
1&.
3
>
!::
(.)
0
..J 2
1&.1
>
a::
Ci 'I
0
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56
MINIMUM SHIELDING GAS FLOW, CUBIC FEET PER HOUR
Fig. 23.19.-Relation of gas flow requirements to cross-draft velocitv

Weld reinforcement and penetration patterns differ with argon and helium
shielding or mixtures of the two. Welds made with helium usually exhibit wider
reinforcement than welds made with argon. Welds made with argon generally
are more deeply penetrated at the center than at the edges. Helium has been
added to argon to increase the joint penetration while retaining the desirable
metal-transfer characteristic of argon. Shape and penetration are greatly in-
fluenced by metal transfer characteristics. Spray transfer tends to produce rela-
tively deep. penetration along the centerline of welds and relatively shallow
penetration at the edges, because of the plasma jet effect. Globular and short-
circuiting transfer tend to produce broader, shallower penetration. As a rule,
spray transfer is obtained more readily in argon than in helium. In either gas,
the shape of the cross section of the weld varies with the polarity of the elec-
trode. Welds made with reverse polarity (electrode positive) exhibit more
acceptable shapes than those made with straight polarity (electrode negative);
typical shapes shown in Fig. 23.20 (p. 23.44) represent several conditions.
Because of the differences in spray transfer and physical properties of argon
and helium, the gases are used in different ways. Argon is generally preferred
for welding most light-gage parts and materials of moderate haat conductivity.
On the other hand, helium, largely because of greater arc heat, is usually pre-
ferred for welding materials of high heat conductivity. In many cases, advan-
tages of both gases may be gained by using a mixture of the two.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Additions to Argon and Helium: Spray Trans-
fer.-Although the pure inert gases are often essential or preferable for use in
23.441 Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
POSITIVE ELECTRODE
ARGON ARGON HELIUM -ARGON HELIUM

02
NEGATIVE ELECTRODE
Fig. 23.20.-Bead contour and penetration patterns for various shielding gases
welding some nonferrous metals, they do not always provide the most satis-
factory operational characteristics for use in welding ferrous metals. As noted
in the discussion on arc stability, there is a tendency with pure argon shielding
for the metal to draw away from, or not flow out to the fusion line or toe of
the weld on carbon and most low-alloy steels. Furthermore, the metal transfer
tends to be somewhat erratic and spattery. Use of helium or argon-helium
mixtures usually fails to improve the situation. Similarly, when welding the
more highly alloyed ferrous metals with pure inert-gas shielding, there is an
appreciable tendency for the metal transfer to be erratic and spattery.
The addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide to argon stabilizes the arc, pro-
motes favorable metal transfer and minimizes spatter. At the same time, these
additions change the shape of the cross section of the weld and promote the
wetting and flow of the weld metal along the edges of the weld in carbon and
low-alloy steels. In that way, they reduce or eliminate undercut. This change
in cross section, a reduction in the central finger of penetration, often reduces
porosity.
Additions of oxygen or carbon dioxide to either argon or helium change the
operating characteristics when using straight polarity (electrode negative). The
arc is stabilized, metal transfer is improved and joint penetration is increased.
The change for small additions is generally not enough for satisfactory opera-
tion with a bare electrode; however, with an argon-oxygen mixture that con-
tains 5% oxygen, the electrode tip tapers and the metal transfers in a stream
of fast-moving drops. The weld reinforcement becomes less convex, and the
penetration shape of the cross section of the weld approaches that obtained
with reverse polarity (electrode positive). At the same time, there is a marked
reduction in the melting rate of the electrode.
The amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide required to produce a noticeable
change in the arc stability or metal transfer of gas metal-arc welding is quite
small; even 0.5% oxygen is sufficient. However, additions of from 1 to 5%
oxygen and 3 to 10% carbon dioxide are more common. The added amount
depends on joint geometry, welding position, base-metal composition and weld-
ing technique. Oxygen or carbon dioxide additions to helium or argon-helium
mixtures are used on occasion for short-circuiting and pulsed d-e operation.
Normally, such additions are made only to argon to achieve good axially di-
rected spray transfer and improved wetting.
The addition of oxygen or carbon dioxide to an inert gas, which causes the
shielding gas to become oxidizing, may cause porosity in some ferrous metals
unless it is counteracted by the addition of suitable deoxidizers in the electrode.
lt may also cause some loss of certain alloying elements, such as chromium,
vanadium, aluminum, titanium, manganese and silicon. Consequently, electrodes
that are to be used with an oxygen-bearing shielding gas must contain deoxi-
dizers to offset the effects of the oxygen. Some wires are designed for fast,
inexpensive, acceptable-quality welding and others for porosity-free welding
that meets the most rigid code requirements.
Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Additions to Argon and Helium: Short-Circuit-
ing Transfer.-Gases used in welding with short-circuiting metal transfer often
differ from those used in welding with drop transfer. For example, argon-carbon
dioxide mixtures that contain 20 to 50% carbon dioxide are frequently used to
weld steel with short-circuiting transfer, but are seldom used with drop transfer.
Argon or argon-helium mixtures are employed for welding most nonferrous
metals; reactive gases or mixtures of inert and reactive gases are used for the
joining of steels.
The polyatomic or "high-voltage" gases are used more frequently in gas
mixtures with short-circuiting welding than in drop-transfer welding to increase
heat input and improve wetting. Sometimes, the percentage of reactive gas
must be restricted to control gas-metal reactions that may be harmful metal-
lurgically. Argon-carbon dioxide mixtures perform satisfactorily for welding
stainless steels, but they increase the carbon content of the weld metal and
reduce corrosion resistance, especially in multipass welds. Consequently, a less
reactive mixture of 90% helium-7.5% argon-2.5% carbon dioxide is used to
achieve adequate corrosion resistance and reduce oxidation of the weld. In this
mixture, both the helium and the carbon dioxide increase the heat input for a
given current; the carbon dioxide also improves the arc stability. As a result,
better wetting and better weld shape are achieved. Similarly, mixtures of 60 to
70% helium-25 to 35% argon-4 to 5% carbon dioxide are used for the welding
of low-alloy steels when notch toughness is important. Reduction of the per-
centage of carbon dioxide to minimal levels increases the Charpy-Vee notch
energy absorption of the weld metal to a value that is comparable to that
achieved with axially directed spray-transfer welding in a 98% argon-2%
'>xygen mixture.
The flow rates required by short-circuiting welding are frequently about one
half those of spray-transfer welding. The lower flow rates can be used because
of the lower welding current and smaller weld puddle.
Carbon Dioxide.-Although argon and helium are used for gas metal-arc
welding of most metals, carbon dioxide has become widely used (along with
argon-oxygen mixtures) for arc shielding in the welding of steels. Higher
welding speed, better joint penetration and sound deposits with good mechanical
properties, together with lower cost, have led to this extensive use of carbon
dioxide. With a bare electrode, axially directed spray transfer cannot be achieved
in a shield of carbon dioxide. The transfer is either of the short-circuiting type,
globular or non-axially directed spray.
The chief drawback of carboP dioxide for shielding is that it produces a
rather harsh arc and excessive spatter unless a very short, uniform arc length
is used, keeping the tip of the electrode below the surface of the work. Properly
adjusting the power-supply inductance setting also minimizes spatter. ln that
way, good control of the arc is maintained, the amount of spatter is kept within
tolerable bounds and sound weld deposits are achieved.
One of the chief advantages of a shield of carbon dioxide is that sound welds
can be made consistently if the electrode is designed for use with carbon dioxide
and contains the appropriate balance of deoxidizers. Carbon dioxide is oxidizing
at arc temperatures; however, when the carbon contents of a steel electrode
and base metal are less than about 0.07%, the weld metal oarburizes. On the
basis of manganese and silicon losses, a shield of carbon dioxide may be re-
garded as equivalent to a shield of inert gas with about 10% oxygen added.
As a result, the surface of carbon dioxide-shielded welds is usually heavily
oxidized. Despite this oxidizing condition, porosity is not a problem when a
suitably deoxidized wire and a reasonably short arc are used. Consequently,
X-ray sound welds that meet code requirements can be readily produced in
carbon and some low-alloy steels with a shield of carbon dioxide gas. When
high impact properties are essential, the inert-gas mixtures are employed.
Shielding Gas Selection.-It has been demonstrated that the choice of a
shielding gas depends on the metal to be welded, thickness, process variation,
quality requirements and metallurgical factors, and cost. Argon, helium or
argon-helium mixtures are generally used with nonferrous metals. Oxygen or
carbon dioxide additions to argon or argon-helium mixtures and plain carbon
dioxide are employed for ferrous materials. The application needs, therefore,
determine selection, as illustrated in Tables 23.7 and 23.8.
Electrodes
The electrodes used for gas metal-arc welding are quite small in diameter as
compared to those used for other types of welding; 1I 16 in. diameter is about
average. However, electrode diameters as small as 0.020 in. and as large as 118
in. are sometimes used.
Because of the small size of the electrode and the comparatively high currents
used for gas metal-arc welding, the melting rate of the electrode is very rapid.
The rate ranges from about 100 to about 800 inches per minute for all metals
except magnesium, which reaches speeds up to 1400 inches per minute. Be-
cause of this rapid melting, the electrodes used for gas metal-arc welding always
must be provided as long, continuous strands of suitably tempered wire that
can be fed smoothly and continuously through the welding equipment. The
wires are normally provided on conveniently sized spools, or in coils. Spools
are more common because of the tendency for small size wires to snarl unless
supported by a suitable f11ame. The standard spool sizes now in use usually
carry 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 or 35 pounds of wire. However, spools and packs of
other sizes are available with up to 600 pounds of wire in a single strand. The
latter are desirable, and often used for fully automatic, high-speed, high-
production welding operations.
The spooling and packaging of electrodes for gas metal-arc welding has be-
come relatively standardized. The electrode is normally layer wound on spools
made of insulating material-plywood, masonite, or molded plastic. The two
most common spool sizes are 4 in. wide X 12 in. diameter with a 2 in. di-
ameter mounting hole, and 1 3/4 in. wide X 4 in. diameter with a 5/8 in.
diameter mounting hole.
Gas, Metal-Arc Welding/ 23.47
Table 23.7-5election of gases for gas metal-arc welding with drop transfer
Metal Shielding Gas Advantaaes

--
Aluminum Argon o-1 in. thick: Beet metal transfer and arc stability; least
spatter.
35% Argon- 1-3 ln. thick: Higher heat input than straight argon.
65% Helium
25o/o/,Argon- 3 ln. +in thickness: Highest heat input; minimises porosity.
75 0 Helium
Magnesium Argon Excellent cleaning action.
Carbon Steel Argon-oxygen Improveo arc stability; produces a more tluld and controllable
(3-5%) weld puddle ;good coalescence and bead contour; minimizes
undercutting; permits higher speeds, compared with argon.
Carbon Dioxide High-speed mechanized welding; low-cost manual welding.
Low-Alloy Steel Argon-Dxygen Eliminates undercutting; provides good toughness.
(2%)
Stainless Steel Argon-oxygen Improves arc stability; produces a more tluid and controllable
(1%) weld puddle, good coalescence and bead contour; minimises
undercutting on heavier stainless steels.
Argon-Dxygen Provides better arc stability, coalescence and welding speed
(2%) than 1% oxygen mixture for thinner stainleos steel ma-
terials.
Copper, Nickel and Argon Provides good wetti~; decreases fluidity of weld metal (for
their Alloys thicknesses up to in.).
Argon-Helium Higher heat inputs of 50 and 75% helium mixtures offset high
heat conductivity of heavier gages.
Titanium Argon Good arc stability; minimum weld contamination. Inert gas
backing is required to prevent air contamination on back of
weld area.
Table 23.8--Seledion of gases for gas metal-arc welding

with short-circuiting transfer
Metal Shielding Gas Advantages
Carbon Steel 75% Argon- Less than ~ in. thick: High welding speeds without burn-
2~COs through; minimum distortion and spatter.
76 o/,Argon- More than ~ ln. thick: Minimum spatter; clean weld appear-
26 • co. ances; good puddle control In vertical and overhead posi-
tiona.
co. Deeper penetration; faster welding speeds.
Stainless Steel 90% Helium- No effect on corrosion resistance; small heat-affected zone;
7.5~ Argon- no undercutting; minimum distortion.
2.5 0 co.
Low-Alloy Steel 6o-70% Helium- Minimum reactivity; excellent toughness.
25-35% Argon- Excellent arc stability, wetting characteristics and bead con-
4--5% co. tour; little spatter.
75% Argon- Fair toughness; excellent arc stability, wetting characteristics
25% co. and bead contour; little spatter.
Aluminum, Argon and Argon satisfactory on sheet metal; Argon-Helium preferred
Copper, Magnesium, Argon-Helium on thicker sheet material.
Nickel and their
Alloys
Owing to its relatively small size, the electrode usually used has a high
surface-to-volume ratio. Therefore, any drawing compounds, oil or other for-
eign matter on or worked into the surface of the electrode tend to be in high
proportion relative to the amount of metal present. Because of the surface
contamination problem, considerable work has been done to improve the methods
and practices used in the manufacture of electrodes for gas metal-arc welding.
These include such things as between-draw pickling, shaving, vapor cleaning

or etching at various stages during manufacture and rapid, automatic handling.
As a result, electrodes of many types now available have been processed during
manufacture to minimize surface contamination. Steel electrodes are often
given a light coat of copper to improve electrical contact in passing through
the current contact of the welding equipment, and to improve corrosion re-
sistance. In normal use, the electrode should be covered and kept clean.
The electrodes for gas metal-arc welding are usually quite similar or identical
in composition to those used for welding in most other bare-electrode processes.
As a rule, the compositions of the electrode and the base metal are as nearly
alike as practicable, commensurate with good welding characteristics and weld
properties. In some cases, this involves very little modification from the base
metal composition. In other cases, obtaining satisfactory welding and weld-
deposit characteristics requires an appreciable change, perhaps even the use
of an electrode of completely different composition. For example, the electrodes
most satisfactory for welding manganese bronze, a copper-zinc alloy, are either
aluminum bronze or copper-manganese-nickel-aluminum alloys.
Somewhat similarly although not to the same degree, the electrodes most
suitable for welding the higher strength aluminum and steel alloys are usually
quite different in composition from the base metal on which they are to be
used. This is because some alloys that are quite satisfactory or desirable as base
metals are unsuitable as weld metal. Accordingly, electrode alloys are used that
will result in the desired weld-metal properties and acceptable operating
characteristics.
Whatever other modifications are made in the composition of electrodes for
gas metal-arc welding, deoxidizers or other scavenging agents are nearly always
added. This is done to avoid porosity in, or poor mechanical properties of, the
weld, as a result of its reaction with oxygen, nitrogen or hydrogen that may be
in the shielding gas or may accidentally reach the metal from the surrounding
atmosphere. The addition of appropriate deoxidizers in the right quantity, most
essential in electrodes that are to be used with an oxygen-bearing shielding gas,
is desirable in most other cases. In arc-spot welding, a large amount of deoxi-
dizer usually is provided to compensate for its excessive loss that results from
the long arc and the large pool of molten metal. The deoxidizers most frequently
used in steel electrodes ,are manganese, silicon and aluminum. Titanium and
silicon are the principal ones used in nickel alloys. Copper alloys, depending
on type and desired end results, may be deoxidized with titanium, silicon or
phosphorus.
The types of electrodes generally recommended and used for the welding
of various metals and alloys are discussed in detail in Section 4 of the Handbook,
Metals and Their Weldability, and were summarized in Table 23.3. These
recommendations are based on the most popular current practice but are not
to be construed as the only possible choices. In some cases, owing to special
conditions or requirements, other electrodes may be preferable or required.
APPLICATIONS
Continuous Welding
General.-All the process variables must be controlled to produce a satis-
factory weld. In the following discussion of the adjustment of these variables
for various applications, the importance of one variable over another varies.
Regardless of the particular application, the adjustment of the variables is

influenced strongly by: (1) composition, metallurgical structure and thickness
of the base metal; (2) electrode composition; (3) position of welding; (4)
quality requirements of the completed weldment; (5) the quantity of pieces to
be made.
Current.-All other variables being constant, the welding current varies with
the electrode speed or melting rate in a nonlinear relation. Above the globular-
to-spray transition current, further increases in current on a particular electrode
diameter reduce the drop size, increase the drop frequency and improve the arc
stability.
The upper limit of current for a particular electrode size is reached when
the weld surface appears to be "scorched." This limit is reached first with a
highly oxidizing shielding gas ~uch as carbon dioxide. With high current den-
sities, neat-appearing welds with excellent metallurgical and mechanical proper-
ties can be produced.
Semiautomatic operations generally cannot utilize the maximum current
capability of the process because of the operator's inability to tolerate the
radiated heat over extended periods of time. Also, without proper fi.xturing
and the benefit of repetition, the average operator faced with a "one of a kind"
situation may lack physical coordination to follow the weld joint with sufficient
accuracy at higher travel speeds.
With other variables constant, penetration is also increased as the current
density on an electrode is increased. This characteristic is quite prevalent in the
axially directed spray transfer of metal and should be considered when applying
the process.
Voltage and Arc Length.-The voltage indicated by the power-source meters
is commonly considered the arc voltage and, consequently, a direct measure
of the arc length. This is incorrect because there are many places in the circuit
between the arc and the power source that produce a drop in voltage. If these
drops are kept to a minimum, the voltage on the power-source meter can ap-
proach closely the true arc voltage. These drops are a function of: oable size
and length, conduction efficiency of power-carrying joints, and condition and
height of the current contact. (True arc voltage, which would have to be
measured between the electrode tip and the weld, would be highly impractical
except for laboratory research.)
As the arc voltage is increased, the length of the arc increases. The arc
length per volt varies with the composition of shielding gas. The ratio for a gas
mixture is a function of the percentages of the constituents.
For every set of conditions, there is a range of usable voltage values.
Excessively high voltages cause porosity, spatter and undercut at the edges
of the weld deposit. Excessively low voltages cause porosity and overlap at the
toes (edges) of the weld.
No set values of arc voltage are consistently appropriate for normal pro-
duction welding. As a rule, the best arc voltage is dependent upon a variety of
factors, including metal thickness, type of joint, position of welding, electrode
size, gas composition and type of weld. Usually, slightly longer arcs and higher
arc voltages ,are more desirable for flat-position welding than for vertical or
overhead welding. Some typical arc voltages for welding different metals with
some of the most commonly used gases are shown in Table 23.9. Although the
arc voltages shown are typical for some applications, they are not necessarily
1\)
w
u.0
......__
Table 23.9-Typical arc voltages* for the gas metal-arc welding of various metals
~
~
(1;•
Drop Transfer Short-Circuiting Transfer
(Us in. diameter electrode) (0.035 in. diameter electrode) ~
25% Ar- Ar-o, Ar-Oo 75% Ar- t
Metal Argon Helium 75% He (1-5% Oo) co. Argon (1-5% Oo) 25% co, co, ~
------- ------ -----
Aluminum 25 30 29 .. .. 19 .. .. .. ~
Magnesium 26 .. 28 .. .. 16 .. .. .. ~
----- ------- ------ ------ ------ ----- ;:·
Carbon Steel 28 30 17 18 19 tiQ
.. .. .. 20
Low-Alloy Steel .. .. 28 30 17 18 19 20
Stainless Steel 24 .. .. 26 .. 18 19 21 ..
------ ------ ------ -----· ------ ------ -----
Nickel 26 30 28 .. .. 22 .. .. ..
Nickel-Copper Alloy 26 30 28 .. .. 22 .. .. ..
Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloy 26 30 28 .. .. 22 .. .. ..
------ ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -----
Copper 30 36 33 .. .. 24 22 .. ..
Copper-Nickel Alloy 28 32 30 .. .. 23 .. .. ..
------ ------ ----- ------ ------ ------ ------ ------ -----
Silicon Bronze 28 32 30 28 .. 23 .. .. ..
Aluminum Bronze 28 32 30 .. 23 .. .. ..
Phosphor Bronze 28 32 30 23 .. 23 .. .. ..
- ----------
•Plus or minus about 10 percent. The lower voltages are normally used on light material and at low amperage; the higher voltages, with high amperage on heavy material.
the best for all. Normally, trial runs are necessary to adjust the arc voltage to
produce the most favorable metal transfer and weld appearance. More detailed
tests are required occasionally to determine the arc voltage that will produce a
weld with the best mechanical properties.
From ,any specific value of voltage, a voltage increase tends to flatten the
weld and increase the width of the fusion zone. Reductions in voltage tend to
result in narrower welds with a high crown and deeper joint penetration. Ex-
cessive crowning is accompanied by overlap and lack of fusion.
Experienced welders make use of the effect of a change in arc length to
achieve control of the weld pool during semiautomatic welding. For this reason,
they sometimes prefer a power source with a drooping volt-ampere characteris-
tic, since changes in the arc length can be made easily through wire-feed
adjustment. The degree of change of arc length is limited, however, since arcs
much shorter than 3/16 in. or longer than 5116 in. produce more spatter, are
unstable and may result in porosity. The adverse effect of a long arc is owing
to disruption of the gas shield.
Travel Speed.-For a fixed value of current and voltage, there is a single
travel speed that will result in a particular weld shape. If the travel speed must
be changed slightly, either the current or the voltage must be changed to retain
the weld shape. Significant changes in travel speed require the changing of
both the current and the voltage.
Increasing the travel speed without increasing the current or, alternately,
narrowing the weld by reducing the voltage, results in undercut. If the change
in travel speed is severe enough, a weld discontinuity forms. Undercut is the
result of an insufficient deposition of weld metal to fill the path that is fused
by the arc. The maximum speed that can be used without producing these
defects can be increased by utilizing long electrode extension, positioning the
weld groove so that it slopes downward at a small angle to the horizontal plane,
and using forehand technique.
Since the product of current and voltage is the rate at which the energy for
fusion is generated and the electrode supplies the weld metal, it follows that an
increase in travel speed with a fixed rate of energy input reduces the energy
delivered per unit length of weld and spreads the weld metal over a longer
distance. Less penetration and smaller welds are to be expected. At slow travel
speeds, the arc impinges on the molten metal in the puddle. The result is a
tendency to form a wider weld with deeper penetration.
Position.-By positioning the work with the weld axis at 15• to the horizontal
and welding downhill, a weld reinforcement can be flattened under conditions
of current, voltage and travel speed that would result in its being crowned with
the work in the flat position. Also, travel speed increases up to 50% usually can
be obtained.
Welding at top dead center on a rotating circular object will result in a
crowned weld or even a run-off of the molten metal. The arc is, therefore,
placed before top dead center.
To support the weld metal in the vertical and overhead positions of welding
against the pull of gravity, small diameter electrodes (0.045, 0.035 and 0.030
in.) are usually used to weld heavy sections with either short-circuiting metal
transfer or spray transfer with pulsed direct current. These methods of transfer
allow the molten puddle to freeze quickly. Vertical-down welding is usually
effective on sheet metal.
Electrode Extension.-The electrode extension is an important variable; as
the extension increases so does its electrical resistance and, consequently, the
amount of resistance heating. Since the resistance heating raises the electrode
temperature, less welding current is needed to melt the electrode as its extension
increases.
Long extensions require less arc current per unit weight of deposited metal
than short ones, or as the extension increases, the melting rate per ampere
increases. The extension varies from 114 to 112 in. in applications of short-
circuiting transfer, and from 112 to 1 in. or slightly more in applications of
drop transfer.
Long extension is used in overlay applications to achieve a high deposition
rate with a low current so that penetration into the base metal is minimized.
Use also has been made of long extension to permit higher welding speeds
without increasing the welding current when deep penetration is not important.
Electrode Diameter.-Both the usable current range and the electrode
melting rate are affected by the electrode diameter. Current ranges for gas metal-
arc welding with several diameters of a variety of metals were listed in Table
23.3. Current ranges for short-circuiting transfer with several diameters of steel
electrode were listed in Table 23.5.
At a given current value, more pounds of metal per unit can be deposited with
small diameter electrodes than with large diameter electrodes. It also follows
that penetration at a selected current value is greater with small diameter
electrodes than with large diameter electrodes (Fig. 23.21).
0.25r-------.------~-------,-----------,
:Z CURRENT-300 AMPERES
-o.zo POSITIVE ELECTRODE
LIJ
0 WELDING VOLTAGE- 26 VOLTS
~
0:: TRAVEL SPEED - 15 I.P.M.
cno.l5
:::;)
PLATE THICKNESS -5/161N.
;r:
9
LIJ
ID
Q.IO
z
0
~0::
1-
LIJ 0.05
z
UJ
0..
oL-----------L-----------L-----------~--------~
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20
ELECTRODE DIAMETER (IN.)
Fig. 23.21.-Change in penetration with electrode diameter at constant current
Power-Source Reactance and Slope.-The reactance and the slope of the

volt-ampere characteristic of a power-source are selected to match its dynamic
response to the requirements of the arc. Too much of either or both will result
in poor arc starting. Not enough of either or both can result in excessive spatter
and lack of fusion along the edge of the weld. This is especially apparent when
using an electrode of carbon steel and a shield of carbon dioxide.
The desired amount of slope is obtained by placing a reactance between the
power transformer and the rectifier. The degree of slope determines the amount
of short-circuit current that the power source is able to produce. The source's
ability to supply large amounts of current during the period when the wire has
touched the plate, or the puddle, is limited, and the arc is extinguished. Large
values of current during this short-circuit condition produce a rapid vaporiza-
tion of the electrode and violent agitation of the puddle. As a consequence,
droplets are expelled from the puddle. In addition, this agitation results in
splashing of the molten metal beyond the edges of the fused zone of the weld
and, because insufficient heat is available for melting the parent metal, a "roll
over" or "cold lap" is produced.
Slope is measured in units of volts per ampere. The range of values of slope
that a particular machine can be expected to produce can be obtained graphic-
ally by interpretation of the static volt-ampere curve. The curve can be con-
structed by observing and plotting the current at various voltages when using
a suitable resistance (rather than an arc) as a load.
Approximate slope values can also be determined as the following formula
shows:
Slope (voI ts I amperes ) = No Load A

Voltage - Load Voltage
C
rc urrent
If a reactance is placed in the d-e circuit between the rectifiers and the arc,
the response characteristic of the power source can be altered. Increased values
of reactance in the d-e circuit tend to delay the peak value of short-circuit
current. The arc can thus be re-established without upsetting the puddle.
By adjusting the balance between slope and the reactance in the d-e circuit,
low-current arcs can be stabilized and the spatter or other defects of such arcs
can be minimized.
Shielding Gas.-Because of the wide varieties available, this must be con-
sidered as a variable. Shielding gas characteristics and the selection of gases for
different alloys are discussed in detail in another section.
The main function of the shielding gas is to mechanically displace the
atmosphere to prevent contamination of the weld metal as it moves from the
electrode to the weldment. Intermittent and/ or distorted flow of gas through
the nozzle, loose gas hose connections, allowing air aspiration and contamina-
tion of the gas shield can cause porosity.
The flow of gas must be adjusted in accordance with the welding conditions
to assure adequate weld protection. A rough guide for a limited set of con-
ditions is shown in Table 23.10 (p. 23.54).
Cleanliness.-A major factor in the production of high-quality welds is
cleanliness. Electrodes generally are obtainable with varying quantities of
deoxidizers, but because these deoxidizers also affect the mechanical properties
of the weld metal, they are used sparingly. Foreign materials, such as rust,
grease, paint and scale from flame cutting or mill operations, require unusual
amounts of deoxidizers; if they are not available, gas is produced and porosity
results. Experience has shown that porosity is almost impossible to melt out
of a previous weld deposit, and, in fact, just the opposite can be experienced:
the porosity increases.
Porosity-free welds cannot be made consistently unless the joints are clean.
Ground, machined or chipped edges are the most reliable. Care must be taken
in the application of water or petroleum-base antispatter compounds to avoid
weld cracking by hydrogen absorption.
Table 23.10-Typical shielding gas flow rates* far gas metal-arc welding various materials
Spray-type arc- Short circuiting arc-

I,j6 in. diameter filler wire 0. 035 diameter filler wire
I
Materials
E c "'
.,;
'P,
c "'
.,;
'R
~~ .Si ~~ 0
~~
p;:oo
~0 Q ~0 0~
u.,-, i:S
q~ c0 ~~
...,
E c
0
c
-=
~1'-;'
o"'
coo
O'
.... -e c
§ eoo'e. ,,_
~~
o"'
0
.0
<"'
~e
u"'
'-<
OJ
u"'
'-< ~ ... ~
0:: << < < <

--- ----- - - - - - - --- -~--
--
Aluminum 50 100 80 - - 35 - - -
Magnesium 50 100 80 - - 35 - --- -
Carbon steel - - - 40 40 25 25 25 35
Low-alloy steel - - - 40 40 25 25 25 35
Stainless steel 40 - - 40 - 25 25 - 35
Nickel 50 100 80 - - 35 - - -
Nickel-copper alloy 50 100 80 - - 35 - - -
Nickel-chromium-iron alloy 50 100 80 - - 35 - - -
Copper 50 100 80 - - 30 - - -
Copper-nickel alloy (70-30) 50 100 80 - - 30 - - -
Sil!con bronze 40 80 60 - - 25 25 I - -
Aluminum bronze 50 100 80 - - 35 - - -
Phosphor bronze 40 80 60 40 - 25 25 - -
I I
•All rates are in cubic feet per hour and are ±40%. The lower rates are most suitable for indoor work and
moderate amperage welding; the higher rates, for high current, maximum speed and outdoor welding.
Joint Design.---Selection of a suitable joint design is sometimes the key to

welding success and reduced welding costs. The wide included angles and root
gaps used in submerged arc or shielded metal-arc welding to allow electrode
access and eliminate entrapped slag are usually not necessary in gas metal-arc
welding. The deep-penetration characteristic of gas metal-arc welding can be
taken advantage of to reduce the quantity of required weld metal and, con-
sequently, the welding costs. On joints deeper than the electrode extension,
the included angle of the groove should be increased, or a "J" groove con-
figuration should be used, to accommodate the gas nozzle.
Multiple-pass welding is commonly done automatically as well as semiauto-
matically. The slags produced in gas metal-arc welding melt readily and float;
therefore, sound joints are easy to produce especially when using high current
density spray-transfer techniques. Slag removal between passes need not be
meticulous; however, slag must be removed if the amount that accumulates
cannot be fused by the arc at the desired travel speed. Slag removal does be-
come desirable and necessary when low current density procedures are used,
especially on out-of-position joints on heavy sections.
Heat Sink.-Because of the very high deposition rate per ampere achieved
with gas metal-arc welding, attention must be paid to the heat sink characteris-
Gas Metal-Arc Welding j 23.55
tics of the parent metal. This factor must be considered when designing joints.
High-speed lap welds in the range of 150 ipm on 0.090 in. thick metal are
possible because the heat sink capability of the parent metal is limited and
fusion at the edges of the weld is achieved. The same electrode, current, voltage
and travel speed on 1/4 in. stock can, and usually do, result in a deposit with
cold-lapped or rolled-over edges. Heavy sections, particularly when cold or
when they are welded with minimum currents and short-circuiting transfer,
require special care. Heavy sections do not lend themselves to high-speed
stringer techniques.
Manipulation.-A welder who changes from a hand-fed covered electrode
to a motor-driven electrode finds other facets of gas metal-arc welding familiar.
Weaving, forehand techniques for high travel speed and backhand techniques
for larger fillets and grooves can be used with almost all ferrous alloys. Copper
alloys respond to backhand techniques and aluminum must be run with the
forehand technique.
Wider, less penetrating welds are possible by weave instead of stringer-pass
techniques of deposition. The use of weaving should be considered carefully,
however, when weld strength or other special properties are important since
weaving usually causes a reduction in the yield and tensile strength, but an
increase in ductility.
In general, the penetration of stringer beads deposited with a backhand tech-
nique is greater than the penetration with a forehand technique; and, because
the welder can observe the weld crater more readily, weld quality is usually
more consistent. Forehand technique permits the use of a higher welding speed,
and produces less deeply penetrating, wider welds. These have a more pleasing
contour, which makes the technique useful for capping multiple-pass welds.
Spot Welding
General.-Arc-spot welding uses the deep-penetration characteristic of con-
tinuous welding. The outstanding difference from continuous welding is that
arc-spot welds are produced at zero travel speed. The basic variables affect the
arc-spot weld in much the same manner as they do continuous fillet or groove
welds. A discussion of the operating variables follows.
Current.-As the current increases, the fusion zone becomes deeper and
narrower. Whenever possible, the penetration should be deep enough to provide
an inspection mark or drop-through on the bottom of the joint. Copper backing
is desirable to control the drop-through.
Voltage and Arc Length.-The reinforcement diameter and, consequently,
the interface diameter, are controlled by the voltage. The usual practice is to
obtain the largest possible diameter by running at a higher voltage, and thus
greater arc length, than is normal for continuous welding. As the voltage in-
creases, the weld reinforcement becomes flatter. The shrinkage cavity some-
times obtained on top of the weld reinforcement, if not excessive, does not
affect the strength of the joint.
Electrode Diameter.-Use of the largest possible electrode diameter is de-
sirable because higher short-circuit currents can be obtained to aid penetration.
Further, the cross section of the arc is bigger, and a wider interface diameter
is produced. An electrode of 0.035 in. diameter should be used on mild steel
of 18 gage or less; one of 0.045 in. diameter for 14 to 16 gage and one of 1/16
in. or larger diameter for gages in excess of 14. The diameter of an electrode
of high electrical resistance, such as stainless steel, must be larger than one of
carbon steel in order to obtain the same short-circuit current.
Electrode Extension.-The extension of the electrode is usually as short as
possible to increase the current and penetration and to decrease the volume of
melted electrode. Because too short a distance between the current contact and
the work results in fusion of the electrode to the contact, control of this distance
is very important. The manual guns are equipped with a vented nozzle that
surrounds the arc and acts as a "fixture" to mechanically hold the correct dis-
tance between the contact and the work. Relatively small changes in this distance
can produce a totally unacceptable end result. Automated operations do not
usually require special nozzles.
Position.-Three o'clock and overhead arc-spot welds can be made on 18-
gage and thinner material with excellent results. With 16-gage material, there
will be indications of droop or entire fallout of the molten puddle. All heavier
thicknesses generally are successful only in the flat position.
Arc Time.-If arc-spot welds of acceptable quality are to be made con-
sistently, the constant arc time must be maintained. Because of the normal
variation in arc-ignition time, the uniformity of arc-spot welds increases as
the arc time is lengthened. Arc times less than 0.5 second are marginal. Elec-
tronic timers provide the best consistency and can be reset most accurately.
Pulsed Current.-On thin sections ( 18 and 20 gage) and heavy sections
( 1/4 to 3/8 in.), pulsed current is desirable. Experience has shown that two
one-second arc times spaced by a very insignificant "off time" result in larger
interface diameters and less porosity than one two-second arc time.
Arc Stabilization.-slope and reactance are us,able on thin sections but un-
desirable on heavy sections. At heavy currents and high rates of electrode feed,
slope and reactance make arc starting troublesome and the desirable high short-
circuit currents are not obtained. The high current density spray-transfer arcs
are inherently stable.
Shielding Gas.-The volume flow rate of the shielding gas should be reduced
to 25% of the flow rate for continuous welding. Use should be made of the gas
or gas mixture that will produce the shortest arc length per volt and meet the
shielding requirements of the metal being welded. In the case of mild steel, plain
carbon dioxide is desirable because the arc is below the surface of the puddle
at a high current density. The heat source is thus positioned close to the joint
interface with a consequent increase in the area of interface fusion.
Cleanliness.-Cleanliness is especially important in arc-spot welding. With
proper cleaning, inclusions and cold laps at the interface can be minimized.
Elimination of oxide films on the surface makes available more of the deoxi-
dizer in the electrode for prevention of carbon monoxide generation in the
weld metal.
Joint Design.-Two or more pieces of material can be joined together without
any holes or other joint preparation. Clamping pressure to hold the parts to-
gether is usually not necessary. Small gaps can be tolerated (up to 0.060 in.)
between the faying surfaces on noncritical weldments. Gap variations require
varying amounts of weld metal and can affect the uniformity of appearance
of the weld-metal reinforcement.
Holes can be drilled or punched in the top piece or pieces for a "plug"
welding technique. Care must be taken to initiate the arc on the bottom plate
instead of the hole sidewall, to ensure fusion instead of cold lap in the bottom
of the hole.
EQUIPMENT
Semiautomatic Continuous Welding
General.-The basic equipment required for semiautomatic gas metal-arc
welding consists of a power source, a wire feeder, a wire-feed control mechan-
ism, the necessary interconnecting hose and cable assemblies, ,and a gun. A
source of cooling water, if required for the gun, and a regulated source of
shielding gas complete the required equipment. The schematic diagram in
Fig. 23.2 indicated the required basic equipment.
Gun.-The guns are generally shaped like a pistol or like an oxyacetylene
torch; however, a straight-barrel type may be used. Welding guns are normally
equipped with a trigger switch that controls all the functions necessary to make
the weld. Welding current enters the electrode through a current contact. The
guns may be air cooled or water cooled as required for the application.
Air-cooled guns are available for service up to 600 amperes with carbon
dioxide gas. There are three general varieties of air-cooled guns:
1. A gun to which the electrode is pushed from a remote electrode feeder
through a conduit with a length of approximately 12 feet.
2. A gun with a self-contained electrode feeder and electrode supply.
3. A gun with a self-contained feeder for pulling the electrode through a
50 to 100 foot flexible conduit from a remote electrode feeder that pulls
the electrode from the supply spool and pushes it into the conduit.
Water-cooled guns are also available in a variety of sizes and shapes. The
cooling water is directed through passages to cool the current contact and gas
nozzle.
Both types of guns are equipped with metal nozzles of various internal di-
ameters to obtain adequate gas shielding. This orifice usually varies from 3/8
to 7/8 in. depending upon electrode size and welding requirements.
Current is introduced into the electrode through contact tips or clamped
contact tubes of threaded copper or copper-base alloys. To obtain optimum
current input into the electrode, the tips and tubes are supplied in various hole
sizes. The proper size is selected on the basis of the electrode size and type.
ln feeding a soft electrode, a plastic liner is used in the conduit to minimize
drag. Extreme care must be taken in the feeding of small diameter soft elec-
trodes; for this reason, pull or push-pull systems are often used.
Electrode Feeders.-The electrode-drive mechanisms contained in the guns
consist of small motors and drive rolls. These motors are usually electric or
compressed-air powered with adjustable fixed speed. In push-pull systems, the
two motors are synchronized to avoid damage to the electrode.
Electrode feeders for semiautomatic gas metal-arc welding vary considerably
in individual design. Unit speed controls may be mechanical, electromechanical
or electronic. Most electrode feeders are now designed for use with constant-
potential power sources. The welding current is controlled by increasing or
decreasing electrode speed for a given setting of the power source. With con-
stant-current power sources, a volta~e-sensin~ circuit is required to m~nWn.
the desired arc length for a given current setting of the power source by varying
the electrode speed.
The electrode feeder may contain solenoids for controlling the gas and water
flow. The electrode supply can be separate or mounted on the electrode feeder.
Controls are either on the electrode feeder or separate for remote operation.
The controls consist of inching switches, purge switches, electrode-feed ad-
justment, solenoids and a braking system to prevent electrode overrun. Inching
switches provide the means of threading and retracting the electrode without
energizing it. Purge switches provide the means of manual control of gas and
water solenoids. Some models have time delays for postgas purge, water pres-
sure switches to ensure coolant flow and meters to indicate load on electrode-
feed motors.
Gas-flow regulating equipment generally consists of a single- or dual-stage
pressure-reducing regulator and a gas-measuring flowmeter, both of which are
often incorporated into the same unit. Mixing units can proportion two or more
gases to provide the desired shielding gas mixture, and gas supply can be
obtained in cylinders or bulk tank installations.
Power sources for manual or semiautomatic gas metal-arc welding are de-
scribed in Chapter 25.
Automatic Continuous Welding
Equipment for automatic gas metal-arc welding has the same basic com-
ponents as shown in Fig. 23.2. A straight holder is usually employed, with
either concentric or external gas shielding. The holder may be mounted directly
at the electrode-feed rolls or connected to the head by means of a flexible
electrode conduit. Controls are normally remotely located and include electrode-
feed controls with provisions for braking, burn-back timers to prevent the
electrode from freezing to the weld, inching switches, weld switches, gas and
water solenoids and switches, and meters.
One of several arc-starting systems also may be included in the control cir-
cuitry: one, a slow-speed start in which the wire-feed speed is slow until the
arc is initiated; two, a retract start in which the wire is touched to the work
and then retracted to draw an arc. With constant-potential power sources, the
arc can be started by merely feeding the wire to the work.
Most controls for automatic welding contain provisions for operation from
an operator's station, from limit switches or from weld duration timers. They
are so arranged that their circuits can be properly oriented with the fixture
controls so that full weld programming can be achieved. Gas-flow regulating
equipment and power sources are the same as those used for semiautomatic
equipment.
Spot Welding
The conventional pistol-grip holder is used for semiautomatic arc-spot weld-
ing. For automatic arc-spot welding, the straight machine holder can be used.
A heavier gas nozzle with slots to allow the shielding gas to exhaust is usually
used for both automatic and semiautomatic welding. Electrode feeders and
welding heads are the same as used for continuous gas metal-arc welding.
Controls for arc-spot welding usually contain a weld-duration timer activated
at arc initiation, a burn-off timer to prevent electrode sticking to the weld, a
device permitting off-time for pulse welding and provision for delay in gas and
water shut-off. Inching switches also are provided. Gas flow controls and p0wer
sources are the same ras those used for continuous gas metal-arc welding.
Electrogas Welding
Electrogas welding utilizes fully automatic equipment. It consists of either
a vertical track or a chain lift to support a carriage, which together provide
vertical and horizontal travel. Water-cooled copper shoes which are used to
form the weld cavity are attached to the carriage for vertical travel. Welding
head, controls, and electrode reels also may be mounted on the carriage. The
electrode is fed into the weld cavity through the feed rollers, the electrode
conduit and the current contact. Gas shielding is provided in the weld cavity.
An adjustable oscillator is provided to move the electrode through the joint
for uniform distribution of heat and weld metal. A schematic diagram of the
typical electrogas equipment in the weld area is shown in Fig. 23.22. The
electrode feeder may be equipped to feed two wires into the cavity.
FIXED DAM SUPPORT ARM
OSCILLATOR
AUXILIARY GAS BOX
Fig. 23.22.-Schematic of typical electrogas eqnipment in weld area
Controls for electrogas welding include one for synchronization of vertical

rise of the head with rise of the molten metal, an oscillator control (for fre-
quency, amplitude, and dwell) and regulation for welding current, water flow,
and gas flow.
Welding power sources are generally of larger capacity than those used for
general metal-arc welding because of the long weld cycles. See Chapter 25 for
more details. Either constant-potential or constant-current machines are used.
Auxiliaries and Accessories

Filler wire feeders, gas control equipment and oscillators are the same as
are used for gas tungsten-arc welding. The same traversing mechanisms are
also used, but there are also hand-held, two-wheeled travel devices for use
with semiautomatic equipment. These maintain proper gun angle, holder-to-
work distance and travel speed. The operator merely supplies the guidance.
Commercially available wire stands permit the use of 750 pound spools of
wire. Turntables and wire pay-off devices are available for use with pay-off
packs of various weights.
Adjustable Booms
Booms are available to suspend electrode and filler wire driving units above
the work area so that they can swing to various welding stations.
BASE METALS
Gas metal-arc welding may be used quite readily and reliably for welding
virtually any of the metals and alloys that can be welded by the other arc and
gas welding processes. This includes a majority of the aluminum, magnesium,
iron, nickel and copper alloys, as well as titanium, zirconium and some other
types. The gas metal-arc process is not only capable of satisfactorily welding
these various metals, but in a good many instances is the £astest and most
satisfactory method for doing so. For example, no other process is as good or
fast for welding aluminum, magnesium, copper and many of their alloys.
Alloys of aluminum are numerous. Some are readily weldable and some
are not. The relatively pure aluminum alloys and those with either manganese
or magnesium as the main alloying elements are the most readily and satis-
£actorily welded. In wrought form, these are usually considered as strain-
hardening types, since strain produced by cold rolling is the chief means used
for strengthening. The age-hardening aluminum-magnesium-silicon type alloys
may also be welded quite readily. However, the high-strength, precipitation-
hardening alloys are not so readily weldable and, in fact, quite often cannot be
satisfactorily arc welded. The precipitation-hardening aluminum alloys usually
contain large amounts of copper.
In welding the strain-hardening aluminum alloys, the usual practice is to
use a filler wire of similar composition to the base metal. For welding the
aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloys, a 5% silicon-aluminum ( 4043) type filler
wire is usually used, although an aluminum-magnesium type filler wire may be
used to advantage in some oases.
For joining aluminum-magnesium-silicon alloy sections to aluminum-mag-
nesium plating or fittings, aluminum-magnesium type filler wire should always
be used. A good general rule to follow is to weld all joints with an aluminum-
magnesium type filler wire whenever there is an aluminum-magnesium alloy
component in the joint. When aluminum-magnesium alloys are not involved,
either aluminum-silicon or aluminum-magnesium alloy type filler wire may be
used.
Iron-base constructional metals now include a broad variety of types. Nearly
Safety / 23.61
all may be satisfactorily joined by gas metal-arc welding. This includes the
virtually carbon-free irons, the low-carbon and low-alloy steels, the high-
strength quenched and tempered steels, at least some of the so-called super-
alloy and super-high-strength steels, the chromium irons and steels, high-nickel
steels and stainless steels. However, the application methods and procedure
practices may differ considerably. As a rule, for welding the lower carbon and
low-alloy irons and steels, either carbon dioxide or argon-oxygen mixtures are
satisfactory for arc shielding. On the other hand, for welding the more highly
alloyed irons and steels, carbon dioxide is rarely suitable because of too great
oxidation of the alloying elements and degradation of the finished joints. For
that reason, in welding the iron-base alloys with over about 3% of total alloy,
inert gas with 1 to 2% oxygen is generally preferable. Pure inert gas may be
essential in some cases, notably in welding certain of the nickel steels and
super alloys.
Copper and many of its alloys, including manganese bronze, aluminum-
bronze, silicon-bronze, phosphor-bronze, cupro-nickel and some of the tin
bronzes may be successfully welded by the gas metal-arc process. To obtain
high-quality welds in copper, it is necessary to use deoxidized copper base
material and filler metal. For welding other copper-base alloys, with the excep-
tion of the zinc-bearing type, filler wires of approximately matching chemistry
are generally used. Copper-zinc alloys cannot be used as filler wire because
zinc boils at a relatively low temperature (1663°F/906°C), and vaporizes
under the intense heat of the electric arc. However, satisfactory welds can be
made with proper techniques in manganese bronze and other copper-zinc
alloys through use of aluminum-bronze alloy filler wires.
Nickel, nickel-copper alloy (Monel), nickel-chromium-iron (lnconel) and
most other nickel alloys can be quite satisfactorily welded by the gas metal-arc
process. A precaution that should always be observed in welding these metals
is removal of all foreign material in the vicinity of the weld or heated area,
including the surface that may be away from contact with the welds. This is
because the nickel alloys are susceptible to severe embrittlement and cracking
when heated in contact with such foreign materials as lead, phosphorus and
sulfur. Furthermore, the use of oxygen as an addition to the inert shielding
gas should be avoided in welding the nickel alloys, since it will produce oxide
films and inclusions in the deposits and rough, heavily oxidized weld surfaces.
Magnesium, titanium, zirconium and many of their alloys also can be welded;
however, special precautions must be taken with titanium and zirconium to
prevent atmospheric contamination of the welds and adjacent metal. These may
involve welding in enclosed, inert-gas filled chambers or the use of special gas
shielding methods, to ensure adequate inert-gas coverage and protection during
the entire period when the metal is hot and susceptible to atmospheric con-
tamination.
SAFETY
The safety precautions and protective equipment for shielded metal-arc
(covered electrode) welding are applicable, in general, to gas metal-arc and
gas tungsten-arc welding. (For further details refer to Chapter 9, Safe Practices
in Welding and Cutting, in Section 1 of the Sixth Edition of the Handbook.)
Welding helmets or full-face shields should be used, and all areas of the welder's
skin exposed to direct radiation from the arc should be covered. There is a
23.62/ Gas Shielded-Arc Welding
minimum of hot metal or slag spatter when the nonconsumable method is used,
and there is less danger of clothing fires than with shielded metal-arc welding.
Eye protection, however, is very important, and a somewhat darker shade of
protective filter glass is appropriate. Standard arc welding helmets, with lenses
ranging in shade from No. 6 for work using up to 30 amperes to No. 14 for
work using more than 400 amperes should be used. A glass that is too dark
should be avoided to prevent eyestrain. The upper part of the body should be
protected with a closely woven shirt with a tight collar and long sleeves. Leather
gloves are recommended. Adequate arc shielding should be set up to protect
other workers.
The general use of alternating current with high frequency requires special
protection. This method of arc stabilization uses frequencies in the radio
spectrum and, although a potential of 3000 volts is commonly used, it is not
dangerous from the standpoint of electric shock because the power is low.
However, if the welder's hands are not protected from the high-frequency
current, it may cause a painful burning sensation at the point of contact, and
may result in small skin burns which are difficult to heal. Good protection is
now provided by ,adequately insulated electrode holders.
Ozone is generated in small quantities as a result of the actinic effect of the
intense radiation of the arc on the oxygen in the atmosphere. Certain states
have passed laws concerning the maximum allowable concentration of the ozone
in the atmosphere, and it is recommended that this should not exceed approxi-
mately 1/10 of a part per million. Certain nitrogen oxides are formed around
the area of the arc, but these gaseous oxides and the ozone may be removed
by adequate ventilation.
Another problem is the decomposition of degreasers such as carbon tetra-
chloride, trichlorethylene and perchlorethylene into phosgene and other irritat-
ing products under the action of the powerful rays from the arc. It is desirable
to locate degreasing operations far enough from welding activities to remove
this hazard.
When materials that emit toxic fumes are welded, adequate precautions
should be taken. The most common toxic metal vapors that may be encountered
are those emitted by lead, cadmium, copper, zinc and beryllium.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"The 'One Knob Welder,'" A. F. Manz, Welding Journal, 47 (9), 720-725 (1968).
"Quality of Gas Metal-Arc Welding Wire," F. R. Coe, Ibid., 47 (8), 355s-363s
(1968).
"New Welding Current Pulsation Methods," E. P. Vilkas, Ibid., 47 (7), 549-560
(1968).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding of HY-130(T) Steel," A. Enis and R. T. Telford, Ibid.,
47 (6), 271s-278s (1968).
"Multiple-Electrode GMA Welding for Structural Steel," R. W. Morris, Ibid.,
47 (5), 379-385 (1968).
"High Deposition Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding," J. F. Saenger and A. F. Manz,
Ibid., 47 (5), 386-39l (1968).
"The Effects of Varying Electrode Shape on Arc, Operations and Quality of Welds
in 2014-T6 Aluminum," R. A. Chihoski, Ibid., 47 (5), 210s-222s (1968).
"High Speed Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding of Aluminum Sheet," I. B. Robinson,
"Ibid., 47 ( 1), 23-30 ( 1968).
Bibliography/ 23.63
"Straight Polarity Groove Welding of Thick Steel Plate," J. E. Jackson and H. B.
Sargent, Ibid., 46 (11), 905-914 (1967).
"Pulsating-Arc Fixed-Position Automatic Pipe Welding System," L. Mauskopf,
Ibid., 46 (11), 921-926 (1967).
"The Joining of Light-Wall Stainless Steel Piping," H. A. Sosnin, Ibid., 46 (10),
844-849 ( 1967).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding in Maintenance," A. P. Gnmelli and H. R. Field, Ibid.,
46 (9), 743-752 (1967).
"Preliminary Studies of Short-Circuiting Arc Welding of HY-80 Steel," T. H.
Hazlett and M. M. Poonawala, Ibid., 46 (5), 235s-240s (1967).
"The Pulsed Inert Gas Metal-Arc Welding of 1 In. Thick Titanium 721 Alloy,"
G. R. Salter and M. H. Scott, Ibid., 46 (4), 154s-167s (1967).
"Vertical Welding Utilizing the Gas Metal-Arc Process," H. B. Cary, N. A. Jorgen-
sen and R. L. Schnabel, Ibid., 46 (3), 184-197 (1967).
"Welding 18% Nickel Maraging Steel to A201 and A242 Steels," A. L. Cooper and
J. C. Worthington, Ibid., 46 (1), 1s-10s, (1967).
"The Comparative Weldability of Refractory Metal Alloys," G. G. Lessman, Ibid.,
45 (12), 540s-560s (1966).
"Techniques for Welding 7039 Aluminum with Various Inert-Gas Processes,"
J. A. Liptak, Ibid., 45 (12), 561s-568s ( 1966).
"Welding Aluminum Alloy 7039," I. B. Robinson and F. R. Baysinger, Ibid., 45
(10), 433s-444s (1966).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding as a Maintenance Tool," D. L. Caldwell, Ibid., 45 (9),
726-729 (1966).
"The Welding of New Solution-Strengthened Nickel-Base Alloys," R. G. Gilliland
and G. M. Slaughter, Ibid., 45 (7), 314s-320s (1966).
"Evolutionary Trends in Fabricating Aluminum Bronzes," F. E. Garriott, Ibid.,
45 (6), 481-492 (1966).
"Welding Characteristics of Advanced Columbium Alloys," J. M. Gerkin, Ibid.,
45 (5), 210s-226s ( 1966).
"C02 Welding with Solid Wire on Structural Work," W. E. West, Ibid, 45 (4),
265-274 (1966).
"Welded Beryllium-Copper Structures," B. M. MacPherson, Ibid., 45 (3), 183-190
(1966).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding of Titanium Plate Using a Flux Backing Technique," G. S.
Irons and R. A. Rosenberg, Ibid., 45 (3), 97s-102s (1966).
"Automation of the Gas Tungsten-Arc Spot Welding Process," E. P. Vilkas, Ibid.,
45 (1), 30-36 (1966).
"CO. Welding Is Today A Qualified Process Within Shipbuilding," B. Koch, Ibid.,
44 (12), 1005-1015 (1965).
"Short-Circuiting Gas Metal-Arc Welding of High Nickel Alloys," G. R. Stoeck-
inger, Ibid., 44 (11) 927-936 (1965).
"New Developments in Gas Metal-Arc Welding Control Systems," E. P. Vilkas,
Ibid .. 44 (10), 838-845 (1965).
"Out-of-Position Gas Shielded-Arc Welding of Heavy Aluminum Sections," C. L.
Mitchell, Ibid., 44 (9), 727-734 (1965).
"Precision Gas Tungsten-Arc Spot Welding," W. N. Canulette, S. A. Agnew and
N. E. Anderson, Ibid., 44 (6), 270s-274s (1965).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding of Low-Alloy Steel Pipe," R. T. Lohr and G. E. Watkins,
Ibid., 44 {5), 379-386 (1965).
"Welding of Heavy Beryllium-Copper Plate," E. E. Weismantel. Ibid .. 43 (11),
500s-503s (1964).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding of Stainless Steel Using Short-Circuiting Transfer," F. J.
Abella and R. P. Sullivan, Ibid., 43 (10), 839-846 (1964).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding of 18% Nickel Maraging Steel," D. A. Canonico, Ibid.,
43 (10), 433s-442s (1964).
"Automatic Welding of 9% Nickel Steel for Low-Temperature Service," J. J.
Wright and W. B. Sharav, Ibid., 43 (9), 745-752 (1964).
"Push-Pull Wire Feeding Extends Working Radius of Gas Metal-Arc Process,"
R. R. Lobosco and E. J. Ruland, Ibid., 43 (7,) 581-590 (1964).
"Gas Shielded-Arc Welding of 18% Nickel Maraging Steel," D. A. Corrigan, Ibid.,
43 (7), 289s-294s (1964).
"Improvement of Gas Metal-Arc Spot Welds," S. A. Agnew and W. N. Canulette,
Ibid., 43 (4), 184s-192s (1964).
"Gas Metal-Arc Spot Welding of Magnesium," R. D. Koeplinger and L. F. Lock-
wood, Ibid., 43 (3), 195-201 (1964).
"Advances in Semiautomatic Gas Metal-Arc Welding of Steel," R. T. Telford and
K. E. Richter, Ibid., 42 (10), 797-806 (1963).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding of AZ31B Magnesium Alloy Sheet," L. F. Lockwood,
Ibid., 42 (10), 807-818 (1963).
"Utilization of CO. Welding in Construction and Manufacturing," W. G. Brooks
and C. D. Brown, Ibid., 42 (6), 479-488 (1963).
"Automatic Vertical Welding and its Industrial Applications," R. J. Franz and
W. H. Wooding, Ibid., 42 (6), 489-494 (1963).
"New Developments in Gas Shielding," E. F. Gorman, Welding Journal, 41 (8),
728-734 (1962).
Welding with the Carbon Dioxide Welding Process, B. C. Motl, A. 0. Smith Cor-
poration, Welding Products Division (1962).
CO, Shielded Consumable Electrode Arc Welding, A. A. Smith, British Welding
Research Association, February 1962.
"Considerations on the Use of Gas Mixtures in Shielded Arc Welding with Con-
sumable Electrodes," L. Wolff and M. Komers, Welding Journal, 40 (12), 536s-539s
(1961).
"Argon-Shielded, Alternating Current Metal-Arc Welding," C. R. Sibley, Ibid.,
40 (11), 481s-488s (1961).
"Gas Metal-Arc Welding Aluminum with Large Diameter Fillers," J. A. Liptak,
Ibid., 40 (9), 917-927 (1961).
"Gas-Shielded Consumable Electrode Arc Spot Welding in Industry," R. P. Sullivan,
Ibid., 40 (11), 1130-1136 (1961).
"Inert-Gas-Shielded Arc Welding of Ferrous Metals," G. R. Rothschild and A.
Lesnewich, Welding Research Council Bulletin, No. 70, July 1961.
"Hot Cracking Test for CO. Metal Arc Welds," P. W. Ramsey, R. A. Keidel, and
J. N. Kuhr, Welding Journal, 39 (5), 219s-224s (1960).
"New Techniques for Cladding with the Gas Shielded Process," R. D. Engel, Ibid.,
39 (12), 1222-1229 (1960).
"Control of Melting Rates and Metal Transfer in Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding,"
A. Lesnewich, Ibid., 37 (9), 418s-425s (1958).
"CO.-Shielded Arc Welding of Steel," P. C. van der Willigen and L. F. Defize,
Schweissen u. Schneiden, 9 (2), 50-59 (1957), Translation Philips Welding News, No.
83, 2-14 (1957).
"The Gas Shielded Metal Arc-Welding Process," Jesse S. Sohn and A. N. Kugler,
Welding Journal, 27 (11), 913-915 (1948).
_ _ _ _CHAPTER 24
SUBMERGED ARC WELDING
Fundamentals of Process 24.2
Equipment 24.16
Materials 24.19
Process Applications 24.22
Process Variables 24.22
Welding Technique 24.27
Types of Welds 24.39
Alloy Flux Procedures 24.42
Weld Quality 24.42
Bibliography 24.66
PREP AR.ED BY A COMMITTEE CONSISTING OF:
R.J.FRANZ N. G. SCHREINER
Union Tank Car Co.-Chairman Linde Division
Union Carbide Corp.
P. E. MASTERS
American Bridge Division J.J.REVELT
U. S. Steel Corp. Lincoln Electric Co.
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 24
FUNDAMENTALS OF THE PROCESS

SUBMERGED ARC WELDING IS defined by the American Welding Society as an
arc welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating with an arc or
arcs between a bare metal electrode, or electrodes, and the work. The arc is
shielded by a blanket of granular, fusible material on the work. Pressure is
not used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode and sometimes from
a supplementary welding rod. The fusible shielding material is known as the
melt, flux or welding composition; however, for purposes of uniformity, this
material will be referred to as flux throughout this chapter, although it per-
forms functions in addition to those of a flux.
In submerged arc welding, there is no visible evidence of the passage of
current between the electrode and the workpiece. The end of the electrode and
the welding zone are always surrounded and shielded by an envelope of molten
flux on which is superimposed a layer of unfused flux in a granular state. The
electrode is not in contact with the workpiece; the current is carried across
the gap through the fluid flux. Fluxes are specially manufactured mineral com-
positions formulated so that, even when they are brought to the high temperature
of the welding zone, appreciable amounts of gas are not evolved. In their usual
Fundamentals of Process / 24.3
finely divided, granular free-flowing state, they are laid either manually or auto-
matically along the seam to be welded in advance of the electrode.
Since the end of the electrode and the welding zone are completely covered
at all times during the actual welding operation, the weld is made without the
sparks, spatter, smoke or flash commonly observed in other arc welding proc-
esses. No protective shields or helmets are necessary; safety glasses should be
worn as routine protection for the eyes and may be tinted for protection against
flash from adjacent arc welding operations. Since welding in general may pro-
duce fumes and gases hazardous to health, it is common practice to provide
adequate ventilation, especially where submerged arc welding may be done in
confined areas. Figure 24.1 shows how a submerged arc groove weld may be
made.
The flux is the basic feature of submerged arc welding and makes possible
the special operating conditions that distinguish the process. The flux, when
cold, is a nonconductor of electricity, but in the molten state it becomes a
highly conductive medium. It is necessary, therefore, to provide an initial
conductive path for the welding current when the weld is started. This is some-
times accomplished, particularly with a-c power, by placing a small wad of
steel wool between the end of the welding electrode and the workpiece before
the welding current is switched on. When welding current flows through this
momentary short circuit, the steel wool ignites and starts an arc which melts
the surrounding flux. Another method commonly used is to strike an arc beneath
the flux by momentarily touching the end of the electrode to the workpiece.
In still another method of initiating the process, a high-voltage, high-frequency
current is superimposed on the welding current in order to create an ionized
path before the electrode touches the work. The heat produced by these methods
causes the surrounding flux to become molten, thus forming a conductive path
ELECTRODE ...
FEEDS DOWN TO ARC-
MOVES TO RIGHT
AIR
FRE~ZlNG
WELD METAL
Fig. 24.1.-S~hematic representation of the submerged arc welding process

24.4 /Submerged Arc Welding
kept molten by the continued flow of welding current. The upper, visible portion
of the flux is not melted. It remains unchanged in appearance and properties,
and it can be reused.
In its molten state, the flux provides exceptionally suitable conditions for un-
usually high current intensities, thus generating great quantities of heat. The
insulating properties of the flux concentrate this intense heat into a relatively
small welding zone, where the continuously fed welding electrode and the base
metal are rapidly fused. The deep penetration associated with this concentration
of heat makes smaller welding grooves practicable, thus reducing the amount
of filler metal required and making increased rates of progression (welding
speed) possible.
Furthermore, the flux protects the molten pool against the atmosphere by
sealing it in an envelope of molten flux. Flux acts as a cleanser for the weld
metal, modifies its chemical composition and influences the shape of the weld
metal area.
Because of the properties of flux, submerged arc welds can be made over a
wide range of welding currents, voltages and speeds, each of which can be
controlled independently of the other. Each of ·these factors of itself affeots to
some degree the shape of the weld metal area, the weld metal chemistry and
fluxing activity as well as the mechanical and metallurgical properties of the
joint.
Clearly, even relatively thick joints may be completed by submerged arc
welding in a single pass or by means of two heavy single passes, one on each
side of the joint, or by conventional multipass methods.
In single-pass welds, a considerable amount of base metal is fused compared
to the amount of filler metal fused. The base metal, therefore, may greatly
influence the chemical and mechanical properties of the deposit, making it
unnecessary to use electrodes of the same composition as the base metal for
welding many of the low-alloy steels.
Welds made in this manner, under the protective layer of flux, have unusually
good ductility, impact strength, uniformity, density and corrosion resistance, as
well as low nitrogen content. Generally, the weight of the flux melted is equal
to 1 to 1.5 times the weight of the filler metal added. Mechanical properties
at least equal to those of the base metal are consistently obtained. (See Tables
24.1 through 24.6.)
Welds of uniformly high quality require good-quality, homogeneous base
materials, free from rust, scale, moisture and other surface impurities. Special
welding techniques and pass sequences are necessary when less homogeneous
base metals, containing slag, laminations or other imperfections, are welded.
Segregated sulfides in the base metal are particularly undesirable, since heavy
sulfur banding or segregation contributes to cracking along the dendritic
boundaries as the weld metal cools. The extent of such cracking can be mini-
mized by the use of multipass welding.
The distinct dendritic structure seen in macroetched cross sections of single-
pass welds made by this process has sometimes been misinterpreted. Dendritic
structure, as encountered in castings, is generally considered undesirable, and
it has been assumed that it is equally undesirable in weld metal. Test data and
service experience, however, have proved conclusively that these assumptions
are not warranted and that the welds are satisfactory in the as-welded condition.
It may be noted from Fig. 24.2 that, in spite of the dendritic structure, the weld
Fundamentals of Process I 24.5
Fig. 24.2.-Submerged arc weld in 2 in. plate: top-as-welded; bottom-after nor-

malizing, columnar structure is almost completely removed
metal is more amenable to normalization and recrystallization than the base
metal. Moreover, it has definitely been established that the protection afforded
by the flux against atmospheric contamination has much to do with the excep-
tional mechanical properties of the weld deposit.
The chemical composition and properties of the multipass weld depend to
a far greater extent on the composition of the electrode, the activity of the flux
and the welding conditions used. The influence of the base metal can be mini-
mized by welding procedures that restrict the amount fused into the weld metal
area. Some typical properties are given in Tables 24.7 and 24.8.
The data in Fig. 24.3 indicate the deposition rates that may be expected
from the various kinds of submerged arc welding. Comparable data for manual
arc welding are also given.
Factors for consideration in the choice of a particular installation may be:
use of alternating or direct current, use of single or multiple arcs, type of
control, type of power source and special applications.
POWER SUPPLY
Alternating or Direct Current
Welding with d-e power provides more versatile control over the bead shape,
penetration and speed; in addition, arc starting is much easier. Direct current
lo.)
Table 24.1---Mechanical properties of single-pass welds in steels conforming to ASME specifications ,.
Oo
SA-515 SA-515 ........
Gr. 55 SA-202A SA-203B SA-204B Gr. 70 SA-225A SA-285C
~
0"
S.R.• A.W,b S.R. A.W. S.R. A.W. S.R. S.R. A.W. S.R. ~
0.505' All Weld Metal Tension Test
Yield point, psi 37,000 61,000 66,500 61,000 .... 53,400 56,800 54,300 46,700
mtimate strength, psi 66,000 87,500 82;600 87,000 82,000 .... 78,300 77,700 72,000 67 ,aoo
Elongation in 2 in., % 34.0 21.5 27.5 23.0 27.5 30.0 31.0 30.0 33.5
Reduction in area, % 53.3 36.0 ~.5 56.5 58.0
....
.... 58.6 59.6 59.0 62.0
i~
Transverse Tension Test ;::
Yield point, psi 45,300 .... 55,000 . ... ... 54,800 38,100 .... .... . ...
mtimate strength, psi 69,300 .... 78,400 . ... ..... 79,800 73,900 .... . ... . ...
Failure In weld .... In plate . ... .... In weld In plate .... . ... . ... ~
Hardness
Brinell .... . ... .... .... . ... 166 146 . ... 145 120 ~
~-
• S.R., stress relieved.
b A.W., as welded.
Table 24.2-Fatigue properties of single-pass submerged arc welds (rotating beam)
mtimate Yield Point, Elongation Reduction in Charpy Im- Limiting Stress 10,000,000
Weld No.• Condition Strength, psi psi in2in.,% Area,% pact, ft-lb b Reversals, psi
1 A.W.• 62,700 (3,000 30.7 57.0 36.5 32 •()()()...35 •000

1 S.R,d 59,200 35,000 35.5 66.0 33.5 32 ,()()()-35 ,000
1 N• 54,700 32,700 39.0 67.5 36.8 32 ,OOQ-35 ,000
2 A.W. 68,200 47,100 28.7 51.5 25.8 35 ,OOQ-38. 000
2 S.R. 63,000 37,700 33.7 63.8 31.2 35 ,OOQ-38 ,000
2 N 60,250 38,200 35.8 64.0 32.5 35 •()()()...38 •000
- -
a Weld No. 1, rimmed steel, 2 in. thick (ASTM A-285C). Weld No. 2, silicon-killed steel, 2'.11 in. thick (ASTM A-201A).
b Charpy impact tests made at room temperature using keyhole notch.
• A.W., as-welded.
d S.R., stress relieved.
•N, normalized.
LBS DEPOSITED PER MINUTE
w :... .... 0.. ;::: .., 0
~
~
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
g
...g
.,.
0
0
"'
0
0
,.
~ 0
m 0
"'
m
~
0
~
0
0
...
0
0
.,.
0
0
"'
0
0
~
Fig. 24.3.-Approximate deposition rate of submerged arc process on mild steel
is preferred (1) where fast, accurate arc striking is essential, (2) where close
arc control is needed and (3) where difficult contours are to be followed at
maximum speeds.
Control of the bead shape is best with direct current reverse polarity ( elec-
trode positive), because of a more regular condition at the toe of the weld and
because there is less molten metal. Highest deposition rates are obtained with
direct current straight polarity (electrode negative). Direct current reverse
polarity provides maximum penetration. Minimum penetration is obtained with
direct current straight polarity, and a degree of penetration in between the
two is provided by alternating current. Some of the reasons for selecting direct
current are shown in Fig. 24.4.
Alternating current minimizes arc blow. This assumes increasing importance
at high welding currents. Alternating current is usually preferred for the trail
arc or arcs for multiple-wire, multiple-power welding. Two arcs in close prox-
imity (about 4 in. or less apart) are affected by each other's magnetic field. Two
d-e arcs of like polarity flare together, whereas arcs of unlike polarity flare
apart. If one a-c and one d-e arc are employed, this action can be controlled.
This combination is the easiest to apply for work where the application varies
from day to day. When two a-c arcs are used, the flare between the arcs can
be controlled still further and can be directed so that the arc blow and lagging
of the arc at high speeds can be counteracted.
Alternating current for multiple-power welding is either two phase or three
24.8 I Submerged Arc Welding
Table 24.3-Typical mechanical properties of single-pass welds in carbon and low-alloy steels
A242 A440 0.45% Carbon

(ASTM Designation) (ASTM Designation) 1.25% Mn
- - - - - -- - -
A.w.• S.R.t A.w.• S.R.t A.w.• S.R.t
---- ---- ----- - - - - -----
0.505' All Weld Metal
Tension Test Yield
point. psi 58.500 51.000 63,150 61,000 ····· ....
illtimate strength, psi 81,500 75,000 89.100 84,000 ····· ....
Elongation In 2 in., % 23.0 27.5 22.6 29.5 ..... ....
Reduction in area, % 50.8 61.1 55.6 62.0 ..... ....
Transverse Tension
Test Yield point, psi 55,400 55,700 .... . ... . ....
89 ;6oo
illtimate strength, psi 80,220 76.740 .... .... 103,500
Break .... . ... .... . ... Weld Weld
Hardness
Base metal, Rb 81 77 92 ....
Weld metal, Rb 88 80 87 .... 31Rc 26ac·
Heat-affected zone, R b 85 79 93 .... ..... . ...
• As welded.
t Stress relieved.
phase, supplied either by Scott, open delta or full delta circuits connected to
transformers. As illustrated in Fig. 24.5, alternating current may be used where
arc blow cannot otherwise be eliminated, or on short welds where grounding
is a problem.
WELDING CURRENT CIRCUIT
In welding long seams, there may be a tendency for the welding current
to change slowly. This happens because the shape and electrical characteristics
of the circuit change as the weld progresses. A more uniform weld frequently
can be obtained by connecting the ground to both ends of the object being
welded. If only one ground connection is used, welding should proceed in a
direction away from it.
When welding the longitudinal seam of light-gage cylinders in a clamping
fixture against copper backing, it is usually best to connect the ground on the
bottom of the cylinder itself at the start end. If this is not possible, then the
ground should be attached to the clamping fingers of the fixture at the start
end. It is undesirable to ground the start end of the copper backing bar because
,.. Highest speed sheet A·C Single Arc

~ metal welds-start and
U--------" stop on each piece
IJ.;e where ar~Heavy plug welds,
blow can nat ... chain, etc.
otherwise be ~
All welds where goad Sk" ld
/(1
eliminated.
arc striking is ~p we 5
required @ ~¥·Short welds /I \..._ Inside weld on
Short welds----.. I__ /
where grounding~
small diameter
"Hot" starts ~-:, heavy tubes
is a problem y_j_LL).-J
~-Round-about welds where Multiple Arcs
smallest molten pool is
Best control over bead - required
shape, penetration, build·up ~
and burn-through ~Pantograph guiding
0
especially on
Contour welding - o edge welds
(vertical and flat planes) or any nonrepetitive welds
Fig. 24.4.-When to use single-arc d-e Fig. 24.5.-When to use a-c single arc
welding and multiple arcs
the current sometimes travels the length of the backup bar and enters the
cylinder at the finish end (where the pressure or sur£ace condition may make
the best contact). This current sets up a magnetic field around the full length
of the backup bar, creating porosity in the weld owing to arc blow, especially
near the finish end.
The cables carrying current to the welding head and to the ground connection
on the workpiece should be kept as close together as possible, and free of coils.
Cables should not be hung on or wrapped around metal objects, particularly
when alternating current is used.
MULTIPLE ARCS
Multiple arcs are used to increase melt-off rates and to direct the arc blow
in order to provide an increase in welding speed. Multiple arcs may also reduce
the freezing rate and porosity in the weld metal. Multiple-arc procedures may
be practiced either with a single power source feeding a number of electrodes
or with separate power sources feeding each electrode or a combination of
both. Examples of the first practice are called: (1) multiple-wire parallel power
technique and (2) two-wire series power technique. When separate power
sources are used, the practice is called the multiple-wire, multiple-power
technique.
Multiple-Wire Parallel-Power Technique
The multiple-wire parallel-power technique (two or more electrodes fed
..
through the same }aws supplied from a single power source) results in a
deposition rate more than double that
High deposition due
of a single electrode. The technique
---
Speed increased 50% to small electrodes
is used to increase speed on welds on heavy fillets __. at tiigh currents
where fill-in is a major consideration or any weld with wide vees Arcs in tandem
(for example, with large, flat-position
fillet or wide groove welds). The two ~~
arcs pull together, causing back blow Wide flat beads with less
~
at the front arc and forward blow at burn-through
the trailing arc. ·This relationship Arcs side II yWide gaps with backing
cannot be varied. This is the simplest

byside ~ · -
11
form of multiple-wire welding and Fast build-up for
surfacing with little
-- ~
usually results in about a 50% in- admixture {electrode negative)
crease in speed over a single arc. Fig. 24.6.-When to use two-wire paral-
Figure 24.6 indicates when this lel power welding
method is applicable. If more than
two electrodes are used, they may be arranged in a triangular or rectangular
pattern, which may be skewed in a manner calculated to best suit the joint and
desired weld deposit.
Two-Wire Series Power Technique
The two-wire series power technique is used to obtain high deposition rates
with a minimum of penetration into the base metal. When the electrodes are
in a position transverse to the direction of travel, a wide deposit results with
minimum dilution from the base metal. The technique is particularly valuable
for cladding surfaces with corrosion-resistant or wear-resistant alloys.
Each electrode in series arc welding operates independently, having its own
feed motor and voltage control. The power-supply cable is connected to one
~
,.
0
-
'-
~
0"
~
~
Table 24.4-Typical mechanical properties of single-pass welds in stainless steel
~
AISI Type 309 SCB, AISI Type 430,
~
AISI Type 304, J11 In. Thick AISI Type 347, %: In. Thick %ln. Thick Y. In. Thick ~
~
W.Q. 1950° Fb S.R., 1550° F•
A.W.• 1065° c A.W. 895° c A.W. H.T.d ~
0. 505' All Weld Metal Tension Test ;:;::
Yield point, psi 41,000-43,500 31 •000-44.000 43 •900-45 •000 37,500 41,800 59,700
Ultimate strength, psi 83 , OOQ-84 , 800 83 •OOQ-97 •500 83 •40Q-84. 500 87,000 80,000 75,700 ~·
Elongation in 2 in., % 51-55 49-58 38-41 46 45.3 28.0
Reduction in area, % 60-62 43-65 44-52 60 54.5 ......
Transverse Tension Test
Yield point, psi ....... . ...... ...... 37,500
Ultimate strength, psi ....... ....... ·······
. ...... ·······
. ...... ...... 72,000
Failure ....... . ...... . ...... ....... ...... Base metal
Charpy impact•
Notch in Center of Weld
Room temp., ft-lb 38 36 31 28 32 ......
-320° F (-195° C), ft-lb 26-30 28 17 17 ...... ......
Notch in Heat-Affected Zone
Room temp., ft-lb 55 5Q-63 41 36 ......
-320° F ( -195° C), ft-lb 36-42 41-47 47 27 ······
······ ......
---
• A.W., as welded.
b W.Q., water quenched.
• S.R., stress relieved.
d H.T., Heat treat at 1425° F (775° C) for hr and slow cool.
• Each value average of 3 to 9 tests. 10 X 10 mm. Specimens prepared according to Par. UG-84 of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Table 24.5-Typical mechanical properties of single-pass welds in nickel alloys
Nickel-Chromium- Nickel-Molybdenum
Iron (lnconel), In.
Nickel Nickel-Copper Cupro-Nickel
(Monel)
}4; Us A.W. I Annealed
0 505' All Weld Metal Tension Test
Yield point, psi 29,000
Ultimate strength, psi 57,200 68,200
Elongation in 2 in.,% 36.4 48.0
Reduction in area, % 58.0
Transverse Tension Test
Yield point, psi 35,600 45,100 35,000 57,000
Ultimate strength, psi 59,600 5i :iloo 84,400 83,900 104,000 115,000
Failure In weld In weld
Impact Tests,a test temperature
+68° F (+20° C), ft-lb 75.6 42.8
-166° F (-78° C), ft-lb 55.7 38.6
-297° F (-183° C), ft-lb 61.4 40.3
• 10-mm. Charpy keyhole notch specimen.

b A.W., as-welded.
Table 24.6-Strength af single-pass, nonpositioned fillet welds
Specimen Fillet Size, a In. Breaking Load, Weld Load,

"P," Lb Lb per Linear Inch Fracture
I I
Transverse Shear Tests
p p p
1 '/IG 69,000 23,000 In weld l:i

2
3
4
'/"
•;, 71,000
72,000
23,700
24,000
In
In
weld
weld
Ti"
ft:;"
1--lfr· •Is 73,000 24,300 In weld ~
~
---- 3"
I
t
~~- ------- Ti'·
tmm l Longitudinal Shear Tests
~
J::=:.. t ~
§
1 5/IG 97,000 16,200 In weld ..........
p p 2 5/16 94,000 15,700 In weld
...,
3 'Is 104,000 17,300 In weld p p
4 'I• 100,000 16,700 In weld
f"
TRANSVERSE SHEAR lONGITUDINAl SHEAR ......
---
a Fillet sizes given are from measurement of vertical leg.

Table 24.7-Physical properties of chrome-molybdenum multipass weld metal
Stress
Chemistry of Weld Deposit, % Relief Elonga-
Temperature Tensile Yield tion
Strength, Point, in
psi psi 2 in.
Cr Mo Mn S! •F •c %
0.67 0.58 0.89 0.41 1350 730 73,000 52,500 28.5

1.10 0.58 0.90 0.40 1350 730 72,400 52,000 29.0
2.20 1.00 0.95 0.40 1350 730 79,000 58.600 28.0
5.10 0.50 1.00 0.70 1375 745 85,000 65,000 25.5
5.10 0.50 1.00 0.70 Annealed Annealed 67,400 37,400 35.0
welding head and the return power cable is connected to the second welding
head instead of to the workpiece; thus, the two electrodes are in series. The
welding current travels from one electrode to the other through the weld puddle
and surrounding material. The wires are usually positioned at an angle of 45°
to each other, and transverse to the direction of travel. The distance between
the point of intersection of the electrodes and the surface of the work is the
most important factor in controlling the shape and quality of the deposited
metal.
The magnetic field surrounding the arc stream affects the shape of the weld.
The electrodes in series arc welding are of opposite polarity, thus creating a
force that tends to spread the ends of the arc away from each other and results
in a fanning or spreading of the arc zone.
Either alternating or direct current can be used, depending upon the applica·
tions. Alternating current is preferred for mild steel or stainless steel, whereas
direct current should be used for nonferrous applications. When direct current
is used, penetration is slighly deeper when the electrode is positive than when it
is negative. When a multipass, wide deposit is made, this condition can be
minimized by positioning the heads so that the positive electrode is located over
the previously deposited metal. A deposit that has an even penetration into the
base metal can be produced by this means.
Multiple-Wire, Multiple-Power Technique
Multiple-wire, multiple-power arcs (two or more electrodes each with a
separately controlled power source) have a speed advantage on both fill-in and
Table 24.8-Properties of multipass weld metal in A514Gr.F Steel
Chemistry of Weld Deposit, % Elonga.

Tensile Yield tionin
Strength, Point, 2 in.,
Cr Mo Mn Si Ni c psi psi %
- -- -- -- -- - ----
Plate 0.60 0.38 0.88 0.23 0.87 0.14 ....... ....... . ...
· - -- - - - - - - -
Weld 0.70 0.25 1.20 0.55 1.20 0.08 118,000 105,000 19.5
(as-welded)
--------
0.45 1.20 0.55 1.20 0.08 115,000 105,000 20.0
Weld 0.70
(stress-relieved)
Note: Charpy V-notch impact values of stress-relieved weld metal is 36 ft-lbs at 20°V ( -6.7°C) aud
21 ft-lbs at -50"11' ( -46•C).
square-groove welds. Two arcs in tandem usually increase the welding speed
and rate of deposition at least 100% over the single arc.
In order to control the bead shape at high speeds, it is necessary to have
control over the magnetic arc blow that is present when two arcs are close
together. Forward magnetic blow can be used to govern bead shape and reduce
undercutting. Some means of choosing the proper balance between back blow
and forward blow must be available. Where d-e power is used on all electrodes,
this balance might be obtained by interchange of electrode polarities and
position, relationship of current and voltage values, or arc spacing, but at best a
compromise occurs because of the limited polarity relationships between the
electrodes.
When a-c is introduced on one of the electrodes, there is a regular cyclic
change in polarity relationship between the a-c arc and the d-e arc. Each arc
then moves in accordance with the momentary field surrounding it. Adjustment
of the parameters noted in the paragrapl:J. above, but principally the welding
current and voltage, will place the trailing arc in a position pointing forward
for a sufficient part of the cycle to obtain the desired weld.
When alternating current is supplied to all the electrodes, there are several
possible ways in which the transformers can be connected to a three-phase line
for serving two electrodes in tandem. These are: ( 1) the closed delta, (2) the
open delta and ( 3) the Scott connection. Details of the connections are found
in Chapter 25, Arc Welding Power Sources. With these connections, there is
not only the regular cyclic change of polarity, but also a displacement of the
time at which the difference in polarity between the arcs occurs. Thus these
power-supply connections provide even greater control of the arc forces and
direction than those previously described.
The Scott connection is the most economical to set up and the simplest to use.
The amount of control is adequate for many applications. The welding currents
between adjacent arcs are displaced by approximately 90 degrees. The ground
currents are of reasonable magnitude to properly influence the result. This
connection is widely used for two-wire multipower welding in single-pass welds
of plate thicknesses and in deep groove multipass welds of heavy-walled pressure
vessels.
The open delta connection is also economical to set up, but generally requires
a reactor in the ground circuit in order to reduce the magnitude of the ground
current and thus bring the phase relation between the arc currents closer to 90
degrees. The full delta connection provides complete control over the phase
relation between the arc currents and the magnitude of the ground current and
is used to counteract heavy magnetic conditions that would otherwise affect
arc action.
A third arc supplied by a transformer properly phased with the other trans-
formers can produce a further increase in welding speed, as much as 50%
greater than that obtained with two arcs.
The necessity for considering the spacing between the arcs, the relation among
the various welding currents and voltages and the position and diameters of the
electrodes makes this technique most suitable for repetitive joints. Precise
welding procedures are established for various joint types and thicknesses from
parameters developed principally by experience with like or approximately
similar weldments and fixturing.
Direct current may be used for light-gage weldments. The polarities, spacing
24.14 / Submerged Arc Welding
and welding conditions of the individual electrodes are varied to suit the weld
result required and the surrounding fixturing. Where heavier material is to be
welded at least one arc should be alternating current. Where maximum control
of the amount and direction of arc blow is necessary, such as in deep-groove
multipass welds or where the magnetic conditions surrounding the joint interfere
with the arc action, alternating current should be supplied to each electrode; the
welding transformers should be connected in the relationship described earlier.
TYPES OF CONTROL
The method of arc length control by voltage or current can have considerable
bearing on the success of the application. Arc length control has two functions:
( 1 ) control of the electrode at the instant of arc striking, so that the electrode
does not freeze to the work when the arc is established and (2) maintaining
the correct arc length once the arc is established, even though there may be
sudden variations in the distance from the jaws to the work.
Arc striking is the more critical of the two requirements. Satisfactory arc
striking requires the best arc control available. Any type of control may be
adequate to maintain the proper arc length, as long as no radical changes in
contour are encountered (Fig. 24.7).
1. Arc Voltage Control One method of arc voltage control
Starting with work stationary retracts .the electrode to start the arc.
electrode in contact with work This is the best method for standing
retract start is best for starts and low-current welding, espe-
(a) Most sensitive control, especially
at high speeds and on any
cially at high speeds. The speed of
low current density welds the electrode feed is regulated when
sudden changes in the joint contour
ro
(b) Arc striking-start and stop
on each piece without ·.;. occur. Whenever close control of the
runoff tabs bead shape is essential, this method
@t= =' is recommended.

Arc voltage control without the
ability to retract the electrode is an-
(c) Quick changes in contour
2. Arc voltage control-one other method used. The control may
direction only be set to govern arc length by con-
(a) Economical installation trolling the feed in one direction
(b) Used with gas engine welding only. In this arrangement the elec-
machine for field work trode feed motor armament is con-
(c) Simplest for A-C welding machines nected directly across the arc. This is
3. Current control (modified constant satisfactory for high current density
potential) plus retract ancl voltage
control-a very short arc should be welding when repetitive starting is
held without electrode sticking no problem. It is probably the sim-
(a) 18-gage ~r other low ._ plest method, but it may not have
voltage applications ~ the sensitivity required for certain
types of work. Constant-voltage con-
(b) Tendency to melt into back-up
bar through wide gaps is
trol depends on high short-circuit
minimized current characteristics to keep the
(c) Where "hot" starts are required desired arc voltage. The current in-
(work or electrode moving before creases or decreases in order to ac-
contact) complish faster or slower electrode
Fig. 24.7.-Types of control melt-off to bring the arc length in-
to equilibrium. A constant-potential
power source and a constant-speed wire feeder are used.
ARC STARTING METHODS

The method used to start the weld in a particular application will depend on
such factors as the time required for starting relative to the total setup and
welding time, the number of pieces to be welded and the importance of starting
the weld at a particular place on the workpiece. There are several methods of
starting.
In the descriptions that follow, the actual controls and switches that are
operated to "start welding" are not always named since these controls differ
depending on the equipment being used. The instructions furnished with the
equipment indicate what controls are used to close the contactor, start the
travel carriage or perform other operations.
Fuse Ball Start
A tightly rolled ball of steel wool about 3/8 in. in diameter is positioned on
the workpiece directly beneath the welding wire. The welding wire is lowered
onto the steel wool, until the ball is compressed to about one half its original
height. The flux is then applied and welding is commenced. (This method is
rarely used today, having been replaced by faster, more positive methods of arc
striking.)
Sharp Wire Start
The welding wire protruding from the contact tube end, is snipped with a
pair of bolt cutters. This forms a sharp, chisel-like configuration at the end of
the wire. The wire is then lowered until the end just contacts the workpiece.
The flux is applied and welding is commenced.
Scratch Start
The welding wire is lowered until it is in light contact with the work, and the
flux is applied. Next, the welding current is applied immediately after the
carriage is started. (The motion of the carriage prevents the welding wire from
fusing to the workpiece.)
Molten Material Start
Whenever there is a molten puddle of flux, a weld may be started by simply
inserting the electrode into the puddle and applying the welding current. This
method is being regularly used in multiple-electrode welding. When two or more
welding wires are separately fed into one weld puddle, as is sometimes the case
in multiple-electrode welding, it is only necessary to start one wire to establish
the puddle. If this is done, the other wires will start when they are fed into the
molten puddle.
Wire Retract Start
Retract starting offers one of the most positive methods of arc striking but
the welding equipment must be designed to employ this procedure. It is used
when frequent starts have to be made and when starting location is important.
Normal practice is to move the electrode down until it just contacts the
workpiece, making sure that good electrical conductivity is established. Then
the end of the wire is covered with flux and the welding current turned on. The
voltage on the wire-feed motor causes it to withdraw the tip of the electrode
from the surface of the workpiece. As the arc voltage builds up, the wire-feed
motor slows down and finally changes direction and begins to feed the welding
wire toward the surface of the workpiece, speeding up until the electrode melt-off
rate and arc voltage stabilize to the preset values.
If the workpiece is light-gage metal, the wire should make only light contact
consistent with good electrical conductivity; the welding head should be rigidly
mounted. The end of the wire must be clean, and often cutters are used to snip
off the tip of the wire (preferably to a point) before each weld is made. The
wire size should be chosen to permit operation at high current densities since
the higher the current density the easier the start.
High-Frequency Start
This method, which requires special equipment, requires no manipulation by
the operator other than closing a starting switch. It is particularly useful as a
starting method for intermittent welding, or for welding at high rates of
production where a large number of starts are required.
When the welding wire approaches to within about 1I 16 in. above the
workpiece, a high-frequency, high-voltage generator connected to the welding
wire causes a spark to jump from the wire to the workpiece. This spark produces
an ionized path through which the welding current can flow, and the welding
action begins.
EQUIPMENT
Welding power may be provided by (1) a variable-voltage d-e generator or
rectifier, (2) a constant-voltage d-e generator or rectifier or (3) an a-c trans-
former.
These power sources should provide the high currents at the high duty cycle
required by most submerged arc welding installations. Although most welding
is done in a range from 400 to 1500 amperes, currents as high as 4000 amperes
at 55 volts or as low as 150 amperes at 18 volts may be used.
Accordingly, it is more economical to relate the size of the power unit to the
range of the weld designs, thus ensuring the availability of an adequate welding
current. Criteria for the selection of the type of current employed have already
been mentioned. This section will define the characteristics of each type of
machine with reference to the submerged arc welding application. General
details of each machine will be found in Chapter 25.
The variable-voltage motor generator or rectifier type of power source is the
type most widely used for d-e welding. If the current required exceeds the
output of a single machine, two or more generators or rectifiers of the same
type can be paralleled.
The output from motor generators is controlled either by a large contactor
in the welding circuit or by a small contactor in the generator field circuit,
depending upon the construction of the generator. The output from the welding
rectifier is controlled by a contactor in the three-phase primary supply line.
Submerged arc welding controls contain switches to operate the 11 0 volt coils
of these contactors.
The built-in exciters on certain motor generators, and their accompanying
voltage control, accomplish the following functions by electrical circuitry and
without use of relays: maintenance of constant arc length; effective arc striking
and, where necessary, high-speed retraction of the electrode.
Where such exciters are not built in and where rectifiers or welding machines
Equipment I 24.17
driven by gas engines are used, a separate source of power must be provided to
operate the voltage control. This is usually 110 volts ac, although de may
sometimes be used. The wire-feed motor is driven by the voltage control output
entirely, or partially so where the wire-feed motor is connected across the arc.
When automatic welding processes using continuously fed electrodes were
introduced, it was desirable to use existing welding generators and transformers
of the variable-voltage type. Under these conditions it was necessary only to
maintain a constant voltage drop at the arc in order to obtain approximately
constant current. This could be done by voltage controls. These controls simply
increase the speed of the wire-feed motor when the arc voltage increases above a
specific value, and reduce the speed when the voltage decreases. Because of the
inertia of this system, there is always some minor voltage and current :fluctuation.
Another approach to wire feeding and current control for submerged arc
welding combines a constant-speed wire feeder and a constant-voltage power
source. This supply differs from the conventional type in that the characteristic
volt-ampere curve is nearly :flat. For practical reasons constant-voltage units of
either the motor-generator or rectifier type are built so that the slope of the
characteristic curve may be varied to suit the application. The maximum surge
current is then three to four times the rated capacity.
On certain applications constant-voltage supplies have several advantages
over the conventional drooping-characteristic, d-e power supplies. Since the
welding voltage is maintained constant by the welding power source, the current
is determined by the wire speed. If anything upsets the welding conditions, the
current automatically readjusts itself to restore the resistance balance across the
arc. The change is determined by the electrical characteristics of the power
supply. It occurs almost instantaneously and is of momentary duration.
The exceptionally high short-circuit current thus provided makes starting
simple, without the use of steel wool balls or starting circuits in the control.
Where it is desirable to control the rate of current decay at stopping, so that
the crater can be filled, the wire feed can be reduced. The current is then
reduced without a change in voltage. Even without this feature, there is no
increase in voltage when a weld is stopped. There is some indication that better
welds are produced, bead contour and penetration are more uniform, and
greater variations in joint conditions may be tolerated.
Since the arc with the constant-voltage power source is inherently self-
regulating and can easily be started and stopped, the control circuits are
simplified.
Constant-voltage power sources are available in capacities up to 1200
amperes continuous rating. Constant-voltage power is most advantageous for
welding the lighter gages (1 0 gage or less) . It is claimed that the uniformity
of the voltage permits higher welding speeds than can be obtained with
conventional power supplies. The electrode size should be selected to obtain a
current density in excess of 40,000 amperes per square inch.
The advantages are not as evident when welding thicker materials. The power
unit for these welds should be adjusted to provide a more drooping characteristic.
The power output is controlled by means of a contactor in the three-phase
primary supply of the rectifier units or in the field excitation circuit of the
motor-generator units.
Alternating current is generally supplied by heavy-duty welding transformers
of 1000, 1500 or 2000 ampere capacity, equipped with built-in motor-controlled
a-)
f"
-00
.........
Table 24.9--Chemical composition requirements for electrodes ~

<:l"'
:=
~
NOTE 1-Analysis shall be made for the elements for which specific values are shown in this table. If, however, the presence of other elements is indicated in the course
of routine analysis, further analysis shall be made to determine that the total of these other elements is not present in excess of the limits specified for "Total Other Ele-
ments" in the last column of the table. ~>:>...
NOTE 2-Single values shown are maximum percentages.
~
Chemical Composition, percent ~
AWS-ASTM Classification Total ~

Phos- Other 1S:
Carbon Manganese Silicon Snlfnr phorus Copper• Ele- ;:;·
ments (iQ
------
Low-Manganese Classes
EL8 0.10 0.30 to 0.55 0.05
EL8K 0.10 0.30 to 0.55 0.10 to0.20
EL12 0.07 to 0.15 0.35to0.60 0.05
Medium-Manganese Classes
EM5Kb.' 0.06 0.90 to 1.40 0.40 to 0. 70 0.03 0.15 0.50
EM12 0.07 to0.15 0.85 to 1.25 0.05 0.035
EM12K 0.07 to0.15 0.85 to 1.25 0.15 to 0.35
EM13Kd 0.07 to0.19 0.90 to 1.40 0.40 to 0.70
EM15K 0.12 to0.20 0.85 to 1.25 0.15 to0.35
High-Manganese Class
EH14 0.10 to 0.18 1.75 to2.25 0.05
• The copper limit is independent of any copper or other suitable coating which may be applied to the electrode.
b The chemical composition requirements for the EM5K classification are similar to the chemical composition requirements for the E60S-2 classification in the Specifica-
tion for Mild Steel Electrodes for Gas Metal-Arc Welding (AWS A 5.18-65T, ASTM A 559-65T).
o This electrode contains 0.05 to 0.15 titanium, 0.02 to 0.12 zirconium, and 0.05 to 0.15 aluminum, which is exclusive of the "Total Other Elements" requirement.
d The chemical composition requirements for the EM13K classification are similar to the chemical composition requirements for the E60S-2 classification in the Specifi-
cation for Mild Steel Electrodes for Gas Metal-Arc Welding (AWS A 5.18-65T, ASTM A 559-65T).
Materials j 24.19
reactors and primary contactors. These transformers, or those of smaller

capacity of the same open-circuit voltage, may be paralleled to obtain currents
greater than the output of a single unit. Transformers used for multiple-wire,
multiple-power welding should be supplied with suitable taps so that the desired
circuit connections can be made.
The output of welding rectifiers and transformers is affected, to a greater
extent than the output of motor-generator units, by variations in the primary
power supply. Since these variations may affect the quality of the weld, the
input primary voltage should be maintained constant.
MATERIALS USED IN SUBMERGED

ARC WELDING
ELECTRODFS
Submerged arc electrodes are available to produce almost all types of weld
metal including mild steel, low-alloy steel, high-carbon steel, special alloy steel,
stainless steel, nonferrous alloys and special alloys for surfacing applications. The
electrodes commonly used are bare rods or wires with a clean, bright surface to
facilitate the introduction of the welding current. They are normally in the form
of coils, although straight lengths are sometimes used. Except when welding
corrosion-resisting materials, the electrodes are usually copper coated.
The A WS specification, Bare Mild Steel Electrodes and Fluxes for Submerged
Arc Welding (AS .17) , prescribes requirements for electrodes and fluxes for
submerged arc welding of mild and low-alloy steels. The electrodes aa-e classified
on the basis of their chemical composition, as manufactured. The classification
system follows as closely as possible the standard pattern used in other A WS-
ASTM filler metal specifications. However, the inherent nature of the electrodes
being classified necessitated some changes. In the classification, as in other
specifications, the prefix E designates an electrode. The letters L, M and H are
used to indicate the manganese content as 0.60% max., 1.2S% max. and 2.2S%
max. The digits in the classification indicate the normal carbon content of the
electrode. The letter K appears in some classifications, indicating that the
electrode was made from a heat of silicon-killed steel. The chemical composition
requirements for electrodes are shown in Table 24.9, which has been reproduced
from A WS AS .17. Reference to this specification should be made for additional
information. The generally accepted current ranges for the various sizes of mild
steel electrodes are shown in Table 24.10.
Submerged arc filler metals for
producing carbon steel alloy deposits Table 24.10--Submerged arc welding
electrode current ranges
are not covered by an American
Welding Society specification. Alloy Electrode Current Range,
weld metal is produced by the use Diameter, in. Amperes
of: ( 1) solid steel alloy electrodes,
( 2) fluxes containing the alloying 15()-400
20Q--500
elements, ( 3) composite electrodes 250--600
30D-800
wherein the core contains the alloy- 40D-900
ing elements. The solid steel elec- 50Q--1200
600-1300
trodes are either a single wire or 70Q-1400
smaller multiple wires twisted to-
gether to act as a single wire. Alloy steel and composite electrodes are
normally used with a neutral flux. Alloy-bearing fluxes are generally used with
a mild steel electrode. Electrode-flux combinations are available for all the
commonly used carbon steel alloys as well as many others. They are used for
the welding of low-alloy, high-strength steels and alloy steels, and for surfacing.
The AWS specification, Corrosion-Resisting Chrome and Chrome-Nickel
Steel Weld Rods and Bare Electrodes (A5.9) covers alloy steels designated as
corrosion- or heat-resisting chrome and chrome-nickel steels for use with sub-
merged arc or gas metal-arc welding. This specification includes steels in which
chromium exceeds 4% and nickel does not exceed 50 percent. As in the mild
steel specification, the electrodes are classified on the basis of their chemical
composition as manufactured. In the classification the prefix E designates an
electrode as in other specifications; the R designates rod. The digits in the classi-
fication indicate the chemical composition using the American Iron and Steel
Institute numbering system for these alloys.
Copper-base alloy electrodes in wire form are available for submerged arc
welding. They are used for welding both deoxidized and electrolytic copper and
silicon-copper alloys such as Everdur and Herculoy for joining steel to steel or
copper to steel and for surfacing. The AWS specification, Copper and Copper-
Alloy Arc-Welding Electrodes (A5.6) prescribes requirements for solid copper
and copper-alloy electrodes for submerged arc welding. As in other specifications
the prefix E is used to designate an electrode. This is followed by the chemical
symbol Cu used to identify the electrodes as copper-base alloys and by an
additional chemical symbol indicating the principal alloying element of the
classification.
Nickel and nickel-alloy electrodes in wire form are available for submerged
arc welding. They are used for welding wrought and cast forms of commercially
pure nickel and various nickel alloys. The A WS specification, Nickel and
Nickel-Alloy Bare Welding Rods and Electrodes (A5.14) covers nickel and
nickel-alloy filler metals for submerged arc welding and for other processes. As
in the other electrode specifications, the electrode is classified on the basis of
chemical composition as manufactured. The prefix ER is used as in other filler
metal specifications. This is followed by the chemical symbol Ni to identify the
electrodes as nickel base alloys, and by additional chemical symbols indicating
the principal alloying elements of the classification.
FLUXES
Submerged arc fluxes are designed to carry the heavy welding currents em-
ployed with the process. They protect the welding pool against the atmosphere
by sealing it in an envelope of molten flux; they act as a flux in cleaning the
weld metal, modify the chemical composition of the weld metal and improve
the shape of the weld metal area. Fluxes are granular, fusible mineral com-
pounds in various proportions and quantities manufactured by several different
methods. The general types are named by their method of manufacture, and are
known as fused, bonded and mechanically mixed fluxes. Each type appears to
have certain unique characteristics that affect the mechanical and chemical
properties of the weld metal, the operating performance and the handling of
environmental variables.
Fused fluxes are mixtures of silica and metal oxides with a small amount of
halide salts, which are completely fused to form a metallic silicate glass. The
cooled product of the furnace is then ground to the range of particle sizes
Materials I 24.21
required for adequate performance and production. Fused fluxes may be further
subdivided into two general categories: (1) alkaline earth metal silicates, (2)
all silicates in which manganese has replaced part or nearly all the alkaline
earth metals.
The bonded fluxes consist of intimate mixtures of finely divided oxides of
alkaline earth metals, manganese, alums, silicon, titanium or zirconium, and
killing agents or deoxidizers, such as silica, manganese, ferromanganese, ferro-
silicon or similar alloys, and small amounts of halogen salts. These are bonded
together with ,a suitable binder and treated so that hard granules are formed
in which the different ingredients are uniformly distributed.
Mechanically mixed fluxes may be mechanical mixtures of several fused or
bonded fluxes in varying proportions, or mechanical mixtures of finely divided
minerals and metallic deoxidizers in proportions necessary for a desired per-
formance.
Fluxes for welding mild and low alloy steels are classified in AWS AS .17 on
the basis of the mechanical properties of a weld deposit made with a particular
electrode. The mechanical property requirements from this specification for
flux classification are shown in Table 24.11. The classification designation of a
flux consists of a prefix F, followed by a two-digit number representative of
the tensile strength and impact property requirements for test welds made in
accordance with the AWS specification. This is followed by the classification
of the electrode used to classify the flux. Fluxes may have more than one
classification.
Submerged arc welding fluxes are available that contain specific amounts of
alloy ingredients that transfer to the weld deposit. Alloy fluxes are generally
made by bonding finely divided mineral constituents and ferro-alloys into par-
ticles of a size suitable for submerged arc welding.
Fluxes containing alloys, either as ferro-alloys or elemental metal, are widely
used to add alloys to weld metal joining low-alloy steels, stainless steels, or for
surfacing. Such fluxes are used with commonly available alloy electrodes
(stainless or high-alloy steels) to add alloys not readily available in electrode
Table 24.11-Mechanical property requirements for flux classification
Yield Elongation
AWS-Flux Tensile Strength, psi Strength, in2 in., Charpy Vee Notch
Classificationa min, psi min,% Impact Strength b
not required
F60-XXXXX}
F61-XXXXX•
F62-XXXXX•
60,000 to 80,000 45,000 25 { 20 ft-lb at o•F
20 ft-lb at -2o•F
not required
F70-XXXXX}
F71-XXXXX•
F72-XXXXX•
70,000 to 95,000 50,000 22 { 20 ft-lb at o•F
20 ft-lb at -2o•F
• The letters "XXXXX" as used in this table stand for the electrode designations ELS, ELSK, etc.
(see Table 1 in the Specification).
b The extreme lowest value obtained, together with the extreme highest value obtained, shall be disre-
garded for this test. Two of the three remaining values shall be greater than the specified 20 ft-lb energy
level; one of the three may be lower but shall not be less than 15 ft-lb. The computed average value of the
three values shall be equal to or greater than the 20 ft-lb energy level.
• Note that if a specific flux-electrode combination meets the requirements of the F62-XXXXX classi-
fication, this combination also meets the requirements of the F61-XXXXX and F60-XXXXX classifica-
tions and that If a specific flux-electrode combination meets the requirements of the F61-XXXXX classi-
fication, this combination also meets the requirements of the F60-XXXXX classification. This applies to
the corresponding F72-xxxxx and F71-Xxxxx classification also.
compositions, to compensate for alloy losses during welding or to compensate

for dilution of the weld metal by the base metal.
PROCESS APPLICATIO NS
Submerged arc welding has been employed successfully in accordance with
all the most rigid requirements of
such code bodies as ASME, API,
AAR, and A WS. It has received ap-
proval in shipbuilding from the vari-
ous regulatory bodies, including
American Bureau of Shipping, U. S.
Coast Guard, U. S. Navy Depart-
ment and Lloyds Register of Ship-
ping. As may be noted from Fig.
24.8, it has been employed success-
fully on very thick, heavy weldments
as well as the entire range of plate
sizes down to 16 gage.
Industries employing submerged
arc welding include: structural, pres-
sure vessels and boilers, railroads
and earth-moving, shipbuilding, ma-
chinery, piping, electrical, ordnance,
Fig. 24.8.-Typical macrospecimens re- nuclear power, automotive and avia-
moved from welds 12¥2 in. thick tion. The process is in use in almost
all industries.
In welding operations the type of work to be done usually determines the
welding process to be used. The choice is governed by the equipment available
and by economic factors.
The following factors should be evaluated when semiautomatic or fully
automatic submerged arc welding is under consideration: ( 1) production
volume, (2) weld length, (3) weld accessibility, (4) tooling and fixturing needs,
(5) weld quality, (6) weld appearance.
PROCESS VARIABLES
Knowledge and control of the variables in welding are essential if welds of
good quality are to be obtained consistently. The variables, in the approximate
order of their importance are:
1. Welding current
2. Welding voltage
3. Welding speed
4. Electrode size
5. Electrode stickout
6. Type of flux and electrode
7. Width and depth of the layer of flux
Electrode size, welding current, voltage and speed are the four most impor-
tant variables in submerged arc welding. The quality of the finished weld
depends on a knowledge of their effect and their proper selection and control.
For this reason, the operator should know how each variable affects the welding
action and what changes to make if any are required. The following section
discusses the effects of the variables and gives illustrations of the results of
good and bad welding practices.
WELDING CURRENT
Welding current is the most influential variable because it controls the rate
at which the electrode is melted, the depth of penetration and the amount of
base metal fused. If the current is too high, the depth of penetration will be too
great and the weld may have a tendency to burn through the metal being
joined. Too high a current also leads to a waste of electrode wire in the form
of excessive reinforcement. This overwelding increases weld shrinkage and
usually causes greater distortion.
If the current is too low, there is insufficient penetration. In extreme cases
this appears as lack of fusion. The effect of current variation is shown in Fig.
24.9. Some application rules to remember concerning welding current are:
1. Increasing current increases penetration and melt-off rate.
2. Excessively high current produces a digging arc, undercut or a high,
narrow bead.
3. Excessively low current produces an unstable arc.
WELDING VOLTAGE
Welding voltage is the difference in electrical potenti,al between the tip of the
welding wire and the surface of the molten weld metal. The welding voltage
varies the length of the arc between the welding wire and the molten weld
metal. If the arc voltage increases, the arc length increases; if the voltage
decreases, the arc length decreases.
The welding voltage has little effect on the volume of welding wire deposited;
this is determined mainly by the welding current. The voltage principally
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING
3/32 IN. WIRE, 35 VOLTS, 24 IPM FUllY AUTOMATIC WElDING
7/32 IN. WIRE, 34 VOLTS, 30 IPM
350 500 650 roo 1000 850

AMPS AMPS AMPS AMPS AMPS AMPS
Fig. 24.9.-Effect of varying current

24.24/ Submerged Arc Welding
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING
3/32 IN. WilE, SDO AMPS, 24 IPM FULLY AUTOMATIC WELDIN&
1/32 IN. WIRE, 850 AMPS, 30 IPM
2S 35 45
VOLTS VOLTS VOLTS 27 45 34
VOLTS VOLTS VOLTS
Fig. 24.10.-Effect of varying welding voltage
determines the shape of the weld bead cross section and its external appearance.
High welding voltage produces a wider, flatter, less deeply penetrated weld than
low welding voltage (Fig. 24.10). Some application rules concerning welding
voltage follow.
1. Increasing voltage:
a. Produces a flatter and wider bead;
b. Increases flux consumption;
c. Increases resistance to porosity caused by rust or scale;
d. Helps bridge gaps when fitup is poor;
e. Increases pickup of alloy from the flux: this can be used to advantage
to raise the alloy content of the weld when welding is performed with
alloy or hardsurfacing fluxes. If excessive, it can reduce ductility and
increase crack sensitivity, particularly in the making of multiple-pass
welds.
2. Excessively high voltage:
a. Produces a "hat-shaped" bead that is subject to cracking;
b. Produces poor slag removal in groove welds;
c. In multiple-pass welds, increases the normal alloy pickup from the flux;
d. Produces a concave fillet weld that may be subject to cracking;
e. Increases undercut on fillet welds.
3. Lowering the voltage produces a "stiffer" arc needed for getting penetra-
tion in a deep groove and to resist arc blow on high-speed work.
4. An excessively low voltage produces a high, narrow bead with poor slag
removal.
WELDING SPEED
With any combination of welding current and voltage, the effects of changing
the welding speed conform to a general pattern (Fig. 24.11). If the welding
speed is increased: ( 1) power or heat input per unit length of weld is decreased;
SEMIAUTOMATIC WELDING FULLY AUTOMATIC WELDING

3/32 IN. WIRE, 500 AMPS, 35 VOLTS 7/ 32 IN. WIRE, 850 AMPS, 34 VOLTS
12 24 48 60 15 30
IPM IPM IPM IPM IPM IPM
Fig. 24.11.-Ef]ect of varying welding speeds
(2) less welding material is applied per unit length of weld, and consequently
less weld reinforcement results; ( 3) penetration decreases.
Welding penetration seems to be more greatly affected by welding speed than
by any parameter other than current. This is true except for excessively slow
speeds where the molten weld puddle is beneath the welding electrode and the
penetrating force of the arc is cushioned by the puddle. Excessive speed may
cause the weld to undercut.
Travel speed is used primarily to control bead size and penetration. It is
interdependent with current. Some application rules concerning travel speed are:
1. Excessively high travel speeds decrease wetting action and increase ten-
dencies for undercut, arc blow, porosity and uneven bead shapes.
2. Slower travel speeds give gaseous material time to boil out of the molten
metal, reducing the tendency for porosity.
3. Excessively slow speeds pmduce: "hat-shaped" bead that is subject to
cracking; excessive flash-through, which is uncomfortable for the operator;
a large molten pool that flows around the arc, resulting in a rough bead
and slag inclusions.
ELECTRODE SIZE
The electrode size principally affects the depth of penetration for a fixed
current as shown in Fig. 24.12. Small wires are generally used in semiautomatic
equipment to provide flexibility to the welding gun. The small wires are also
used in multiple-electrode, parallel-power setups.
The larger electrodes are generally used to take advantage of higher currents
and consequently higher deposition rates. Where poor fitup is encountered, a
larger electrode is capable of bridging gaps better than smaller ones.
The electrode size also affects the arc-starting characteristics. The smaller
el~trod~ strike more easily on hot start and high-frequency control sys~m!l.
FULLY AUTOMATIC WELDING ELECTRODE STICKOUT

600 AMPS, 30 VOLTS, 30 IPM
At current density levels in excess
of about 80,000 amperes per square
inch (of electrode cross section) ,
electrode (wire) extension becomes
ELECTRODE SIZE: one of the important variables for
1/8 IN. 5/32 IN. 7/32 IN.
the following reasons. At these cur-
rent density levels, heating of the
electrode between the point of emer-
gence from the contact jaws and the
arc takes place because of resistance
(the greater the extension, the
greater the amount of heat gener-
ated). This heating effectively in-
creases the electrode melting rate
and at the same time introduces a
voltage drop in addition to the arc
voltage. If this condition is not rec-
P'ig. 24.12.-Efject of electrode size
ognized, the weld will not be the
equivalent of one made under stand-
ard conditions and may be defective. On the other hand, recognition of this
effect and compensating for it can be useful for increasing the melting rate and
hence speeding up the deposition or welding speed, or both, while at the same
time reducing the penetration.
The immediate effects of long-stickout welding methods are shown in Table
24.12, which shows the melt-off rates both for a normal stickout and for long-
stickout conditions. Even if the current is not increased, the deposition mte can
rise as much as 50 percent. With single-electrode submerged arc welding, the
deposition rate approaches that of two-wire welding with a multiple power
source.
TYPE OF FLUX AND ELECTRODES
The various types of flux and electrodes were discussed earlier with respect
to mechanical properties of the weld deposit. The flux and electrodes also affect
other aspects of making the weld. An electrode with low electrical conductivity,
such as stainless steel, has a similar effect as when a long-stickout technique is
used, since this also causes a voltage drop that increases the melt-off rate.
The various fluxes also affect the weld to some extent because of their
physical properties. The fluxes can cause considerable variations in bead shape,
cleaning, tendency to undercut, freezing pattern, tolerance for contaminants and
weld appearance.
WIDm AND DEPm OF FLUX
The width and depth of the layer of granular flux influence the appearance
and soundness of the finished weld as well as the welding action itself.
If the granular layer is too deep, the arc is too confined and a rough weld
with a ropelike appearance is likely to result. The gases generated during weld-
ing cannot readily escape, and the surface of the molten weld metal is irregularly
distorted. If the granular layer is too shallow, the welding zone will not be en-
tirely submerged. Flashing and spattering will be present; the weld will have a
Process Variables j 24.27
CORRECT SHALLOW
3/ 4 IN. DEPTH 1/4 IN. DEPTH

5/ 8 IN. PLATE 5/ 8 IN. PLATE
RESULT: SMOOTH TOP, SOUND RESULT: GAS POCKETS IN WELD;
WELD STRUCTURE. OPEN ARCING OCCURRED.
Fig. 24.13-Ef}ect of proper and improper depth of granular material
bad appearance and may be porous. The welds in Fig. 24.13 show the effects of
proper depth and too shallow a depth.
An optimum depth of granular material exists for any set of welding condi-
tions. This depth can be established by slowly increasing the granular material
until the welding action is submerged, and flashing no longer occurs. The gases
will then puff up quietly around the welding wire, sometimes igniting.
Flux dams that are too close together interfere with the normal lateral flow
of weld metal; this results in reinforcement that is narrow, steep-sided and
poorly faired in to the base plate or the edges.
The unfused granular material can be removed a short distance behind the
welding zone where the fused material has solidified. However, under certain
conditions, it may be desirable not to disturb the material until the heat has
become distributed throughout the section.
The fused flux should not be forcibly loosened while the weld metal is at a
high temperature. If allowed to cool, the fused material will become detached
and may be brushed away with little effort. Sometimes a small section is
removed forcibly for quick inspection of the weld surface.
It is important that no foreign material be picked up with the reclaimed flux.
To prevent this, a space about a foot wide should be cleaned on either side of
the welding zone before the flux is laid down. If the recovered flux contains
fused pieces, it should be passed through a screen with openings no larger than
1/8 inch.
The flux is thoroughly dry when shipped by the manufacturer. It is generally
not hygroscopic. If it becomes damp or wet, it should be dried before being
used since moisture is a cause of porosity.
WELDING TECHNIQUE
Choice o{ welding technique for submerged arc welding is influenced by
many factors. The effects of process variables have been covered earlier. Other
factors affecting the welding technique include fixturing, backup methods, other
physical considerations and the type of joint to be welded. Data on welds made
with different techniques and on various joints are contained in Tables 24.13
through 24.39 (beginning on p. 24.44).
...,
Table 24.12-Eiectrode melt-off rates ...,~
00
..........
DC, Reverse Polarity, Single Arc Melt-off Rates Increase 30-50% on DC Straight Polarity
~
<::!"
'.16 In. Electrode 5
Ai4 In. Electrode '!.{, In. Electrode Ys In. Electrode '-' In. Electrode ',{, In. Electrode ~ In. Electrode
% In. Stickout 1 In. Stickout 1 In. Stickout 1 In. Stickou t 1 In. Stickout 1 In. Stickout 1 In. Stickout ~
Amperes
~
ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr ~
----- - - - - ----- - - - - ~Mini - - - - ----- - - - - ::...
200 98 5.1 50 4.1
300 165 8.3 84 6.9 57 6.6 27 5, 7 ti
400 251 12.8 123 10.1 82 9.5 40 8.5 24 7.9
500 369 18.8 181 14.8 112 12.9 55 11.6 34 11.2 22 10.5
600 150 17.3 71 15.0 45 14.7 29 13.8 21 13.1
700 90 19.0 56 18.3 37 17.3 26 16.2 ~
800 112 23.6 68 22.0 45 21.0 31 19.5 ~-
900 81 26.2 53 25.0 36 22.9
1000 62 29.2 42 26.4
1100 72 33.8 48 30.2
1200 82 38.7 55 34.8
1300 63 40.1
DC Straight Polarity, Single-Arc, Long Electrode Stickouts, With Straight Polarity, Melt-Off Rates Vary =10% With Different Fluxes
5A(., In. Electrode '-' In. Electrode Ys In. Electrode '-' In. Electrode 8,.{6
In. Electrode ~ In. Electrode
3~ In. Stickout 3~ In. Stickout 5 In. Stickout 5 In. Stickout 5 In. Stickout 5 In. Stickout
Amperes -------- I
ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min LbjHr ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr ln./Min Lb/Hr
----- -----
200 140 11.5
300 221 18.1 137 15.8 66 13.8
400 335 27.5 201 23.2 98 20.6 55 18.0
500 500 41.0 281 32.4 134 28.1 75 24.4 47 22.2
600 370 42.5 174 36.6 97 31.4 59 27.7 43 27.0
700 218 45.7 120 38.9 72 33.7 51 32.5
800 145 47.1 86 40.3 60 38.4
900 100 47.1 70 44.7
1000 116 54.3 80 50.7
1100 91 57.5
I
Weight of wire (pounds per foot): '>-lo in.--D.OlO; 'Ai'. in.-0.016; '!.{, in.--D.023; Ys in.--Q.042; '!.{, in.--D.094; ',{, in.--D.094; 'M in.-0.127.
Welding Technique I 24.29
FIXTURING
Assembling and Securing the Joint
For all welding applications, the joint must be assembled and held securely
to limit displacement caused by heat. Tacking, clamping, jigging or combina-
tions of these are required. When large, heavy assemblies such as bulkheads or
decks are fabricated, tack welds suffice to keep the joint properly aligned. The
weight of the assembly prevents any objectionable displacement caused by heat
effects. Light assemblies, made from 10 gage material or thinner, for example,
must be clamped. The clamping bars maintain alignment and remove heat to
prevent warpage. Tacking is unnecessary if clamping is adequate. For inter-
mediate thicknesses, a combination of clamping and tacking may be most
economical.
The amount of fixturing depends on whether automatic welding, machine
welding or semiautomatic welding is to be used.
AWS defines automatic welding as welding with equipment which performs
the entire welding operation without constant observation and adjustment of
the controls by an operator. The equipment may or may not perform the loading
and unloading of the work. Machine welding is simiiar to automatic welding
except that an operator must be present to make adjustments to the controls
during welding. These two types of welding require the most extensive fixturing
and tooling.
Semiautomatic welding utilizes equipment that controls only the filler metal
feed rate. The electrode is fed through a flexible cable to the welding gun and
the advance or travel of the welding operation along a seam is controlled
manually by a welder. This type of equipment combines the high deposition
rate of submerged arc welding with some of the flexibility of manual welding.
The amount of fixturing is equivalent to that required for manual welding with
large diameter electrodes.
INCLINATION OF WORK
Most submerged arc welding is done in the flat position (Fig. 24.14A). How-
(A)-LEVEL WELD ON '/, IN. PLATE (B)-DOWNHILL (1'/, 1N./FT) WELD ON '!. lN. PLATE
(C)-UPHILL (P/7 IN./FT) WELD ON '/1 IN. PLATE (D)-LATERAL SLOPE ('/1 IN./FT) WELD ON '/, IN. PLATE
Fig. 24.14.-Ef]ect of work inclination on welding action

ever, it is sometimes necessary or desirable to weld with the work slightly in-
clined so that the weld may progress downhill. For example, in high-speed
welding of 18 gage steel, a better weld results when the work is inclined 15 to
18 o and the welding is done downhill. The angle of inclination decreases as
plate thickness increases since the thicker plate usually requires more current
and less speed, which produces a larger weld puddle. (All circumferential weld-
ing on the convex surface of a weldment rotated on a horizontal axis is downhill
welding with control of the molten puddle determining the exact positioning of
the welding wire.)
Downhill welding affects the weld as shown in Fig. 24.14B. The weld puddle
tends to flow toward the welding wire, and preheats the base metal, particularly
at the surface. This produces an irregularly shaped fusion zone, called a "sec-
ondary wash." As the angle of declination increases, the middle surface of the
weld is depressed, penetration decreases and the width of the weld increases.
Uphill welding affects the fusion zone contour and the weld surface as illus-
trated in Fig. 24.14C. The force of gravity causes the weld puddle to flow back
and lag behind the welding wire. The edges of the weld lose metal, which flows
to the middle. As the angle of inclination increases, center build-up and pene-
tration increase, and the width of the weld decreases. (Also, the bigger the
weld puddle, the greater the penetration and center build-up.) These effects are
exactly the opposite of those produced by downhill welding. The limiting angle
of inclination when welding with currents up to 800 amperes is about 6°, or a
rise of approximately 1 1/4 in. for each foot of length in plate material. When
higher welding currents are used, the maximum workable angle decreases.
Greater inclination than that given makes the weld uncontrollable and runouts
are likely to occur.
Lateral inclination of the workpiece produces the effects shown in Fig.
24.140. The limit for a lateral slope is approximately 3° or 5/8 in. per foot.
Permissible lateral slope varies somewhat, depending on the size of the weld
puddle.
GROUNDING THE WORKPIECE
The method of grounding and the location of the ground are important con-
siderations in submerged arc welding since it can affect arc action, the quality
of the weld and the speed at which it can be produced. A poor ground location
can oause or increase arc blow and result in porosity and poor bead shape.
However, because it is not always possible to predict the effect of ground loca-
tion, experimenting is often needed. Generally the direction of welding is away
from the ground, but sometimes the best results are obtained by splitting the
ground and connecting it to two or more places on the work.
When grounding is through a sliding shoe, two or more shoes should always
be used. This will prevent interruptions of current in case one shoe is lifted out
of contact by an unexpected surface protrusion such as the reinforcement of
another weld, a piece of weld spatter or granular flux.
,Preloaded, tapered roller bearings are excellent for rotating grounds and
give better performance than sliding brushes. To assure trouble-free perform-
ance, the contact area of the bearing should be sufficient to carry the current
capacity of the welding cable used in the installation.
FITUP OF JOINTS TO BE WELDED
The fitup of the joint selected for any welding job materially affects the
Welding Technique/ 24.31
quality, strength and appearance of the finished weld. The deeply penetrating
arc characteristics of the submerged arc process make it even more imperative
to have close control of fitup.
Care in handling parts and performing initial operations to close tolerances,
so that the edges of parts to be joined can be fitted together at uniform closeness
is essential if low welding costs are to be maintained. A gap between the piate
edges of 1/32 to 1/16 in. is sometimes needed to prevent angular distortion
and weld cracking, and a gap can be used to obtain penetration without edge
preparation or control weld reinforcement. However, a larger gap than is needed
will drastically reduce welding speeds and increase costs. For example, a square
edge or single-vee butt weld on 1/2 in. plate, when welded with no backup and
a 1/32 in. gap, can be made more than twice as fast as the same weld with a
3/16 in. gap. Similar decreases in speed will result when fillet welds are made
with an excessive gap.
ELECTRODE POSITION
In determining the proper position of the welding electrode (wire) , three
factors must be considered:
1. The alignment of the welding electrode in relation to the joint.
2. The angle of tilt in the lateral direction, that is, the tilt transverse to the
joint.
3. The direction of the welding electrode point-forward or backward.
There is some disagreement in welding literature as to how this variable
should be described, and it has been characterized by such terms as lead-
ing angle, dragging technique and forward or backward electrode tilt.
In this discussion, direction of point of the electrode will be used to
describe the position. Forward is the direction of travel-hence a forward
pointing welding electrode is one that makes an acute angle with the
finished weld. A backward pointing electrode makes an obtuse angle with
the finished weld.
It should be noted that most submerged arc welds are made with the electrode
in the normal position, that is, pointing neither way. Pointing the electrode
forward or backward only becomes important when multiple arcs are being used.
For each of the several types of welding, positioning of the electrode is made
in a characteristic manner. In submerged ,arc welding of butt joints, the align-
ment of the workpiece is as shown in Fig. 24.15, with no lateral tilt. The align-
ment of the electrode is directly over the joint and normal to the direction of
travel.
Horizontal fillet welding is aligned as shown in Fig. 24.16. The centerline of
the electrode should not be on the joint centerline, but below it toward the
horizontal piece a distance equal to one half to one fourth the wire diameter.
The greater distance is used when making fillet welds of a larger size (about
5/16 in. leg). Careless or inaccurate alignment will cause an unsatisfactory
weld.
In making horizontal fillet welds, the electrode is tilted between 20 and 45°
from the vertical. The exact angle is determined by either or both of the follow-
ing factors:
1. Clearance for the nozzle or jaw assembly, especially when structural
sections are being welded to Dlate.
CORRECT
~I&WI"
\._f ~
~
WELDING WI IE
(A)-WELDING WIRE DIRECTLY OVER JOINT (B)-WIRE NOT HELD TO CENTER LINE RESULTS
CENTER LINE. THIS ALIGNMENT RESULTS IN IN INCOMPLETE FUSION
UNIFORM PENETRATION AND FUSION INTO
BOTH PARTS OF THE JOINT
E~CEPTION
(C)-OFF-CENTER ALIGNMENT IS SOMETIMES

REQUIRED WHEN BUTT-WELDING
PLATES OF DIFFERENT THICKNESS
Fig. 24.15.-Efject of alignment in butt joint welding
2. The relative thickness of the members forming the joint; if the possibility
of burning through one of the members exists, it is necessary to direct
the electrode toward the thicker member.
Horizontal fillet welding should usually be done with the welding electrode
positioned normal to the direction of tr.avel.
Fillet welding in the flat position is aligned as shown in Fig. 24.17A. The
electrode is normally held in a vertical position (zero angle of lateral tilt).
Occasionally, in making positioned fillet welds where complete penetration is
desired, the electrode is tilted slightly off the vertical (Fig. 24.17B) . The elec-
trode is usually normal to the direction of travel.
Position of the electrode is critical in lap welding. If the electrode is posi-
tioned too far over the top plate, the weld may completely miss the bottom
plate. On the other hand, if it is too far away from the top plate, it will not
properly fuse to the top plate and may cause the arc to burn through. Proper
positioning of the electrode is shown in Fig. 24.18.
WELD BACKUP
Submerged arc welding creates a large volume of molten metal which remains
fluid for an appreciable period of time. It is essential that this molten metal be
supported and contained until it has solidified.
There are four methods commonly used to support molten weld metal when
joints are made in base metal that cannot support the molten weld puddle:
(1) steel backup bars, (2) weld metal backup, (3) copper backup bars and
COllECT
OFF-CENTER DISTANCE
JOINT CENTER LINE-----oo>._
(A)-NORMAL WELDING WIRE

ALIGNMENT FOR HORIZONTAL
FILLET WUDING
\
IHCOIIECT
(B)-WELDING WIRE TOO CLOSE TO VERTICAL (C)-WELDING WIRE TOO FAR FROM I(ERTICAL
SURFACE SURFAC~
Fig. 24.16.-Efject of alignment in horizontal fillet welding
(4) flux backup. In (1) and (2), the backup becomes a part of the completed
joint. Methods (3) and (4) employ temporary backup, which is removed after
the weld is completed.
In many joints the base metal contact root face is thick enough to support
the first pass of the weld. This method is used for butt welds (either square or
vee-groove), for fillet welds (lap or tee joints), and for plug or slot welds.
Supplementary backing or chilling is sometimes used. It is most important that
the joint edges be tightly butted at the point of maximum penetration of the
weld (Fig. 24.19).
Steel Backing
In this method, the weld penetrates into and fuses with the backing material,
which temporarily or permanently becomes an integral part of the assembly.
Backing strips of metal compatible with the metal being welded may be used,
or the joint may be so located that a part of the structure forms the backing
(Fig. 24.20). It is important that the contact surfaces be clean and close to-
gether; otherwise porosity and leakage of molten weld metal may occur.
Weld Metal Backup
In a weld metal backed joint, the first weld pass (made by manual metal-arc
welding, or some other method) forms the backing for subsequent passes made
either from the opposite side or from the same side.
CORRECT EXCEPTION
{WELDING WIRE
AND JOINT
(A)-ALIGNMENT FOR FILLET WELDS IN (B)-WHEN MORE THAN THE USUAL AMOUNT OF
FLAT POSITION. WORK IS POSITIONED AT 45° PENETRATION IS REQUIRED, THE WORK MAY
ANGLE. WELDING WIRE IS CENTERED INTO BE POSITIONED OTHER THAN AT 4S 0 WITH
FILLET CORNER THE HORIZONTAL. THE WELDING WIRE IS
POSITIONED SO THAT ITS CENTERLINE
INTERSECTS THE JOINT NEAR ITS CENTER.
THE WIRE MAY HAVE TO BE TILTED TO
AVOID UNDERCUTTING.
Fig. 24.17.-Alignment for fillet welds in flat position
Manual welds are sometimes used as backing for submerged arc welds (Fig.
24.21) when alternate backing methods are not convenient because of inacces-
sibility, poor joint preparation or fitup, or difficulty in turning the weldment.
The backing weld may remain as a part of the completed joint if it is of suitable
- - / 0" -10" FOR 10 GAGE OR LESS
40' FOR 3/16"

AND THICKER
\
\-TIGHT FIT
WEeD THINL.__--1-_
TO THICK
Fig. 24.18.-Electrode positions for lap welds

Welding Technique / 24.35
SQUARE GROOVE LAP
FILLET
Vee GROOVE PLUG
EDGE
CORNER
DOUBLE Vee GROOV::
Fig. 24.19.-Var ious joint configurations that use the principle of base metal backup
to support the molten weld puddle and prevent weld burn-through
quality, or it may be removed by oxygen or arc gouging, by chipping or by
machining after the submerged arc weld has been made. When the temporary
weld is removed, it is replaced by a permanent ·submerged arc weld.
When manual weld backing for submerged arc welds in low-carbon steels is
placed in either the fiat or overhead position, the low-hydrogen type of elec-
trode, such as E7016 or E7018, is recommended, although E7028 or E7027
electrodes may be used for fiat welds, and E6010 or E6011 electrodes may be
used for overhead welds. The E6012 and E6013 electrodes, and their iron-
powder equivalents, are not recommended because they tend to cause porosity
in the finished weld.
Copper Backup
In some joints a copper backup strip supports the weld puddle. Copper is
used because of its high heat conductivity, which prevents the weld metal from
fusing to the backup strip. Where it is desirable to reinforce the underside of
the weld, the backup strip may be grooved to the desired shape of the rein-
forcement.
The backup strip must have enough mass to prevent it from being heated to
its melting point beneath the arc and
thus, contaminating the underside of
the weld with copper. Sometimes
water is passed through the interior
of the backup bar to keep it cool.
This method of removing heat from
the backup bar is usually used in (A) (B)
FUSIBLE BACKING STRIP STRUCTURE BACKING
high-production welding applica-
tions. Fig. 24.20.-Fus ible metallic backing
24.36 j Submerged Arc Welding
f ~ t
Fig. 24.21.-Various ioint configurations where manual weld metal backup is being
used to provide support of the molten weld crater
Flux Backup
Flux, under moderate pressure, is sometimes used as a backup material in
the submerged arc welding process.
Its function is the same as the
copper backup-to support the mol-
ten weld metal until it solidifies. Usu-
ally the loose granular flux rests in a
trough on a thin piece of noncon-
ducting material. This nonconducting
material, in turn, is usually placed
INFLATED on an inflatable rubberized canvas
HOSE
(A)
fire hose (Fig. 24.22) . The air pres-
sure fed to the hose to develop mod-
erate "flux pressure" on the under-
side of the weld is usually no more
than 5 to 10 psi.
A special adaptation of the prin-
ciple of flux backup is shown in
Fig. 24.23. This "flux-fed belt" is
sometimes used in making the in-
(B) side circumferential weld on large
tanks or other types of cylindrical
Fig. 24.22.-Two methods of support- weldments.
ing flux backing for submerged arc
welding RUN-OFF TABS AND SPACERS
Whenever it is necessary to weld
to the very end of a joint, it is necessary to provide some means of restraining
the metal so that it does not spill off the end. Run-off tabs are the most commonly
used method (Fig. 24.24). An arc is started on a run-off tab· that is tacked to
the start end of the weld and is stopped on a second tab on the finish end of
the weld. The tabs are large enough so that the entire bead on the work itself
is properly shaped. When run-off tabs are prepared, the joint should be similar
to the one being welded, and wide enough to support the fiux.
(SAME GROOVE
AS PLATE)
STEEL RUN-OFF TABS
Fig. 24.24.-Steel run off tabs tacked to

Fig. 24.23.-Typical flux-fed system for plate
use when performing circumferential
welding on tanks from the inside
A variation of the run-off tab is the dam that holds the flux which, in turn,
supports the weld metal. These dams are usually made of copper and resemble
that shown in Fig. 24.25.
It is frequently desired to weld several parts that are pLaced side by side.
Copper blocks (Fig. 24.26) placed between the parts will maintain the arc so
that it can weld continuously; the blocks should be kept low enough to avoid
contact with the arc.
CIRCUMFERENTIAL WELDS
Circumferential welds differ from those made in the flat position because of
the tendency for the molten flux and weld metal to spill off the side of the work.
In less severe cases the molten metal starts to run but freezes before it has the
opportunity to actually spill. To prevent spillage or distortion of the bead shape,
welds must solidify as they pass over the vertical center of the weld. Figure
24.27 illustrates the bead shapes that result from various electrode positions.
The flux itself, being granular, will spill off small diameter work if it is not
controlled. If spilling of flux occurs, the arc is uncovered and poor-quality
welds result. One method of overcoming this is to use a nozzle assembly that
pours the flux right over the arc and gives it less chance to spill. A wire brush
or some other flexible heat-resisting material attached to the nozzle assembly
so that it rides the work ahead of the arc as shown in Fig. 24.28 will also sup-
port the flux and prevent its spilling.
Flux support is also necessary at
the edges of the work. Sheet metal
(( (((((
' j copper blocks

rY n r
Fig. 24.26.-Copper block dividers used
Fig. 24.25.-Typical dam for containing when welding several parts without
flux and weld metal breaking the arc
(OilRECT ~o 1./TTLE rooMUt!/1

DISPLACEMENT
Fig. 24.27.-Effect of electrode displacement on bead shape
rings tack welded to the edge or flexible retainers that ride the edge (Fig. 24.29)
effectively support the flux so that beads can be made right on the edge of the
work.
Regardless of electrode position, if the molten pool is too big for the diameter
of work, the metal will spill simply because it cannot freeze fast enough. Bead
size, as measured by the amount of deposited metal per inch of weld, depends
on the amperage and travel speed used. Reduced currents and increased travel
speeds reduce the size of the bead.
Figure 24.30 shows the approximate maximum currents at the speeds given
for welding outside d~ameter work of various sizes and thicknesses without spe-
cial setup to control spilling.
SLAG REMOVAL
On multiple-pass welds, slag re-
moval becomes very important be-
cause no subsequent passes can be
made if slag is present. Two factors
lEADS ON
EDGE OF WORK
LIGHT METAL
Rill& CLAMPED
OR TACK WELDED
TO END OF WORK
RIGIDLY
MOUNTED
NONCOMBUSTIBLE
MATERIAL
Fig. 24.28.-Flux supports that ride the
work ahead of the arc (top) prevent Fig. 24.29.-Flux supports to permit
spilling of flux (bottom) welding close to edge
Types of Welds I 24.39
-
0
1
l
sP~
~~
j---
~'+J~~
,g)(
~J I
r;~~r~~
~\,
CQ
lpJ!!.-
~,_
-
I ~
~A>
6
I
I
/J I' I
17
0 /0 zo .so 40 50 60 70
WORK DIAMGTEJ:l {!NCH&S)
Fig. 24.30.-Approximate maximum currents used for circumferential welds without
special setup to control spilling; beyond upper limit of curves, standard horizontal
procedures should be used
are particularly important in improving slag removal: bead size and bead shape.
Smaller beads tend to cool more quickly, which reduces slag sticking. Flat to
slightly convex beads that wash into the edges of the joint make slag removal
much easier than very concave or undercut beads, which tend to lock the slag
to the weld at the edges of the bead. For this reason a decrease in voltage will
improve slag removal in narrow grooves.
On the first pass of two-pass welds, a bead that washes up to the top edges
of the joint is much easier to clean than a bead that does not quite come up to
the top edge. Figure 24.31 illustrates both cases.
In heavy work, such as that encountered in thick pressure vessels, there is
frequently a tendency to put in as large a bead as possible. It is better to make
many small, self-cleaning beads, which can be made with faster travel speeds
than to put in larger beads with locked-in slag that is hard to remove (Fig.
24.32).
TYPES OF WELDS
9
Submerged arc welding is used for making groove, fillet and plug welds.
9
Fig. 24.31.-Left-bead formation permitting easy slag removal;
right-bead formation making slag removal difficult
Fig. 24.32.-Using small, well-shaped

beads (left) facilitates slag removal;
larger beads (right) cause lock-in of
slag, which then becomes difficult to
remove
Groove and plug welds are usually

made in the flat position and fillet Fig. 24.33.-Butt joint made with two
welds are made in either the flat or
horizontal positions. *
welds, one on each side; used for plate
in. or more in thickness
GROOVE WELDS
The greater penetration inherent in submerged arc welding permits square-
groove joints up to 5/ 8 in. thick to be completely welded with one pass from
each side. Butt welds can also be completely welded from one side provided
adequate support is provided for the molten weld metal.
Welds in thicker material, when welded from both sides, utilize vee or U
grooves. Figure 24.33 shows the cross section of a two-pass double-vee butt
weld.
FILLET WELDS
Using a single electrode, fillet welds up to 3/8 in. throat size can be made
in the horizontal position with one pass. Larger single-pass horizontal position
fillet welds may be made using multiple electrodes. Welds larger than 5/16 in.
are usually made in the flat position by positioning the work. Fillet welds made
by the submerged arc welding process have greater penetration than those made
by shielded metal-arc welding, thereby exhibiting greater strength for the same
size weld.
PLUG WELDS
Submerged arc welding is used effectively to make high-quality plug welds.
The electrode is positioned in the center of the hole and remains in this position
until the weld is complete. The time required is dependent on welding current
and hole size. Because of the deep penetration obtained with this process, it is
essential to have adequate thickness in the weld backing.
THREE O'CLOCK WELDING
Horizontal position butt welding performed with the electrode at approxi-
mately 90° to the vertical material being welded is known as three o'clock weld-
ing. Although lower welding currents are used than in the flat position, hori-
zontal position butt welding permits simultaneous welding on both sides of a
joint. When making horizontal position butt welds it is necessary to support the
flux and molten weld metal. This can be accomplished by attaching the support
Types of Welds I 24.41
to the joint, a sliding support or a belt moving at the same speed as the welding
head, but in the opposite direction. The latter, a patented method, permits the
belt and flux to remain motionless with respect to the work. When welding from
both sides of a joint only one pass is required for joints up to 1/2 in. thick.
The departure represented by three o'clock welding from the normal practice
of welding in the flat position permits welds to be made on both sides of a joint
at the same time. Irregular contours in the vertical plane, which cause the
molten metal to run off, may be changed to the horizontal plane when welding is
done in the three o'clock position, reducing the tendency for the metal to
spill.
SURFACING
Submerged arc welding, like other welding processes, is used for depositing
ffiler metal on a metal surface in order to obtain desired properties or dimen-
sions. The desired properties may be mechanical or chemical. Because of its
high deposition rate, submerged arc surfacing can result in deposits made at
lower costs than by other methods. In addition, the use of machine welding
produces smoother, more even surfaces, requiring little or no finishing.
Single-Electrode Surfacing
As in groove welding, single-electrode operation is the simplest form of sub-
merged arc surfacing. However, because of the process's inherent deep pene-
tration, there is considerable weld metal dilution by the base metal in the initial
weld. Admixture, greatly reduced in subsequent layers, is primarily a function
of the welding current, but is also affected by electrode size and travel speed.
Operation with direct current straight polarity (electrode negative) gives the
greatest deposition rate and least penetration for any current.
Multiple-Electrode Surfacing
The use of more than one electrode increases the deposition rate. As many
as six electrodes are used. Generally, with multiple-electrode operation and the
base metal connected in the welding power circuit, the electrodes are connected
together to a single power source.
Oscillation of the electrode or electrodes at 90° to the direction of travel pro-
duces a wider weld deposit and reduces penetration. Deposits up to 2 in. wide
can be obtained for each electrode. When operating with more than one elec-
trode, the electrodes are positioned so that the deposit from one electrode over-
laps and fuses into the deposit of the electrode adjacent to it. Deposition rates
of over 100 pounds per arc hour are obtained by the use of multiple oscillating
electrodes.
Another method of submerged arc surfacing utilizes two or more electrodes,
each fed by its own welding head and connected in series to the welding power
supply. This differs from normal submerged arc procedures wherein the welding
arc is between the electrode and the work. With the series arc technique, the
welding arc is generated between the electrodes, whose ends are positioned so
that they meet just above the work on which the deposit is to be made.
The arc is independent of the work, yet close enough to its surface for the
heat of the molten weld metal to fuse to the base metal. With this technique,
there is little penetration of the base metal; dilution as low as 5 to 10% is
achieved using two electrodes. Deposition rate is about double that obtained
with a single electrode with normal submerged arc procedures.
24.42 j Submerged Arc Welding
Other Surfacing Methods

A variation in submerged arc welding is a patented method used primarily
for surfacing applications. In this operation wide, fiat strips are used as the
welding electrode in place of the usual round wire. The strip may be solid rolled
material or powdered metal with imbedded wires to provide handling strength.
Strips up to 3 in. wide and 5/64 in. thick are used.
The arc traverses rapidly back and forth as it consumes the descending strip
by its oscillating arc action. This unique arc action molds the end of the strip
to the shape of the work beneath it, thus following irregular shapes within
certain limits without changing the position of the welding head. Since the strip
electrode has a cross-sectional area greater than the most commonly used wire
electrodes, it can carry higher welding currents--currents up to 1500 amperes
are used. This method of submerged arc surfacing is capable of depositing weld
metal at rates of 45 to 85 pounds per arc hour.
A modification of this method is the insertion of an electrically cold strip as
a barrier layer between the arc of the hot electrode strip and the base metal.
This results in a reduction of the base metal dilution from 30% to about 10
percent. The cold strip also adds 15 to 35% to the deposition rate, increasing it
to more than 100 pounds per arc hour.
ALLOY FLUX PROCEDURES

When using alloy-bearing fluxes it is necessary to maintain a fixed ratio
between flux and electrode melted for consistent weld metal composition. This
ratio is controlled by the welding procedure. Deviation from an established
volt-ampere relation will vary the alloy content of the weld metal.
Typical welding procedures for using alloy flux are shown in Fig. 24.34.
These procedures are for single-electrode operation and were established by
experiment. Consistent weld metal composition will result from the use of any
volt-ampere relation shown by the various curves. To date, little work has been
done using alloy fluxes with multiple-electrode operation.
WELD QUALITY
The use of submerged arc welding on work ranging from light-gage tanks to
large machinery and huge structures attests the reliability and economic feasi-
bility of the process. The defects associated with submerged arc welding are simi-
lar to those connected with other welding processes and will not be discussed
in this chapter. The one exception to this is the flux, which may become con-
taminated. The most common contaminants are moisture, dirt and mill scale,
all of which produce porosity. Most fluxes are hygroscopic, so proper storage
and handling is mandatory. Dirt and mill scale usually present a problem in
reuse of unfused flux. The use of a vacuum flux recovery system with a dust
separator will eliminate these impurities.
40
Electrode Stickout: 11 /2"
aa
36
34 / v /l.- V1
,, / v " "
v
vv
<I) :u ~\J- v / / ./
v ~ ;bY
t- / /
o30 v / / ;JY /
v /
,, /
> • /
()28
v '?\~ v \~ v / v
a: /
/ v
4: 26 _/ / /
/ ~
v
24 /
22
v ~
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 E:
ARC AMPS -DC P051TIVE ta
Constant analysis of weld deposit will be obtained when any set of procedures $:::
on this guide is used with the same flux and the same analysis of steel. !!:..
q·
Fig. 24.34.-Procedures for consistent alloy pickup with alloy fluxes at travel speed of 15-20 ipm '-
...,
.j:lo
t
w
Table 24.13-Two-pass square-groove welds
,.t
GOUGE 3/8" x 1/8'' GROOVE ON PLATES .........
1/2'' THICK AND UP IF REDUCTION IN REINFORCEMENT IS REQUIRED ~
c::ro
i
~
~
~
~
Semiautomatic Submerged Arc Welding

~
~·
Finishing Pass Backing Pass
Electrode
Plate Consumption,
Thickness, Current, Voltage, Speed Electrode Current, Voltage, Speed Electrode Lb. per Ft.
t Amperes• Volts• In. per Min. Diam., In. Amperes• Volts• In. per Min. Diam., In. of Weld
12 gage 275 25 48 l,.H 200 23 48 I,{, 0.060

10 gage 325 27 50 l,.H 250 25 50 l,.H 0.070
!11 in. 350 32 46 I~ 300 29 46 l,.H 0.088
J4 in. 375 33 42 I~ 325 34 42 I~ 0.106
~!n. 450 35 36 400 32 36 ~ 0.13
ln. 475 35 28 425 33 28 0.18
~
J.i in. 500 36 21 '" 475 34 21 0.28
%in. 500 37 16 500 35 16 0.43
-
"''"'" "''"
Single-Electrode Submerged Arc Welding
J4 in. 575 32 48 475 29 48 0.11

~in. 850 35 32 500 33 32 0.23
J.i in. 950 36 27 %
"' 700 35 27 %
"'•.u 0.34
%in. 950 36 22 % 900 36 22 ;{, 0.50
•De, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive)

Applications I 24.45
Table 24.14-Two-electrode, parallel power submerged arc two-pass square-groove weldsa
Plate Elec- Travel Electrode Electrode

Thick- Pass Current, Voltage, trode Speed, Spacer Consumption
ness, No. Amperes* Volts• Size, In. Block, Lb per Ft
T, In. In. per Min In. of Weld
----- ----- - - - - ------ ------ ----- ----- ------
% 1 750 34 Two '-12 42 % 0.32
2 1000 36 Two '-12 42 %
~ 1 1000 36 Two% 40 % 0.46
2 1200 38 Two% 40 %
• Electrode position: in line along seam (tandem).
•DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive).
Table 24.15-Single-electrode submerged arc corner welds 0
WITHOUT BACKING
50 TO 70"/. PENETRATION
Electrode
Plate Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Travel Consumption,
Thickness, No. Amperes* Volts• Size, In. Speed, Lb per Ft
T, In. In. per Min of Weld
Us 1 450 28 % 72 0.03
~ 1 550 30 % 60 0.05
% 1 650 31 Us 48 0.08
1 750 35 % 38 0.10
~
% 1 850 35
37
',{, 32
22
0.15
0.24
;li 1 900 ~-16
• A flux retainer is necessary to avoid flux spillage.

...,.,.,.
:;..
0.
Table 24.16-Two electrode, multiple-power submerged arc two-pass square-buH and single-groove welclsa
"~
90° r
r2 II>
~
~ 2=(
>t ~
)...
)-~:- ~ ~~lJJS 1,,} ii

I\ I~
~
E:
1 ~·
Current, Voltage, Electrode Electrode

Amperes Volts Size, In. Angle, Degrees
Travel Electrode
Plate Speed, Consumption
Joint Thiclmess, Pass Electrode Electrode Electrode Electrode Electrode Electrode Electrode Electrode In. Electrode Lb per Ft
Detail T, In. No. 11* #2t #1• #2t #1 #2 #1 #2 Per Min Spacing of Weld
A % 1 1)50 650 35 38 %; ~ 0 12 80 % 0.26

2 1100 700 35 38 ',{,;. ~ 0 12 80 %
% 1 1150 750 35 38 '\{, ~ 0 12 70 0.36
2 1200 800 35 38 %; ~ 0 12 65 ~
B ~ 1 1100 650 36 39 %; ~ 0 12 60 M 0.41
2 1200 650 36 39 '-1• ~ 0 12 50 M
-~~~
-~
•Seams must be butted tight.

•Electrode #1-DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive)
tEiectrode #2-AC
Table 24.17-Three·electrode, multiple-power submerged arc square-groove and single-groove welds
r2 ,..
,....-----.... 2:(
>t
J ,. ~ !~ I
~~l1iS t "}
I~
Electrode Angle,
Current, Amperes Voltage, Volts Electrode Size, In. Degrees
--------- Electrode Electrode
Travel S10acing Consumn-
Plate Elec- E1ec- Eiec- Elec- E1ec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Speed, tion,Lb
Thickness, Joint Pass trade trode trode trode trode trode trode trode trode trode trode trode In. per perFt
T, In. Detail No.
#l• #2t m#3l #1• #2t 1-2 #1 #2 #3 #1 #2 #3 Min. 2-3 of Weld
- - - --- --- - - - --- --- - - - --- --- --- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
~ A 1 1000 600 600 29 31 37 3/16 7ti 7ti 0 3 12 104 % % 0.27
2 1100 800 600 31 34 37 '-16 7ti 7ti 0 3 12 104 % % :A.
% A 1 1050 770 700 30 32 37 'A& % % 0 3 12 90 ~ % 0.36
2 1100 800 700 32 33 37 ;.(, % % 0 3 12 90 ~ %
72 B 1 1100 800 800 31 33 38 ~ % % 0 3 12 80 % 0.47
~
2 1100 800 800 32 33 38 ~ % % 0 3 12 70 ~ %
I
- - - --- ---- -- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
" - ---------
g·
•Electrode #1-DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive)
6'
tEiectrode #2-AC
::s
lE1ectrode #3-AC "'
..........
~
""
t
II)
~
.j:lo
00
..........
Table 24.18-Single-electrode submerged arc single-pass square-groove welds with copper backing
~
0"
~
~
~
::t..
(i
i ; :;··· . { ~
I J ~
~-
COPPEll BACKUP
Electrode
Plate Current, Voltage, Speed, Electrode Consumption.
Thickness, t Amperes* Volts• In. per Min. Diameter, In. Lb per Ft
of Weld
------16gage ----- 350 23 118 '.i2 0.015
14 gage 400 24 100 '.i2 0.020
12 gage 550 30 98 Ys 0.027
10 gage 650 31 75 Ys 0.05
Uti in. 725 31 50 ',{, 0.07
!4 in. 900 34 35 % 0.10
5,..,(6 in. 950 36 30 % 0.25
-- ------- - -
I
---------- I
•DC. Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive).
Table 24.19-Single-electrode submerged arc single-pass square-groove welds with steel backing
Electrode I Backing Bar

Plate Root· Groove Current, Voltage, Speed, Electrode Consumption,
Thickness, Opening, Angle, Amperes* Volts• In. per Min. Diameter, In. Lb per Ft
T S, In. V, Degrees of Weld t, Min. W.Min.
I
------- ------- ------- ------- ------- ------- -------~------- -------
16 gage 0-\,f, 0 450 25 110 Ys 0.020 14 gage %in.
14 gage Q-\,f, 0 500 27 80 Ys 0.035 12 gage %in.
12 gage 0-',{,; 0 550 27 60 Ys 0.050 12 gage Yzin.
10 gage 0-\{, 0 650 28 48 Ys 0.070 Ys in. %in.
%in. \,{, 0 850 32 36 3/{'6 0.13 ;{,in. %in. ~
~in. Ys 0 900 33 26 ,{,
'\{, 0.20 ~in. 1 in.
%in. Ys 0 950 33 24 0.24 ~in. 1 in. ~
Yz in. % 0 1100 34 18 \{, 0.46 %in. 1 in.

-~r
....
~·
.........
~
~
'()
~
~
in
0
'-...
~
;:::
Table 24.20-Two-electrode, parallel-power submerged arc square-groove welds with steel backinga ""~
~
~G~ ~
~
~
Ll ~
~
! 5'
r+-- w ()Q
STEEL
BACKING
II I I Electrode
Plate Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Travel Electrode Gap X, W, Consumption,
Thickness No. Amperes* Volts* Size, In. Speed. Spacer G, In. Min, Min Lb per Ft
T, In. In. per Min I Block, In. of Weld
3,{. 1 900 39 Two %2 I 48 I % \{.-Ys 3,{,; %: 0.15

)4 1 950 3Y Two 3~ 39 % .V.-\{6 )4 1 0.19
% 1 1250 40 Two %2 36 % '~l->2 )4 1 0.31
% 1 1400 I 41 I Two% I 24 % __ U.-!4__ ~ 1 0.59

Table 24.21-Semiautomatic submerged arc double-vee groove welds
<way "<;WY
f~!~A---L---t·~ +~l:3(~.
I: t
<_ 75"·_> /___w~
Electrode
Plate Travel Consumption,
Thickness, Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Speed, Lb per Ft
ln. No. Amperes* Volts• Size, ln. In. per Min. of Weld A, In. B, In.
-------- --------- ---------
1 475 35 '4. 17 0.39 ~ ~i6
% 17
2 500 36 '41 3 ~
1 475 35 12 0.58 % /fti
:li 12
2 500 36
22 1.04 ~
,,.,,.,,.
Y8 1 450 34 ,,. % Ys
2 500 34 22
3-{i 500 38 '4. 27 ~
1 1 450 34 16 1.34 u. Ys
16
,,.,,.
2 500 34 [
3-6 500 38
,,. 21
1)4 1 450 34 '4. 18 1.96 % Ys c:;·
2 500 34 '4. 18 i;;
3-8 500 38 '4. 19
450 34 16 2.65 11_{6 :·i --......_
1,Y:! 1 I ,,.,,. 16
2 500 34 ..,
3-8 500 38 '4. 16
I I I !"
Ul
~
...,in
..........
\A/ Table 24.22-Singl-lectrode submerged arc double-vee groove weldsa f

~
Plate Travel Electrode ~
Thick- Speed, Consumption, ~
ness, Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode In. per A, B, c, D, E, Lb per Ft
~~l
~§rr--r--------~ T, In. No. Amperes• Volts• Size, In. Min. Deg. In. In. In. Deg. of Weld ~
----- - - - -- - - - --
% 1 700 35 % 22 60 ~ u u 60 0.39
2 750 36 % 19 ~
-~ E ~ 1 700 35 'iU 22 60 ~ u % 60 0.55
-A 2 1000 36 'iU 16 ~·
:v. 1 750 35 'iU 19 60 u u % 60 0.66
2 1000 36 ~ 14
1 1 900 35 ~ 14 60 % u % 60 0.93
2 1050 36 'iU 12
1
\·A; 1~
2
900
1050
35
37
~ 14
9
60 % u ~ 60 1.10
~
1U 1 900 35 'iU 14 60 % u % 70 1.32
2 1050 36 'iU 12.5
3 900 35 'iU 12.5
1% 1 1000 36 'iU 12 70 % % % 90 1.87
2 1100 36 'iU 12
3 1000 34 'iU 8
1~ 1 1050 36 'iU 9 70 ~ % % 90 2.10
2 1100 36 'iU 12
3 1000 34 ~ 8
• Seams must be butted tight.

Table 24.23-Two-electrode, parallel-power submerged arc double-vee groave welclsa
Plate Electrode Travel Electrode

Thick- Consumption, Speed, Spacer
ness, Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Lb per Ft In. per Block, A, B,c. D, E,
T, In. No. Amperes* Volts• Size, In. of Weld Min. In. De g. In. In.
In.J De g.
----- --------
%: 1 1000 39 Two 'A. 0.80 32 % 75 8,{6 8,{6 % 90
2 1300 39 Two 'A. 22 %
78 1 1000 39 Two 'A. 1.02 32 % 75 u %. Ui 90
2 1400 38 Two 'A. 18 %
1 1 1200 35 Two 'A. 1.22 23 % 75 % %. Ui 90
2 1400 38 Two% 18 %
1Ys 1 1200 38 Two 'A. 1.47 22 % 75 % u Ys 90 ~
2 1500 38 Two 'A. 16 %
1~ 1 1400 34 Two Ys 1.89 19 Ys 75 u. ~
2 1500 33 Two Ys 16 Ys u %. 90
3 1300 35 Two Ys 17 Ys -
1% 1 1500 34 Two Ys 2.24 14 Ys 80 Ys ~·
2 1500 33 Two Ys 16 Ys u % 80 c;·
3 1300 35 Two Ys 16 Ys
1Ys 1 1500 34 Two Ys 2.68 14 Ys 80 Ys ~
2 1500 33 Two Ys 14 Ys u %: 80 .........
3 1500 35 Two Ys 13 Ys ~
-- - - - -- - - - --- -

....
in
w
..,
.j:l,
u.
.j:l,
"'-.
Table 24.24-Two-electrode, multiple-power submerged arc double-vee groove weldsa
~
<:::!"
~
~
i~
~
~
t:
~·
Electrode Electrode I I
Current. Amperes Voltage, Volts Size, In. Angle, Degrees
Elec- Electrode
Plate I Travel trade Consump-
Thick- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Speed. Spac- tion,
ness, Pass trade trade trode trode trode trode trade trode In. per ing, Lb per Ft A, B, C, D, E,
T, In. No. #1• #2t #1* #2t #1 #2 #1 #2 Min. In. of Weld Deg. In. In. In. Deg.
~ --~-~0-- 700 I 35 -~-~:--~--0----1;-----:;-- Ys 0.67 90 ~- rg ~~-~-

2 1150 800 36 41 7,i2 ·~, 0 12 30 Ys
1 1 1050 700 36 41 7,i2 % 0 12 26 1 0. 97 80 7.: % % 80
2 1150 850 38 43 ',i2 % 0 12 22 1
1)1: 1 1050 750 36 42 \12 % 0 12 20 1Ys 1.32 70 % % Y2 170
2 1200 850 38 43 \12 % 0 12 16.5 1Ys
1Y2 1 1200 850 36 43 7,i2 % 0 12 20 17i 1.67 60 ~ ~ % 70
2 1300 900 40 44 \12 % 0 12 15 1)1:
• Seams must be butted tight.

•Electrode #1-DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive).
tEiectrode #2-AC.
Table 24.25-Three electrode, multiple-power submerged arc double-vee groove welds
\A/
~~r
§§~tt~
.k. --A E
Electrode Angle, I Elec-

Current, Amperes Voltage, Volts
Electrode Size, In. Degrees trode Electrode
Travel Con-
Plate
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -- - - - Speed, sump- Spacing,' In
Thick- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- Elec- ln. tion
ness, Pass trode trade trade trade trode trade trade trode trade trade trade trade per LbperFt A. B, c. D, E.
T, In. No. #1 * #2t #3t #1* #2t #3t #1 #2 #3 #1 #2 #3 Min. of Weld --;_-;f2-3 De g. In. ln. ln. De g.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - _ _ I_ _ - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
:J4 1 1000 700 700 31 33 35 3/f6 5~ 0 ,, 3 12 55 0.69 :J4 :J4 90 Ys % J4 90
2 1100 800 800 32 33 35 % % 0 3 12 42 :J4 :J4
1 1 1150 700 700 36 33 36 7~
'~ 0.94
',{,% 0 3 12 42 :J4 :J4 80 J4 % % 80
2 1300 825 825 36 33 36 ~6
u, ~ 0 3 12 34 :J4 :J4
1)4 1 1300 800 800 36 33 36 7~ 7~ 0 u, 3 12 36 1.26 Ys Ys 70 ~/~ 70
% % ~
2 1300 800 800 36 33 36 ?-,;, ?-,;, ?-,;, 0 3 12 26 Ys Ys
1% 1 1375 800 800 37 33 36 7~ 7~ ?-,;, 0 3 12 34 1.44 Ys 60 7,{6 70
Ys % Y2 :g
2 1400 800 800 37 36 36 ?-,;, ?-,;, ?-,;, 0 3 12 24 Ys Ys
1Y2 1 1375 800 800 37 33 36 ?-,;, 7~ ?-,;, 0 3 12 34 1 52 1 1 60 7,.{o Uti 70
2 1400 800 800 37 36
% [
36 ?-,;, ?-,;, ?-,;, 0 3 12 22 1 1
-- I --
~·
•Electrode #1-DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive) i:;
tElecltrode #2-AC.
tElectrode #3-AC. .........
..,
olio
Ul
"'
~
•
in
0.
--......
~
l:r
~
~
~
~
::.:...
~
Table 24.26--Single-electrode submerged arc multiple-pass combination vee- and U-groove welds ~
7"-W
i:i::
Speed. Electrode ~·
Pass No. Current, Voltage, ln. per Diameter,
Amperes* Volts• Min. In.
--------· I 1--------1-------
~~
1 600 30 9 ',{,
2 600 28 10 %
3 800 31 20 %
4 800 31 20 %
Subsequent passes 900 31 20 %
Final passes 600-900 35 12 %

Table 24.27-Two-electrode, parallel-power submerged arc combination square-and vee-groove welds with manual weld backupa
(A} (B}
~90°>
~
Jc-----r-----f-.!
~~~!.1
MANUA~
WELD
::~:·11~~lli-tJ
Electrode
Plate Travel Electrode Consumption,
Thickness, Joint Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Speed, In. Spacer Lb per Ft
T, In. Detail No. Amperes• Volts• Size, In. per Min Block, In. of Weld
-------- ------- -------
A 1 1000 36 Two 3,a2 42 I % 0.19
% 1200 38 Two%! 40 0.26
Y2 A 1 %
A 1 1300 38 Two%! 34 % 0.35 ~
% 37 Two% 27 0.38
%: B 1 1200 %
B 1 1300 38 Two% 22 % 0.55
% 1500 38 Two%! 16 1.0
~
1 B 1 %
178 B 1 1500 39 Two '\t.J 11 % 1.5 ~-
-- ----- --- -
6'
• Electrode position: in line along seam (tandem). Make the manual weld before the automatic weld. ~
........
..,
~
in
....
Table 24.28-Semiautomatic submerged arc fillet welds in horizontal position
Weld Current,
I
Voltage,
Travel
Speed, Electrode
Electrode
Consumption
Size, L Amperes Volts In. per Min. Diameter, In. Lb per Ft of Weld
------·----- ------ ---- ------ ------- --------
14 gage 185• 23 37 '.16 0.029
12 gage 250* 25 50 \{, 0.030
10 gage 325• 28 55 ~ 0.037
3,{6 in. 350t 30 45 l/]'6 0.050
'4 in. 375t 34 29 1/)'~ 0.084
in.
5_{6 400t 35 16 '4• 0.20
%in.
Yz in. (3 passes)
425t
425t
37
35
12
20 (per:pass)
'4•
'41
0.30
0.51
I
•DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive). tDC, Straight Polarity (Electrode Negative).
Table 24.29-Semiautomatic submerged arc fillet welds in flat position
I
I I
I I
\
\
' /
Travel Electrode
Weld Current, Voltage, Speed, Electrode Consumption
Size, L Amperes Volts In. per Min. Diameter, In. Lb per Ft of Weld
------------ ------ ----- ------- ------
14 gage 185* 23 37 '.16 0.028
12 gage 250• 24 50 '.16 0.030
10 gage 325• 28 60 '.16 0.034
Us in. 360• 30 50 \{, 0.047
'4 in. 425t 45 33 '41 0.14
Us in. 450t 47 23
'-"' 0.22
%in.
Yz in.
450t
450t
47
47
16
9
,_,.
'41 0.32
0.57
% in. (3 passes) 450t 47 16 ~ 0.89
•DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive). tDC . ~ llaight Polarity (Electrode Negative).
Applications I 24.59
Table 24.30-Semiautomatic submerged arc fillet welds in horizontal position

with long electrode stickout
ELECTRODE STICKOUT = 2\4 IN.

--
I
Electrode
Weld Travel Consumption,
Size, Current, Voltage, Speed. Electrode Lb per Ft
L. In. Amperes* Volts• In. per Min. Diameter, In. of Weld
---~--~-
~
--------- -------- ------- ------- --------
450 48 33 0.16
,,..,,..
·~6 450 48 22 0.23
~/g 400 42 13 0.36 '-'•
*DC. Straight Polarity (Electrode Negative).
Table 24.31-Semiautomatio submerged arc fillet welds in flat position

with long electrode stickout
ELECTRODE STICKOUT = 2\4 IN.

-
Electrode
Size, Current, Voltage, Speed, Electrode Lb per Ft
L, In. Amperes* Volts* In. per Min. Diameter, In. of Weld
-------
~
%
425
450
45
47
33
23
,,..,,..'X. 0.14
0.22
Vs 450 47 16 0.32
}1 450 47 9 'i(, 0.57
•DC, Straight Polarity (Electrode Negative).

Table 24.32-Single-electrode submerged arc fillet welds in horizontal position
Electrode
Size, Current, Voltage, Speed. Electrode Lb per Ft
L, In. Amperes* Volts* In. per Min. Diameter, In. of Weld
- - - - - - - --------- ---~--- ------- -------
Ys 400 24 64 Ys 0.03
'!{6 500 26 42 %! 0.06
%
>4 650
700
30
33
32
24
'"'
%!
0.11
0.17
Table 24.33-Single-electrode submerged arc double-bevel groove welds

in tee joints in horizontal positiona
2"
Travel Travel
Pass No. Speed.
Current. Pass No.
Voltage, Current, Voltage, Speed,
In. per Min.
Amperes* Volts• AmpereH* Volts* In. per Min.
----- ----- ----- - - - - - - - - - - - · - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------
1 1st sideh 550 28 14 12 2nd side 600 28 20
2 600 28 10 13 600 28 14
3 600 28 10 14 600 28 14
4 600 28 20 15 600 28 14
5 600 28 10 16 600 28 16
6 600 28 18 17 600 28 24
7 2nd side 600 28 10 18 1st side 600 28 16
8 600 28 12 19 600 28 16
9 600 28 18 20 600 28 16
10 600 28 14 21 600 28 18
11 600 28 14 22 600 28 28
• These data are suitable for 2-in. web plate; similar preparation and welding conditions can be used
for any thickness (%! in. electrodes used throughout) ..
b Backing weld may also be made manually.
Table 24.34-Two-electrode, parallel-power submerged arc fillet welds in flat position
.. ii",;·i [ Electrode
Leg "I Travel Electrode Consumption,
Size, Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Speed, Spacer Electrode Lb per Ft
L, In. No. Amperes* Volts• Size, In. In. per Min Block. In. Position of Weld
--------~ --------
----- ------- ------- - - - - - - - - - -------- --------
;\i 1 900 35 Two%.! 55 % Tandem 0.11 ~
1 1050 35 Two%.! 40 % Tandem 0.18
'%"'• 1 1200 37 Two%.! 39 ~8 Tandem 0.24
Yz 1 1350 39 Two%2 25 ~/g Tandem 0.47 ~
1 1400 40 Two 3A., 18 % Tandem 0.69
% 13 Side by side 1.1 2'
~ 1 1500 40 Two '..s2 %
- --··---- - - - - - - - - - - --- 5·
•DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive). ~
..........
...,
ol:lo
0.
-
~
~
t
-......
Table 24.35-Single-electr ode submerged arc lap welds ~
l::l"
~
~
~
~
;::;
?! ~
~-
COPPER OR STEEL BACKING 1
~~~-! l)
\;~k
18-10 GAGE 5/32-3/8 IN.
Plate Electrode
Electrode
II Travel Consumption,
Thick- Pass Current Voltage, Size, Speed, In. Leg, Size
ness, T No. Lb per Ft
Amperes• Volts• In. per Min. L, In. of Weld
18 gage 1 380 23 120

16 gage 1 425
Ys .. 0.015
26 Ys 120 .. 0.016
14 gage 1 475 28 Ys 120
12 gage 1 .. 0.02
575 30 Ys IOO .. 0.03
10 gage I 650 32 80
'~in. I 400
Ys 0.05
24 Ys 64 Y. 0.03
)4 in. I 500 26 42
',{,in. I ·~ '-1'• 0.06
650 30 ~ 36 J4 0.11
%in. I 700 33 ~ 26 % O.I7

Table 24.36--Single-electrode submerged arc, arc-seam welds
T MIN.
Electrode
Thickness, No. Amperes* Volts• Size, ln. Speed, Lb per Ft
T, Gage In. per Min of Weld
'1 t li Bit 18 1 450 23 120 0.018
16 1 500 26 120 0.02
112" ~
! ' \ .......
14
12
1
1
550
650
28
30
~
~
',{,
120
100
0.024
0.034
MIN. STEEL BACKING 10 1 750 32 ',{, 80 0.054
Table 24.37-Single-electrode submerged arc corner weldsa
Electrode
Thickness, No. Amperes* Volts• Size, ln. Speed, Lb per Ft
T,Ga In. per Min of Weld ::t=..
',{, 170 0.01

~
16 1 375 20
14 1 400 24 ~ 110 0.02 -g·
12 1 500 30 ~ 110 0.025
10 1 625 31 ~ 90 0.05 ~
l:;
• A flux retainer is necessary to avoid flux spillage. 80 TO 100% PENETRATION .........
~
t
~
olio
Table 24.38-Single-eledrode submerged arc corner weldsa t
..........
~
[
~ i ::t..
~
~·
~
WITH BACKING WITHOUT BACKING
80 TO 100% PENETRATION 50 TO 70% PENETRATION
I I I I Electrode
Consumption,
Joint Plate Pass Current, Voltage, Electrode Lb per Ft Travel Speed,
Detail Thickness, T, In. No. Amperes* I Volts* Size, In. of Weld In. per Min
--------------------------------------------------
A % 1 675 32 %2 0.05 70
A !4 1 700 32 % 0.06 56
A % 1 750 35 % 0.09 42
A Y, 1 850 36 3/(6 0. 15 32
B !4 1 500 31 s,; 0.04 60
B % 1 650 33 ·~, 0.07 48
B Y, 1 750 35 % 0.11 36
• A flux retainer is necessary to avoid flux spillage.

Table 24.39-Piug welds
Plate Thickness,
In. Electrode
Electrode Electrode Consumption,
Hole Size, Current Voltage, Time per Plug, Diameter, Deposit, Lb per Plug Shear Area,•
t T,Min. A, In. Amperes* Volts• Sec In. In. (Approx.) Sq In.
------- -------
u 'AI ~ 800 25 0.8 0.006 0.11
650 27 "6 3.5 0.027 0.44
%
.,,Us
'.-16 2.2 0.031 0.25
% ~ 900 27 5
lOAf 900 27 10 4.6 0.064 0.52
uu
~ 900 27 9 4.3 0.060 0.37
3-2 7.0 0.098 0.79
15.-16 900 28 15
u~
~
3-2 900 28 15 ~ 7.5 0.105 0.52
% ..•u,,, 10.0 0.140 0.79
li.-16 900 28 21 ~
%: •l{, 1000 30 18 ~ 9.2 0.128 0.60
1'>H 1200 30 24 ~ 15.6 0.218 1.28
1 1 1200 30 35 15.0 0.326 1.10
n 1 1200 30 38
'.-16
'M 14.5 0.370 1.10 ~
u~ § 1 1300 30 40 '.-i'a 20.0 0.435 1.28
~
- - ------
A These values are actual and include penetration beyond root. NOTE: Lower or higher welding current with longer or shorter time may be used, depending on thick-
ness, T. It is important to stop electrode feed motor and allow electrode to melt off 1 to 2 sec before interrupting welding current, in order to avoid center depression
-B.
on surface of plug.
<:;·
-
•DC, Reverse Polarity (Electrode Positive). i;;
-.......
..,....
8:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Three-Wire Submerged-Arc Welding of Line Pipe," G. D. Uttrachi and J. E.
Messina, Welding Journal, 47 (6), 475-481 (1968).
"Submerged Arc Welding Characteristics of the Ca 0-Ti 02-Si02 System" C. A.
Butler and C. E. Jackson, Welding Journal, 46 (10) 448s-456s (1967).
An Investigation of the New Multiple Electrode Automatic Arc Welding Process,
S. Nishi and K. Suyuki, Kobe Shipyard and Engine Works, Mitsubishi Heavy In-
dustries, Reorganized, Ltd., Kobe, Japan.
"Flux and Filler-Wire Developments for Submerged-Arc Welding HY80 Steel,"
W. J. Lewis, G. E. Faulkner and P. J. Rieppel, Welding Journal, 40 (8), 337s-345s
(1961) 0
"Advancements in Submerged-Arc Welding of High-Impact Steels," R. A. Kubli and

W. B. Sharao, Ibid., 40 (11), 497s-502s (1961).
"Submerged-Arc Welding HY-80 Steel," W. J. Lewis, G. E. Faulkner, D. C. Martin
and P. J. Rieppel, Welding Journal, 39 (6), 266s-272s (1960).
"Welding of Containment Sphere for Dresden Nuclear Power Station," P. C.
Arnold, Ibid., 38 (5), 461-468 (1959).
"Reaction of Silicon and Manganese in Submerged Arc Welding of Low Carbon
Steel," K. V. Lyubauskii, Autogennoe Delo, 18 (7), 1-10 ( 1947), Brutcher Translation
No. 4331 (1958).
"Automatic Welding Applications at an Oil Refinery," R. C. Wheeler and R. M.
Kolb, Ibid., 36 (4), 347-355 (1957).
"Welding Problems in Pressure Vessels for Nuclear Reactors," R. E. Lorentz, Jr.,
Ibid., 36 (9), 881-887 (1957).
"Numerous Automatic Submerged Arc Welds in New Automobile Axle Housing,"
A. F. Boucher, Ibid., 35 ( 11), 1120-1124 ( 1956).
"A Selection Guide for Methods of Submerged Arc Welding," R. A. Wilson, Ibid.,
35 (6), 549-555 (1956).
"Multipower Submerged Arc Welding of Pressure Vessels and Pipe," R. A. Kubli
and H. I. Shrubsall, Ibid., 35 (11), 1128-1135 ( 1956).
"Fabrication of Crosshead Beams for the World's Largest Forging Press," V. M.
Nigriny, Ibid., 35 (1), 9-18 (1956).
"Effect of J2R Heating on Electrode Melting Rate," J. Wilson, G. E. Claussen and
C. E. Jackson, Ibid., 35 (1), ls-8s (1956).
"Automatic Hard Surfacing Saves Pipe and Catalyst," R. F. Arnoldy, Ibid., 35
(8), 784-790 (1956).
"How to Use Semiautomatic Submerged Arc Welding," R. A. Wilson, Ibid., 34
(6), 535-541 (1955).
"Automatic Hard Facing with Mild Steel Electrodes and Agglomerated Alloy
Fluxes," J. S. McKeighan, Ibid., 34 (4), 301-308 (1955).
----CHAPTE R 25
ARC WELDING
POWER SOURCES
Introduction 25.2
Service Classification 25.9
Maintenance 25.11
Safety 25.1 I
Alternating-Current Power Sources-Constant Current 25.12
Direct-Current Welding Generators-Constant Current 25.23
Rectifier-Type Power Sources-Constant Current 25.31
Direct-Current Welding Generators-Constant Voltage 25.36
Rectifier-Type Power Sources-Constant Voltage 25.41
Special Power Sources for Other Applications 25.43
Bibliography 25.55
R. L. FRANTZ E. PIERRE
Hobart Brothers Company-Chairman Miller Electric Company
F. DESAW R. E. PURKHISER
Battelle Memoria/Institute A irco Welding Products
C. LIBBY J. REVELT
Ohio State University Lincoln Electric Company
----CHAPTER 25
ARC WELDING
POWER SOURCES
INTRODUCTION
GENERAL
MANY TYPES OF ARC WELDING POWER sources are available in order to pro-
vide suitable equipment for the many arc welding processes.
Economic considerations often play a ruling part in the selection of the power
source. In short production runs, primary importance is placed on flexibility and
manual operation. Fully automated processes may require automatic equipment
of considerable complexity when production runs are long.
The arc welding processes for which power supplies are discussed in this
chapter include shielded metal-arc welding, gas metal-arc welding, self-shielded
flux-cored arc welding, gas tungsten-arc welding, submerged arc welding, electro-
slag welding, electrogas welding, plasma welding, stud welding and pulsed arc
welding. Typical applications are outlined for various types of voltage charac-
teristics; the electrical characteristics, and systems of rating, service classifica-
tion and control of the common types of power sources are described.
Power supplies for arc welding processes may be classified in many different
ways. For example, a classification by application requirements of the welding
process might suggest constant voltage versus constant current as a reasonable
classification of all welding machines. Classification by the description of the
equipment might suggest rotating motor-generator set versus transformer or
transformer-rectifier type as a reasonable classification. Similarly the type of
power used for the welding processes, such as pulsed arc versus d-e power or
the option of a-c or d-e power, may also be suggested as a feasible subdivision
system for welding equipment.
Introduction I 25.3
Table 25.1-Ciassiflcations of commercially available arc welding power supplies
Requirements of Process Selected
Type of Volt-Ampere
Welding Machine Characteristics Type of Welding Voltage
AC
Constant- Constant- AC or DC AC and
Voltage Current Only
--- ---
DC Only
I DC Pulse
Rotating electric motor generator X X X
Transformer X X X
Transformer-rectifier X X X X X
------
Type of Power
Power line to motor generator X X X
Power line to transformer X X X X X
Engine to generator X X X X X
A description of a welding machine should therefore include identification

under each of these subcategories. For example, a suitable identification of the
classification of a typical welding machine for manual shielded metal-arc weld-
ing might be "transformer-rectifier, constant-current, ac/ de." A more complete
description would, of course, include a current rating, duty cycle, service classi-
fication and power line frequency and voltage. An indication of special control
features may also be used; such features include: saturable reactor or variable
mutual inductance; feedback system; or remote manual control, with or with-
out voltage control, etc. Table 25.1 relates the process requirements to the types
of welding machines and types of power available.
The voltage supplied by power companies for industrial purposes is too high
to use directly in arc welding. Therefore, means are incorporated in an arc
welding power supply to reduce the high-input voltage down to a suitable range
( 20 to 80 volts, typically). Either a transformer, or a motor connected to a
generator, provides the facility of reducing 230 volt power, for example, to the
rated terminal voltage required by arc welding machines. The same device
(transformer or motor generator) also provides the means of delivering high
welding currents (50 to 500 amperes) from relatively low-current power lines
( 10 to 100 amperes). A diagrammatic description of these elements is shown
in Fig. 25 .1.
FUSED DISCONNECT
SWITCH (OPEN) ARC WELDING POWER SOURCE
INDUSTRIAL
TO
POWER SYSTEM
r
--+-
(POWER SUPPLY (MEANS OF REDUC- (MEANS OF
SAFETY DEVICE) ING POWER SYSTEM CONTROLLING
VOLTAGE) OUTPUT
GROUND LEAD CHARACTERISTIC)
-- ELECTRICAL CONNECTIONS
-- MECHANICAL STRUCTURE AND CHASSIS
Fig. 25.1.-Elements of an arc welding power source, shown connected to power lines
25.4 I Arc Welding Power Sources
The arc welding power source itself shown in Fig. 25.1 does not include the
wall-mounted, fused disconnect switch, although this is a necessary protective
element. An engine-driven generator used as a power supply system would
require elements different from those shown in Fig. 25.1. Only an engine, a
speed-regulation device, a generator and a means of controlling the volt-ampere
characteristic of the welding generator would be required.
CONSTANT-CURRENT AND CONSTANT-VOLTAGE

POWER SOURCES
Arc welding power sources are commonly classified as constant current and
constant voltage. Paragraph EWl-1.18 of the Electric Arc-Welding Apparatus
Standard ( EW 1-1968) of the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
(NEMA) states: "A constant-current arc-welding power supply (arc welder)
is one which has characteristically drooping volt-ampere curves producing rela-
tively constant current with limited change in load voltage. This type of supply
is conventionally used in connection with manual-stick-electrode or tungsten-
inert-gas arc welding."
The characteristics of this type of supply are such that if the arc length varies
because of external influences, and slight changes in arc voltage result, the weld-
ing current remains substantially constant. Generally, manual operations where
variations in arc length are almost inevitably owing to the human element em-
ploy this type of power source.
Although each current setting of the supply yields a separate and individual
volt-ampere curve when tested under steady conditions, the curves are not usu-
ally parallel. In the vicinity of the operating point, it should be expected that
the static volt-ampere curve will be more vertical than horizontal (see Fig. 25.14
on page 25.24).
The no-load voltage is considerably higher than the arc voltage under load
in the constant-current type of arc welding power supply.
Constant-current power supplies are not used exclusively for manual shielded
metal-arc welding processes; they are also applicable to semiautomatic or auto-
matic processes in which a constant arc length is maintained by automatic
changes in the feed rate of the consumable electrode. This type of supply is
suitable for automatically controlled processes for which a reasonably constant
current is required.
In the NEMA standard quoted above, the constant-voltage system is defined
as follows: "A constant-voltage arc-welding power supply (arc welder) is one
which has characteristically flat volt-ampere curves producing relatively con-
stant voltage with a change in load current. This type of power supply is con-
ventionally used in connection with welding processes involving consumable
electrodes fed at a constant rate" (Paragraph EW1-1.19) .
A welding arc fed by a constant-voltage supply, and utilizing consumable
electrodes and a constant-speed wire feed, is essentially a self-regulating system.
It tends to stabilize itself despite momentary changes such as friction in the
wire feed, fluctuations in the power supply, etc. The arc length and weld current
are interrelated in such a way as to correct for sudden changes. For example,
arc length variation is fundamentally determined by the differences between
melting rate and feed rate; arc voltage is directly related to arc length; for
any one wire size, melting rate is governed to a major extent by current.
Introduction I 25.5
Thus, if the power supply is capable of providing large current variations
while still maintaining nearly constant voltage, a constant-speed system for wire
feed can be used to good advantage. The wire-feed rate will be found to be
proportional to arc current for all wire sizes.
The voltage-reducing element in Fig. 25.1 may be an electric generator driven
by an electric motor, or it may be a transformer. If an electric generator is
used, it is usually a d-e generator. The arc welding power supply is then used
for d-e welding only. In this case, the electromagnetic means of controlling
the volt-ampere characteristic of the arc welding power source is an integral
part of the generator; it is not a separate element as shown in Fig. 25.1.
Various d-e generator configurations are employed. The d-e generator may
use a separate exciter and current control for determination of the desired volt-
ampere characteristics. Another type uses a separate exciter and differential or
cumulative compounding for selection of volt-ampere characteristics.
Figure 25.2 shows the basic elements of a transformer. For a transformer,
the significant relations among turns ratio, and input and output voltages and
currents, are as follows:
N1 -~L I2
N2 E2 T
where N 1 is the number of turns on the primary winding of the transformer,
N 2 is the number of turns on the secondary winding, E 1 is the input voltage,
E 2 is the output voltage, I 1 is the input current and I 2 is the output (load)
current. The element that determines the volt-ampere characteristics is not shown
in Fig. 25 .2.
Taps in the transformer secondary winding may also be furnished as shown
in Fig. 25.3 to control the no-load output voltage. In this case, the tapped
transformer permits the adjustment or control of the number of turns, N 2 , in
the secondary winding of the transformer. Fewer turns used on the secondary
means less output voltage, since a smaller proportion of the transformer sec-
ondary windings is then in use. The tap selection, therefore, controls the no-
load voltage.
AMMETER AMMETER
TRANSFORMER CASE
--ELECTRICAL CONNECnON
- - MECHANICAL STRUCTURE OR MAGNETIC MATERIAL
Fig. 25.2.-Principal electrical elements of a welding transformer, shown connected
to power supply and load
ROTARY
TAP
SELECTOR
PRIM. RY
A.C. WINO/ G
INPUT
VOLTAGE Nt A. C.
TURN OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
SELECTOR CASE
TRANSFORMER CASE
Fig. 25.3.-Welding transformer with tapped secondary winding to control no-load
output voltage
In constant-voltage systems (Fig. 25.4), there may be an adjustable (satu-

rable or tapped) reactor connected electrically to the transformer secondary
winding. The reactor adjustment determines the slope of the static volt-ampere
characteristics and the tap selection controls the no-load voltage. A later sec-
tion entitled Manual Control explains these adjustments for both generator and
transformer or transformer-rectifier power supplies.
In constant-current arc welding power sources that use a transformer, the
adjustable reactor is usually located in the secondary circuit in series with the
arc circuit. Here again, taps in the transformer secondary can offer control of
the no-load voltage, but this is not usually done.
The type of circuit shown in Fig. 25.4 is typical of the constant-current type
as well as many constant-voltage type arc welding power supplies. In constant-
current power supplies, the voltage drop, Ex, across the reactor increases greatly
as the load current, I 2 , is increased. The increase in load current causes a large
reduction in the level of the load voltage, E 2 • Adjustments in the value of
r----Ex-----..
VOLTAGE DROP
A. C.
INPUT TRANSFORMER
VOLTAGE
EA
LOAO
CURRENT
Fig. 25.4.-Typical circuit for constant-current and many constant-voltage type arc
welding power supplies using a reactor to control output
Introduction I 25.7
reactance in the series reactor con- VOLTAGE

trol the relation of load current to
load voltage. This is called current-
range control. Voltage EB equals the
no-load (open-circuit) voltage of the
power supply.
In constant-voltage power supplies, Ex
the voltage drop, Ex, across the VOLTAGE
reactor increases only slightly as the DROP
load current increases; the drop in Ee

the level of the load voltage is small. NO-LOAD
Adjustments in the value of reactance VOLTAGE
in the series reactor control the rela-
tion of load current to load voltage. 69
This is known as slope control with
simple reactors, and voltage control
with saturable reactors.
Figure 25.5 shows a typical vector
relationship of the a-c voltages for
the circuit of Fig. 25.4. The voltage
drop across the reactor plus the
load volta,ge equals the no-load Fig. 25.5.-Typical vector relationship
voltage only as a vectorial addition. of the a-c voltages in the secondary
In the example pictured, the output circuit of a welding transformer as
shown in Fig. 25.4
voltage of the transformer is 80 volts,
the voltage drop across the reactor is 69 volts and the load (equivalent to a
resistor) voltage is 40 volts. The vectorial addition shown is analogous to the
addition of 69 miles west and 40 miles north to make a total of 80 miles
northwest.
In those welding power sources having both a transformer and a rectifier
(for a-c or d-e welding) , the rectifiers are located in the arc-circuit side. In
other words, the control system is not located in the d-e circuit since it is an
a-c system including reactors and transformer taps. The transformer-rectifier
type of arc welding power supply usually incorporates a stabilizing inductance
or choke located in the d-e arc circuit to improve arc stability.
STATIC VERSUS DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
A power source, either of the generator or transformer typ.e, has two kinds
of operating characteristics, each of which affects its welding performance in
different ways. These are its dynamic characteristics and its static characteristics.
Only the static characteristics can be readily measured by conventional test
procedures. A set of voltage-current characteristic curves (E-I curves, or volt-
ampere curves) describes the static characteristics.
In contrast, the dynamic characteristic of the arc welding power source is
determined by the characteristic variations in output voltage that appear in as
little as 0.001 second after a change in arc current. Dynamic characteristics
describe the instantaneous variations or those variations that occur over very
short intervals of time. Static characteristics are measured over longer periods
of time (seconds or minutes).
Arc stability is primarily determined by the dynamic characteristics of the
arc welding power supply. It is also true that improper selection of a volt-
ampere characteristic for a given electrode and material might result in diffi-
culty in maintaining an arc; however, circuit elements that add to arc stability
will be effective to some extent regardless of other variables.
The inherently transient characteristic of all welding arcs is the principal
reason for the great importance of the dynamic characteristic of an arc weld-
ing power source. The arc is, of course, in a continuous transient condition
but, in particular, transients occur ( 1) during striking and extinction of arcs
in short-circuiting metal transfer (with either globular transfer or short-circuit-
ing transfer), ( 2) in spray transfer and ( 3) during arc extinction and reigni-
tion during each half-cycle of a-c welding. Other causes of transients include
variations in arc length, variations in arc column temperatures and variations
in cathode spot emission characteristics.
Each of these arc transients can appear and disappear in a time interval com-
parable to the interval during which a significant change in ionization of the
arc column can occur (0.001 second). However, this time interval is too short
for the static characteristics of the welding power supply to react correctively.
Therefore, steady state or static volt-ampere characteristics (defined by constant
load current tests) have little significance in determining dynamic characteristics
of an arc welding power source.
Among the arc welding power supply characteristics that do have an effect
on arc stability are those that provide: ( 1) local transient energy storage, such
as a d-e series inductance; (2) feedback controls in automatically regulated
systems and (3) modifications of wave form or a-c frequencies in the welding
current. An improvement in arc stability is typically the goal of such modifica-
tions; beneficial results include: ( 1) easier control of the amount and direc-
tion of metal transfer, (2) reduction in spatter and (3) improvement in the
efficiency of metal transfer.
MANUAL CONTROL OF VOLT-AMPERE CHARACTERISTICS

As described under "Principles of Operation," manual adjustments are used
to control the load-voltage versus load-current characteristic (E-1 curve). A
description of how to select the characteristics best suited to various welding
conditions is included in the section above entitled "Constant Current and
Constant Voltage."
The no-load voltage control of a d-e generator used as an arc welding power
supply adjusts the relatively small current in the main field winding; this con-
trol is sometimes described as a vernier control. The current-range control
adjusts the d-e generator series or bucking field winding that carries the arc
current. The reversing switch controls the voltage polarity by changing the
interconnection between the exciter and the main field. In general no separate
inductor need be added to the welding circuit to improve arc stability in this
type of welding equipment; the several turns of series winding on the field poles
of the rotating generator represent more than enough inductance to ensure
satisfactory arc stability. This unit is described in more detail in later sections
of this chapter.
Variable reactance or variable mutual inductance may be used to control the
E-1 characteristics in typical transformer or transformer rectifier arc welding
power sources. The variable reactance or mutual inductance is, of course,
Service Classification I 25.9
located in the a-c electrical circuit of the welding machine, in series with the
secondary circuit of the transformer as shown in Fig. 25 .4. The basic trans-
former and its principal electrical modification, a tapped transformer, were
shown in Figs. 25.2 and 25.3.
As previously mentioned and as shown in Fig. 25.5, the voltage drop across
a series reactance in an a-c circuit may be added vectorially to the load voltage
to equal the transformer secondary voltage. By varying the voltage drop across
the reactor, the load voltage may be changed. This peculiar characteristic (vec-
torial addition) of reactor voltages in a-c circuits is related directly to the
reason reactors are used in place of series resistances for producing a drooping-
voltage characteristic. An advantage is that the reactor consumes little or no
power, despite the fact that a current flows through it and a voltage can be
measured across it. Were a resistor used in its place, the power loss and the
temperature rise would be much increased. In this case, the voltage drop across
the resistor could be added arithmetically to that of the load voltage to equal
the output voltage of the transformer.
Another major advantage of reactance over resistance is that the phase shift
produced in the current by the reactance increases arc stability for a given
open-circuit voltage to be discussed below under Electrical Characteristics.
The reactor can be varied by any of several means; it can be built with taps
similar to a resistor; it can be varied by many other mechanical and electrical
means, some of which are described in later sections.
Varying the inductance and, therefore, the reactance value will vary the
voltage drop across the reactance for any one load current. The reactance value
controls the shape of the volt-ampere characteristic of the arc welding power
source.
In addition to the adjustment of reactance (self-inductance), it is also pos-
sible to adjust the mutual inductance of a pair of coils. This may be done by
moving the coils in relation to one another, or by combining the concept of a
movable shunt with the concept of a saturable reactor, to produce a trans-
former with an electrically adjustable mutual inductance.
SERVICE CLASSIFICATION
Since some welding loads are not as demanding as others in time of opera-
tion, a power source that supplies a given current for a short time need not
be as large and rugged as one required to supply the same current continuously.
Duty cycle is one of the most important rating points of a welding power
supply that takes into consideration this difference in load. Unlike many other
electrical devices or machines that, once turned on, must deliver their rated
output until shut off, a welding power supply is called on to deliver output
during limited periods only, unless it is used on automatic processes. Because
the welder must stop welding to change electrodes, and to adjust his work and
his position, a welding power supply is allowed to be idle during part of its
operating time.
Duty cycle expresses as a percentage the portion of the time that the power
supply must deliver its rated output in each of a number of successive 10
minute intervals. Thus a 60% duty cycle (the standard industrial rating) means
that the power supply can deliver its rated load output for 6 minutes out of
every 10 minutes. (Operation at rated load steadily for 36 minutes out of one
25.1 0 I Arc Welding Power Sources
hour is not a 60% duty cycle. The rating is based on successive 10 minute
intervals.) A 100% duty cycle power supply can produce its rated output con-
tinuously without exceeding the established temperature limits.
Duty cycle is the main determining factor regarding the type of service for
which a power supply is designed. Industrial units for manual welding are rated
at 60% duty cycle. For automatic and semiautomatic processes, the rating
usually is at 100% duty cycle. NEMA rates limited service power supplies at
20% duty cycle. Individual manufacturers have sometimes rated power supplies
at duty-cycle values other than those above; but the rating method using 10
minute intervals is standard.
In any duty-cycle rating, the maximum allowable temperature of the com-
ponents in the unit is the determining factor. These maximum temperatures
are specified by various organizations and agencies whose interest lies in the
field of insulation standards.
An important point is that the duty cycle of a power supply is based on the
output current and not on the kva or kw rating. Two useful and approximate
formulas are given below for determining a new duty cycle at other than rated
output, or for determining another than rated output at a new specified duty
cycle.
Ta=(-fa-YT
Ia =I /T
'\}Ta
where T is given duty cycle in percent; Ta is required duty cycle in percent;
I is rated current at given duty cycle and Ia is current at required duty cycle.
Example.-At what duty cycle can a 200 ampere industrial-type NEMA-rated
welding transformer (60% duty cycle) be operated at 250 ampere output?
2
Ta = ( 200)
250 X 60%
= (0.80)2 X 60% = (0.64) X 60%
Ta = 38% (approximately)
Therefore, this unit must not be operated more than 3.8 minutes out of each
10 minute period at 250 amperes.
Example.-The aforementioned transformer is to be operated continuously
( 100% duty cycle). What current must not be exceeded?
Ia =I IT
VTa
I 6o%
= 200 '\j 100 % = 200 "\/.t-
0.6 = 200 X 0.775
Ia = 155 amperes (approximately)
If this transformer is operated continuously, no more than 155 amperes out-
put should be used.
For very high current output power supplies (750 amperes and higher),
another duty-cycle rating is usually used. This is identified as the one-hour
duty rating. These power supplies are designed for service in semiautomatic
Maintenance I 25.11
or automatic welding systems. In determining the rated output of these ma-

chines, they are loaded for one hour at rated output and then tested. Then the
output is reduced immediately to 75% of the rated current value, and opera-
tion is continued for an additional three hours; at this time the test period is
terminated. Temperatures are measured at the end of the first one-hour period
and at the conclusion of the test. These temperatures must be within estab-
lished allowable limits.
MAINTENANCE
Welding power sources demand very little attention in normal service. How-
ever, trouble-free operation cannot be achieved without proper care and
maintenance. Periodic checks provide for the correction of minor troubles
and prevent greater ones.
Servicing and maintenance schedules have been established by the manu-
facturers of welding power sources. Maintenance schedules and the related
instructions are listed in instruction manuals for the various power sources.
Maximum service life and performance result from following recommended
maintenance schedules.
SAFETY
Safe practices for the installation and operation of welding machines are dis-
cussed in Chapter 9 of Section 1 of the 6th Edition of the Handbook. Most of
the precautions that should be taken are obvious, but they bear repeating.
A welding machine should be treated with the same regard for safety that
would be exercised with any electrical device. The nameplates of all devices
should be checked carefully and compared to the line power available. When a
considerable number of single-phase units are being installed, unbalanced line
loads can be minimized by connecting them to different phases. When a-c weld-
ing machines are used, welders should avoid physical contact with one another
when they are working on a single large weldment, since a voltage may exist
between electrode holders. When adapting a unit for a specific voltage, the in-
struction manual for the specified power supply should be consulted to make
sure that all changeovers for the specific line voltage have been completed. In-
stallation of the power supply should be done by a licensed electrician. Part
of the installation should be a fusible safety switch, mounted on the wall near
the power supply. The case of the unit should always be grounded. Special care
should always be taken to assure tight connections on the output side of the
power supply.
Care should be taken in the selection of arc welding power supplies to ensure
that the current rating chosen is adequate to handle the job. Welding machines
should not be operated above their current ratings and corresponding rated duty
cycles listed in the standards, or above the limits specified by the manufacturer.
Welding cables should be of the extra-flexible type designed especially for weld-
ing and of size adequate for current and duty cycles reasonably expected. The
insulation on the cables should be in good condition. It is essential from the
standpoints of good quality and safety that proper equipment be used. The
selection and the condition of equipment, such as electrode holders, cables,
connections and clamps are equally important. Electrode holders should not
be used if the insulation is damaged.
Avoidance of electric shock is largely within the control of the welder. There-
fore, it is especially important that he be thoroughly instructed how to avoid
shock. Voltages required for arc welding are low and normally will not cause
injury or severe shock, although the fact that they are low may, and does, lead
to carelessness. These voltages are nevertheless high enough to endanger life
under certain circumstances. Severity of shock is determined largely by the
amount of current flowing through the body, and this is determined by voltage
and contact resistance of the area of skin involved.
Welding power sources are no more hazardous than any other piece of prop-
erly used industrial equipment. Because all manual arc welding processes are
based on an exposed electrode, a welder may touch the electrode and receive
a mild to severe shock, depending on the local conditions.
A point is often made that alternating current is more dangerous than direct
current. This generalization is usually made on the basis that a-c rms (root-
mean-square) voltages given are actually only 71% of the peak value. In addi-
tion, the physiological effect of alternating current is somewhat different from
that of direct current. The NEMA maximum open-circuit voltage for a-c weld-
ing power sources is approximately 35% lower than the normal voltage in
homes, but this is no reason to abandon caution. Electricity must be treated
with respect no matter where it is encountered.
Voltage reducers, designed either to remove or substantially reduce the open-
circuit voltage of a-c power sources during idling periods, are available as an
auxiliary device that may be incorporated into the circuitry of most industrial
a-c power sources. The use of these devices is normally specified in hazardous
locations where the usual precautions are not deemed sufficient.
If alternating current is applied to the body at the normally used 50 or 60
cycles, the muscles will react and tighten. This explains why a person cannot
release an electrically charged conductor on his own volition. The electrical
impulses sent out from the human brain are literally overpowered by the higher
a-c voltage of the power line.
ALTERNATING-CURRENT POWER
SOURCES-CONSTANT CURRENT
Single-operator, alternating-current power sources are normally single-phase
transformers that take the commercial a-c power from plant power lines and
transform the voltage and amperage to values suitable for welding. The
transformer also serves to isolate the welding circuit from the plant power lines.
Another source of a-c welding power is a generator (more properly called
an alternator), which converts mechanical energy into electrical power suitable
for arc w~lding. The mechanical power may be obtained from various sources,
such as an internal combustion engine or an electric motor.
Alternator design normally places the magnetic field coils on the rotor and
the armature coils in the stator. This configuration precludes the necessity of
the commutator and the brushes used with d-e output generators. The frequency
of the output welding current is controlled by the speed of rotation of the rotor
assembly, and by the number of poles in the alternator design. A two-pole
alternator must operate at 3600 rpm to produce 60 cycle current, whereas a
four-pole alternator design will operate at 1800 rpm to produce 60 cycle current.
Alternating-Current Power Sources I 25.13
TRANSFORMER ALTERNATING-CURRENT POWER SOURCES
To discuss the types of transformer alternating-current power sources is to

define their methods of adjustment of the volt-ampere output characteristic.
For many years, the welding industry has considered that current is set on a
"constant-current" power source. This is misleading. It is the volt-ampere output
curve characteristic that is set on any power source, regardless of make, model
or type. This concept is explained in detail in the following paragraphs.
Movable-Coil Control
A movable-coil transformer consists essentially of an elongated core on which
are located primary and secondary coils. Either the primary coil or the secondary
coil may be movable, the other one is fixed in position. Most a-c transformers of
this design have a fixed position secondary coil. The primary coil is normally
attached to a lead screw and, as the screw is turned, it moves closer to, or farther
from, the secondary coil.
The varying distance between the two coils regulates the inductive coupling
of the magnetic lines of force between them. The farther the two coils are apart,
the more vertical the volt-ampere curve and the less the maximum short-circuit
current value. Conversely, the closer the two coils are together, the higher the
maximum short-circuit current and the less slope in the volt-ampere output
curve.
80
MINIMUM
OUTPUT
0 50 100 150 200 250

.L
Fig. 25.6.-Movable coil a-c power source with coil spread set for minimum output
Figure 25.6 shows the movable coil machine with the coils far apart, and
the steep shape of the volt-ampere curve. Figure 25.7 shows the coils as close
together as possible. The volt-ampere curve is indicated at maximum output.
Movable-Shunt Control
The movable-shunt method of control is used with a-c transformers and may
be used with ac/ de power sources also. In this design concept, both the
25.14/ Arc Welding Power Sources
MAXIMUM
OUTPUT
0 50 100 150 200 250
.L
Fig. 25.7.-Movable coil a-c power source with coils set for maximum output
primary coils and secondary coils are fixed in position. A laminated iron core
shunt, fixed within a containing mechanism, is moved between the primary
and secondary coils. The iron material is the same as that used for the trans-
former cores and is insulated on both sides of each lamination. The shunt acts
as a magnetic "flux" diverter. (The term flux means the same as magnetic
lines of force in this usage.) The following sections provide details about the
other types of controls used with welding transformers.
As illustrated in Fig. 25.8, the movement of the magnetic lines of force, or
magnetic flux, is unobstructed when the iron shunt is not between the primary
and secondary coils. As the shunt is moved between the primary-secondary coil
80
MAXIMUM
OUTPUT
0 50 100 150 200

I
Fig. 25.8.-Movable shunt a-c power source with shunt removed for maximum output
arrangement, as shown in Fig. 25.9, the magnetic lines of force are diverted
into the iron shunt rather than to the secondary coil.
The output volt-ampere curve is adjusted from minimum to maximum with-
in the amperage range of the welding power source. When the shunt is not
between the primary-secondary coils, the output volt-ampere curve is at maxi-
80 MEDIUM OUTPUT
I
MINIMUM
OUTPUT
0 50 100 150 200

I
Fig. 25.9.-Movable shunt a-c power source with shunt between power coils
mum. As the iron shunt moves in between the primary and secondary coils,
the volt-ampere curve is positioned more vertically and the maximum short-
circuit current is decreased.
Moving Core Reactor

The moving core reactor type of a-c welding machine consists of a constant-
voltage transformer, plus a reactor whose inductance is varied by moving a
section of its iron core (Fig. 25.10). The moving core is shown in a withdrawn
position, forcing the magnetic lines of flux (magnetic field) to cross an air
space, making for low inductance, which, in turn, permits a large welding
current to flow. When the moving core is inserted into the stationary core as
TRANSFORMER MOVING CORE: POSITION OF MOVING CORE:
PRIMARY REACTOR
COIL
Fig. 25.10.-Moving core reactor type a-c power source
shown in dotted lines in Fig. 25.10, inductance of the reactor is increased, re-
ducing welding current.
Tapped Secondary Coil Control

A tapped secondary coil may be used for control of the volt-ampere output
of a transformer. This method of adjustment is used with limited service
power sources. Basic construction is somewhat similar to the moving shunt
type (Fig. 25.9) except that the shunt is permanently located inside the main
core and the secondary coils are tapped to permit adjustment of the number
of turns. Decreasing secondary turns reduces open-circuit voltage, but also
decreases inductance of the transformer, causing welding current to increase.
Saturable Reactor Control

A saturable reactor control is called an electrical control because it employs
an isolated low-voltage and low-amperage d-e circuit to change the effective
magnetic characteristics of the reactor cores. The principal advantage of this
type of control circuit is that it makes remote control of output from the power
source relatively easy.
In this design concept, the main transformer has no moving parts. As such,
there would be only one output volt-ampere characteristic and that is maximum.
By adding a reactor to the secondary a-c circuit, it is possible to achieve the
minimum volt-ampere curve characteristic.
By adding a d-e control circuit to the reactor system, it is possible to adjust
the output volt-ampere curve from minimum to maximum. The saturable
reactor uses d-e power for control purposes. It is possible to control a large
amount of alternating current by a small amount of direct current.
Saturable Diverter Path Transformer

The saturable diverter path transformer is a cross between the moving shunt
and the saturable reactor type controls. A shunt (known as the diverter ·path)
is permanently fixed in position between the primary and secondary coils of a
transformer. A control coil is wound on this diverter path. When .. a direct
current (known as control current) is passed through the control coil, a d-e
magnetic field is set up in the paths, as shown in Fig. 25.11. This d-e magnetic
field interacts with the normal a-c magnetic field to cause the welding current
to increase when control current is increased.
AC eLeCTROOe
MAGNeTIC HOLDeR
FieLDS
RHeOSTAT- PROVIDES AOJIISTMENT OF

OC CONTROL CVRRENT
~-- CONTROL fiEC;'t:~- s;:Pf(;",!rRg[

THIS COIL PROVIDES ClfiCVIT
POWER FOR THE CONTROL ClfiCVIT
Fig. 25.11.-Saturable diverter path type a-c power source
OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE (OCV)
Open-circuit voltage is the voltage apparent at the output terminals .of a

welding machine when it is energized under no-load conditions. Open-circuit
voltage is one of the design factors influencing the.. performance of a single-
phase a-c welding machine, along with transient-voltage recovery character-

istics of the machine, drop transfer and degree of ionization of the arc stream
of the electrode.
Open-circuit voltage is a function of the primary input voltage and the ratio
of primary-to-secondary coils of the main transformer. This fact naturally
affects the physical size of the welding power source.
Although a high open-circuit voltage may be desirable from the standpoint
of arc stability, the factors of safety and cost preclude excessively high values.
Alternating-current arc welding power supplies of the transformer type are
usually made in ratings that have been standardized by NEMA.
The NEMA standards require that no-load (open-circuit) voltage does not
exceed 80 volts for manual welding and 100 volts for automatic and semi-
automatic welding operations. Lower open-circuit voltages are sometimes used
on a-c power sources. No-load voltages of 65 and 75 volts are common for
a-c power sources of industrial sizes, with 80 volts favored where low-hydrogen
electrodes are to be used. In some of the smaller a-c power sources such as
the limited-service class, open-circuit voltages may be as low as 40 volts. Most
a-c electrodes may be used with a 75 to 80 volt power source. Power sources
with lower open-circuit voltage may require the selection of specific grades and
types of electrodes for successful operation.
Power sources classed as industrial models normally have one open-circuit
voltage at, or close to, the maximum allowed by NEMA. Limited-service class
a-c power sources frequently have two or more open-circuit voltages. One
arrangement is to have a high and low range of amperage output from the
power source. The low range normally has approximately 80 volts open circuit.
Another arrangement is the tapped secondary coil method, described earlier,
in which at each current setting, the open-circuit voltage changes about 2 to
4 volts.
Alternating current ( 60 cycle) reverses direction of flow each 1I 120 second.
Plotting the direction and strength of the current through a complete cycle of
alternations produces a sine wave form. Figure 25.12 shows typical a-c two-
range power source sine wave forms, with open-circuit voltages of 80 volts
and 55 volts. A key fact is that each sine wave form shown goes through a
complete cycle in 1/60 second.
Since the current must change direction after each half-cycle, it is apparent
that, for an instant, at the point at which the current wave form crosses the
zero line, the current must be zero. At that time, the electrons and ions, which
constitute the current flow in the arc, cease to flow. An instant later, the elec-
trons and ions should reverse their respective directions of flow. However, dur-
ing the period in which current is decreasing and reaches zero, the arc cools,
reducing the thermal energy level, which helps maintain ionization of the arc.
In order for the current to begin flowing in the opposite direction, ionization
of the material in the arc must either be maintained or reinitiated by the voltage
across the arc gap. This voltage is shown in Fig. 25.12 as the recovery voltage.
The greater this recovery voltage, the shorter the period during which the arc
is extinct.
Figure 25.12 also shows the phase relations among voltage and the same
current for two different open-circuit voltages, assuming the same arc voltage
(not shown) in each case. As can be seen in the figure, recovery voltage is
greater with 80 volts open-circuit voltage because of the higher source voltage
and because the greater phase shift of the current causes zero current at a
time when recovery voltage is near the peak of the open-circuit voltage wave
form. If resistance, rather than reactance, were used to regulate welding
current, the power source voltage and current would be in phase, and the
recovery voltage would be zero, causing a less stable arc.
Factors that permit use of low open-circuit voltages include the ingredients
in some electrode coatings, which help to maintain ionization, and favorable
drop transfer characteristics in some electrodes, which prevent sudden gross
increases in arc length.
OPEN-CIRCIItr
VOL rAGE -55 V
CIIRRENr
Fig. 25.12.-Typical sine waves of two-range a-c power source
ELECTRICAL RATING
The NEMA ratings for transformer-type arc welding power sources are
shown in Table 25.2. The w'elding transformers having high current ratings
( 1 hour duty ratings) of 750 amperes or more are us.:d mainly for automatic
or machine welding.
ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The electrical characteristics of any static, single-phase a-c welding power

source normally appear in the form of plotted curves. For example, the input
energy, the electrical efficiency, the power factor and the output energy are
capable of being plotted. In Fig. 25.13 (p. 25.20) all these curves appear in a
graph. The graph represents a typical 300 ampere a-c, single-operator welding
transformer. As indicated in the illustration, the electrical efficiency is quite high
for this type of power source.
Before discussing power factor, some of the terms used must be defined.
Primary kva power (kilo-volt-amperes) is the apparent power drawn from
plant power lines. Primary kw power is the actual power used by the welding
machine to produce its rated load. Secondary kw power is the product of the
output voltage (amperes) multiplied by the current when the power source is
connected to a purely resistive load.
The ratio of primary kw to primary kva is called input power factor.
Dividing the primary kw by the primary kva will give the power factor per-
centage of an a-c welding machine. Power factor may be improv~d by the
addition of capacitors to the primary power circuit of the welding power source.
The addition of capacitors to an inductive circuit, such as a transformer-type
a-c power source, improves power factor by demanding less primary current
from the plant power lines while welding is being performed.
Table 25.2-NEMA ratings of transformer a-c welding power sources
Industrial Service A-C Transformer Type
Output Ratings-60% Duty Cycle at Rated Output
Rated Minimum Maximum (at 35% Duty Cycle)
A mperes at {Load
Volts* A mperes at {Load
Volts* A mperes at {Load
Volts*
200 28 40 22 250 30
300 32 60 22 375 35
400 36 80 23 500 40
500 40 100 24 625 44
600 44 120 25 750 44
High Current Ratings-(One-hour Duty Ratings)
750 44 187 28 925 44

1QOO 44 250 30 1250 44
1500 44 450 38 1875 44
Limited Service Arc Welding Machines (AC, DC, AC/DC)
Rated Minimum Maximum
Load A mpere:-; at {Load A mperes at {Load

Amperes at {Volts Volts Volts
18Q-230 25 3Q-40 20 180-230 25

235-295 30 40-50 22 235-295 30
•Voltages are based on the formulaE = 20 +

0.04 I, where E is the load voltage and I is the load cur-
rent. For currents above 600 amperes, the voltage shall remain constant at 44 volts.
Alternating-current transformer power sources are normally equipped with

capacitors for power factor correction to approximately 75% at rated load.
At lower than rated load current settings, the power factor may have a leading
characteristic. When the a-c transformer is operating at no load or very light
loads, the capacitors are drawing their full corrective kva, thus contributing
power factor correction to the remainder of the load on the total electrical
system. For this reason, too much power factor correction may be undesirable.
When a number of transformer-type a-c welding power sources are con-
nected to a primary supply line, consideration should be given to the pos-
sibility that the combined power factor correction capacitance will not upset
the voltage stability of the line when all units are operating at light loads.
If three-phase primary power is used, the load on each phase of the primary
system should be balanced for best performance. Power factor correction, under
normal conditions, has no bearing on welding performance except for any

effect that may be attributed to high primary current.
Fig. 25.13.-Typical characteristic curves of a 300 ampere welding transformer
CONTROL DEVICES
Differences in transformer welding machines exist mainly in the auxiliary

equipment used. Auxiliary equipment is incorporated in transformer welding
machines either to adapt the unit specifically for use with a given process or
to make it more convenient to operate.
Primary contactors, or manually operated power switches, are usually in-
cluded in industrial a-c power sources to turn the welding machine on and off.
Most industrial units are furnished with a terminal board or other means of
reconnecting for various rated primary line voltages. Input supply cords are
not normally supplied with industrial welding power sources. The smaller,
limited-service power sources are generally equipped with a manually operated
primary switch and are usually furnished with an input supply cord.
Some a-c power sources incorporate a system of relays for supplying a higher-
than-normal current to the arc for a fraction of a second at the start of a weld.
This "hot start" device is intended to provide starting surge characteristics
similar to those of motor-generator sets and to assist in initiating the arc,
particularly at current levels under 100 amperes.
Alternating-current power sources in industrial sizes may be provided with
means for remote adjustment of output energy. This may consist of a motor-
driven, geared device for use with crank-adjusted units, or a rheostat at the
work station when an electrically adjusted reactor control is being used. When
a weldment requires frequent changes of amperage or when welding must be
accomplished in an inconvenient location, time studies have shown that use of
remote control adjustment can save money for the user. T[he use of foot-
operated remote controls permits a gradual build-up and reduction of welding
current, which is of great assistance in crater filling to prevent crater cracking.
The use of these devices on a-c industrial welding power sources has proved
to be economical and sound engineering practice since greater safety and more
satisfactory operations result.
Voltage reducers are available to reduce the no-load voltage of a-c arc
welding power sources. With these units, voltage at the electrode holder dur-
ing no-load times is reduced to about 30 volts. Voltage reducers consist of
relays and contactors that either reconnect the secondary winding of the main
transformer for a lower voltage, or disconnect the welding load from the
main transformer and connect it to an auxiliary transformer of a lower voltage.
Units designed for the gas tungsten-arc welding process usually incorporate
electrically operated valves and timers to control the shielding gas and coolant
flows for the electrode holder.
ELECTRICAL RATING
The electrical rating of transformer-type welding power sources should be
shown on the nameplate of the machine. The normal procedure is to show the
primary voltage and current requirements, the number of phases used, fre-
quency used, primary kva and primary kw. The listing of secondary output
data includes rated output voltage and current, duty cycle, maximum open-
circuit voltage, the minimum-maximum current range and the maximum
allowable temperature rise of the power source components.
Prior to 1962, all industrial class welding power sources were usually rated
at 40 load volts. For example a 300 ampere NEMA-rated power source could
deliver 300 amperes into a 40 volt load, although it would seldom be required
to do so. The 40 volt load rating had its origin during the early 1930's when it
appeared that arc voltages would tend to higher values with the new mineral
electrode coverings. This trend did not materialize however, and so the 40
volt load rating is unrealistic when considered from a practical standpoint.
Individual power source manufacturers generally use their own curve of load
volts versus amperes, based on an average electrode characteristic, when they
place the ampere markings on the "current control" device.
The present NEMA ratings (1968) are based on a load voltage given by
the formula cited in the footnote to Table 25.2: E = 20 + 0.04 I, where E
is the load voltage and I is the output current in amperes. An upper load limit
of 44 volts is applied for current output of 600 amperes or more. This formula
follows very closely the various international standards and also provides a
realistic compromise with actual welding conditions.
SERVICE CLASSIFICATIONS
The service classifications of welding power sources are usually based on
rated current output, rated load voltage and duty cycle. All three factors must
be considered in order to properly determine power source capability. The
two general classifications of service for constant-current transformer power

sources are limited service and industrial.
Limited Service.-This class of power source is normally considered as a
semi-industrial unit. Limited service units are designed for less rigorous appli-
cations than industrial power sources, and are usually rated at less than 300
amperes at 50% or less duty cycle.
lndustrial.-Any welding power source having 60% duty cycle or more is
considered an industrial model. This class of power source is specifically de-
signed to withstand the heavy-duty service required in industrial environments.
The current rating of a power source is not necessarily a true indication of
its size or capacity. Therefore, the user must use discretion in the choice of a
power source, in order to make sure that the equipment is compatible with the
job requirements.
APPLICATIONS
Alternating-current transformer welding power sources have many uses in
industry or wherever arc welding is being done. Whereas this section of the
text does not cover all possible applications, it is designed to provide a basis
from which to determine usefulness of specific a-c transformer units.
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
Alternating-current transformer welding power sources are designed spe-
cifically for this welding process. Industrial class units provide the necessary
open-circuit voltage and output current for most welding applications. Elec-
trodes designed for a-c welding should be used.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
Alternating-current transformers are normally employed for welding alumi-
num and magnesium with ,the gas tungsten-arc welding process. Although
standard industrial class units are sometimes used, with a separate high-
frequency system added to the welding power circuit, it is more common to
use a-c power sources that are specifically designed for the process. This type
of power source normally has built-in high frequency, gas and water valves
and solenoids, timers for postflow control of gas and water, etc. Such units
may also be used for shielded metal-arc welding.
Submerged Arc Welding
Alternating current transformers are used with the submerged arc welding
process where heavy plate thicknesses are being joined. The a-c power sources
designed for the process are normally rated at 750 amperes or higher. In most
cases, the appropriate contactor and other circuitry necessary to supply power
to the process equipment are built into the power source.
Carbon-Arc Cutting and Gouging
Almost any industrial a-c power source may be used for carbon-arc cutting
and gouging if the electrode size is compatible with the power source rating.
Carbon electrodes recently introduced are designed specifically for use with
a-c power sources and they permit the use of alternating current on some
applications heretofore restricted to d-e welding power.
Direct-Current Welding Generators I 25.23
DIRECT-CURRENT WELDING
GENERATORS-CONSTANT CURRENT
TYPES
The motor-generator welding power source converts the alternating current
of the power line or the energy output of an internal combustion engine into
mechanical rotation and then into d-e power of suitable voltage and current.
The first arc welding generator of this type was introduced in 1907. This
welding power source was a constant-current design. Today there exist three
types of direct-current welding generators. They are the constant-current weld-
ing generator, the constant-voltage welding generator and a combination
generator that permits selecting either the constant-voltage or constant-current
performance characteristics or any variation in between. Although these power
sources vary considerably in performance, they are all specifically designed to
have electrical characteristics suitable for welding.
The typical direct-current generator power source is driven by a line-
operated, three-phase electric motor. If convenient or necessary, the motor can
be replaced with a gasoline or diesel engine or some other source of mechanical
energy to drive the generator. The electric motor or engine has no effect on
the welding performance characteristics or power output of the generator
provided it is of sufficient size, and operation is at the proper speed.
A direct-current welding generator has three primary parts: the field coils,
the armature and the commutator. Like all electrical generators, it operates
on a principle of inducing a voltage in a coil that is mechanically moved with
relation to a magnetic field. Usually the magnetic field is produced by field
coils energized by direct current.
The generator armature consists of numerous coils that are connected to a
copper bar commutator. Alternating-current welding power is generated as
the armature is rotated by the motor or engine in the magnetic field. This a-c
power is picked up by carbon brushes that ride on the surface of the com-
mutator and convert the alternating current into direct current. Heavy elec-
trical cables are fastened to the brush holders that hold the brushes on the
commutator. These cables, which are inside the welding machine, carry the
d-e power from the brushes to the output terminals or "studs" where the
welding cables are connected.
The variations in electrical design of the currently available generator power
sources primarily relate to differences in the system of excitation used to
energize the magnetic field. The source of this d-e field current classifies the
generator as to self- or separate excitation. In the separately excited generator,
a small self-excited generator called the exciter is mechanically coupled to
the main generator and generates the proper excitation current. In the self-
excited generator, part of the actual output current is used to energize the
field coils. Another separately excited generator makes use of a small control
transformer and diode bridge to provide excitation current. This system is
used with electric motor driven models. Both principles are sound in design
and provide satisfactory performance.
OPEN-CIRCUIT VOLTAGE
A constant-current welding generator (often called a variable-voltage weld-
100
MAXIMUM OPEN-CIRCI//T VOLTAGE
E
(VOLTS)
400
Fig. 25.14.-Volt-ampere curves for the maximum and minimum open-circuit voltage
settings of a constant-current motor generator; the drooping characteristic of this type
of power source is illustrated
ing generator) can be described as one whose current output varies only
slightly with variations in arc voltage as compared to the alternate constant-
voltage welding generator designs. The volt-ampere curves for a constant-
current welding generator are found in Fig. 25.14. Because of the shape of
these curves, the constant-current welding generator is occasionally described
as having a "drooping-voltage" output, and called a "drooper" type of power
source. When the arc is struck, the voltage automatically falls from the preset
open-circuit voltage (which can be anywhere between the minimum and
maximum open-circuit voltage settings on the machine) to the arc voltage.
These static volt-ampere characteristic curves suggest the possible voltage-
current combinations that can be supplied by a generator for steady-state load
conditions and by a fixed setting of the generator controls. The instantaneous
relation of voltage and current for transient load conditions is not indicated
by these characteristics.
The performance characteristics of the constant-current welding generator
are controlled by the volt-ampere curve for a given generator setting and the
welding arc voltage as indicated in Fig. 25.15. The arc voltage is a function of
load conditions such as arc length, current density, electrode feed rate and
composition of the arc atmosphere. If these load conditions change, the arc
voltage changes as does the welding current. The degree of current change
with voltage change is controlled by the amount of droop or "slope" of the
volt-ampere curve. This is graphically illustrated by the. current .variation re-
sulting from the short arc-lower voltage-and the long arc-higher voltage-
intersection with the two extreme volt-ampere curves.
/00
MAXIMUM OCV
~
....,
~
I
~
~
""' LONG ARC
~ 32 LENGTH
NORMAL ARC
LENGTH
22 -SHORT ARC
LENGTH
200
Fig. 25.15.---Changing the open-circuit voltage setting of a constant-current generator

welding machine changes the slope
The short-to-long arc length variation occurring in manual arc welding

produces little change in current if the shape of the curve is that of (A) in
Fig. 25.15. The electrode melting rate and heat input, therefore, would remain
fairly constant, despite the welder's inability to hold a perfectly steady arc
length. A constant welding current is desired when welding thin materials. The
high open-circuit voltage and steep slope of curve (A) give relatively little
current variation with change in arc length. When automatic equipment is
used, the steeper volt-ampere characteristic promotes constant current, thereby
assuring uniform appearance and penetration of the weld bead.
The alternate curve (B) shown in Fig. 25.15 would be particularly helpful
for manual welding in the vertical and overhead positions. The low open-circuit
voltage and flatter slope of curve (B) give more current variation with change
in arc length. Thus, the welder has the opportunity to substantially vary the
current with changes in arc length. This enables him to vary the current input
by lengthening or shortening the arc, and thus helps control the volume of
molten metal in the weld puddle. This is essential for out-of-position welding.
A welding generator is also characterized by its response to transient load
conditions. Conditions in manual arc welding operations may change rapidly
because of short circuits between the electrode and the work caused by transfer
of metal from the electrode. The generator must be capable of providing ex-
tremely rapid changes in its output voltage and current in response to these
continually changing arc conditions; yet it must provide a steady current
output during the welding operation at each current setting. For example, the
surge of current during a short circuit causes an increase in weld metal spatter.
Inversely an appreciable decrease in the arc current, during re-establishment
of the arc after a short circuit, may result in extinction of the arc. The voltage
and current output from the generator must change rapidly enough to meet
REACTANCE CURRENT CONTROL
VOLTAGE RHEOSTAT
EXCITER
ARMATURE
BRUSHES
GENERATOR 0
ARMATURE AND
OUTPUT
COMMUTATOR
TERMINALS
0
GENERATOR SEPARATELY
£XCI TED FIELDS INTERPOL£ FIELD COILS
SEPARATELY EXCITED, DIFFERENTIALLY COMPOUNDED WELDING GENERATOR CIRCUIT
INTERPOL£ FIELD COILS

GENERATOR SELF-
EXCITED FIELDS
GENERATOR
ARMATURE 0
AND OUTPUT
COMMUTATOR
TERMINALS
0
SELF-EXCITED WELDING GENERATOR CIRCUIT
Fig. 25.16.~Typical generator circuits

the demands of the arc load at all times. The generator response to these
transient load conditions cannot be observed with the standard meters for
reading voltage and current. Laboratory equipment is needed to detect this
type of response.
GENERATOR DESIGN
The static and dynamic volt-ampere characteristics are determined by the
electrical design of the generator. Direct-current arc welding generators have
been developed in a large number of designs. They differ primarily with respect
to the method of generating and controlling the welding current. One of the
earliest designs still manufactured employs a generator with separate excitation,
differential compounding and an external stabilizer. Elimination of the stabilizer
or external reactor is accomplished in later designs of this type by incor-
porating sufficient inductance in the generator. The circuit for such a generator
is shown in the top sketch in Fig. 25 .16. In order to achieve a wide welding
current range, adjustment of the differential series field is usually provided,
either by means of an adjustable shunt across the series field or by tapping its
windings. The former approach provides for continuous current control
throughout the entire range of the machine, whereas the latter offers specific
fixed settings between the maximum and minimum output of the generator.
The circuit for a self-excited version of this basic design is found in the bottom
sketch in Fig. 25.16.
The present constant-current welding generator designs incorporate two
methods of controlling outputs. Compound-wound d-e generators have a series
control, a shunt field control, or both. Changing the shunt field control raises
or lowers the open-circuit voltage and results in a group of essentially parallel
volt-ampere curves (Fig. 25.17A p. 25.28). Changes in the series field control
do not affect the open-circuit voltage but result in a group of volt-ampere curves
having various slopes, all of which have the same open-circuit voltage (Fig.
25.17B p. 25.29).
CONTROL DEVICES
Devices that make possible remote control of the welding current are some-
times used with constant-current welding generators. Good practice frequently
requires that a different current be used for welding in the overhead, vertical
and flat positions, and for different thicknesses of metal. A remote control
device may be desirable under these conditions when the work is some distance
from the welding units.
One simple method involves either attaching a portable foot control rheostat
in parallel with, or actually removing the rheostat from, the generator that is
used to adjust the welding current. In either case, the portable control is placed
at the welding position. A cable the size of a lamp cord is used to connect the
rheostat to the welding generator. This portable control permits the welder to
adjust the welding current over a limited range without returning to the
generator.
Another remote control scheme uses a small motor and gear reduction
arrangement to operate the continuous-current control of the unit. The welder
is given a push-button wired to the motor to allow the raising and lowering
MAX.
r::::: t'-....
r::: ~ ~ r-..
r:::- ~ ~ t': ['...
~ ~ ~ ~ t'\ ~
~ r0 l'( 0 l'0 ~
fA) ~ L': ~ :.; ~\ 1\.\1\\ "'
~ ~ l'\ 0 '\\['\' ~ 0.:
~ ~ \\ ~,> ~\ ~ <\ 1\
MIN. '"'
~ ~\ r-.."\' \ \\ i\\ \\ \\1\\
1'0 \\ \\ ~ \ 1\\' i\\ \\ 1\\I\
~\ \\ 1\\ 1\\ 1\\ i\\ ~ 1\\ ~
\\1\\ 1\\ 1\\ .\ \\ \ ~\ \
\1\\ \\ .\' l\ \~ (\' ~ ~ \\
l \ \ 1\\
MIN.
1\\1\\[\\ r\\ f\\ [\\ 1\\
AMPS MAX.
Fig. 25.17A.-Volt-ampere curves for a constant-current welding generator which

result when voltage control is changed, the current control remaining constant
of the welding current setting without moving from the welding position. This
arrangement provides greater range of adjustment of the welding current, but
it is usually more expensive to install than the devices mentioned previously.
ELECTRICAL RATING
Minimum ratings of constant-current welding generators have been stand-
Table 25.3-NEMA ratings of constant-current d-e welding generators
Rated Minimum Maximum
{Load A mperes at {Load

Amperes at {Load
Volts• Amperes at \Volts• Volts •
150 26 20 20 185 27
200 28 30 21 250 30
250 30 40 22 310 32
300 32 60 22 375 35
400 36 80 23 500 40
500 40 100 24 625 44
600 44 120 25 750 44
I
•The above load voltages are based on the formulaE = 20 +
0.04 I, where E is the load voltage and I is
the load current. For currents above 600 amperes, the voltage shall remain constant at 44 volts.
(B)
~
~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-+--4--4--~--~-+--4--4
MIN. AMPS MAX.
Fig. 25.17B.-Volt-ampere curves for a constant-current welding generator which

result when the current control is changed, the voltage control remaining constant
ardized by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association as shown in

Table 25.3. A rating is expressed in terms of arc voltage, current and duty
cycle.
PARALLEL OPERATION
Although increased current capacity can be obtained by connecting genera-
tors in parallel, parallel connection is not advised unless the manufacturer's
specific instructions are followed; even then, parallel connection should not be
attempted by an inexperienced person. Such caution is necessary because suc-
cessful paralleling depends upon matching the output voltage, output setting
and polarity of each machine. In the case of self-excited generators, the problem
is further complicated by the necessity to equalize the excitation between the
generators.
SOURCE OF MECHANICAL POWER

Constant-current d-e generators are available with alternating-current driving
motors of several voltage and frequency ratings, and also with direct-current
motors. The constant-current welding generators are usually single units with
the electric motor or engine and generator assembled on the same shaft.
Induction motor driven welding generators are normally available for 200,
230, 460 and 575 volts, three-phase, 60 Hz input. Other standard input require-
ments are 220, 380 and 440, 50 Hz. Few are made with single-phase motors,
since transformer or rectifier-type welding power supplies usually fill the need
for single-phase operation. The most commonly used driving motor is the
230/460 volt, three-phase, 60 Hz induction motor.
Typical curves for over-all efficiency, power factor and current input of a
230/460 volt, three-phase, 60 Hz induction motor-generator set are shown in
Fig. 25.18.
The motors of d-e welding generators usually have a good power factor ( 80
to 90%) when under load and from 30 to 40% lagging power factor at no
load. No-load power input ranges between 2 and 5 kw, depending upon the
rating of the motor-generator set. The power factor of induction motor driven
welding generators may be improved by the use of static capacitors similar to
those used on a-c welding transformers. Welding generators have been built with
synchronous motor drives in order to correct the low line power factor.
When no electric power is available, gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas and
diesel engines are commonly used to drive welding generators. The engine
should be selected with care and with consideration for the overload capacity
inherent in welding generator design. A 300 ampere welding unit, for example,
has a rated output of 9.6 kw. When the overload capacity and efficiency of the
generator are taken into account, a 20 horsepower electric motor is needed to
drive the generator to assure full-capacity, trouble-free performance. The engine,
however, is usually rated at its maximum possible output. General practice is
to publish horsepower ratings that include the power required by the fan, water
pump and other engine accessories. This accessory load reduces the power avail-
able at the output shaft. The gasoline engine for this same welding generator
100
I
POWER FACTOR
-1/c~:=:..
)
90
~~
80
~ ~ !---....... 14JMPERES IN PUT
R "' """" hi
.........
..... ~~~~
70 -.....
~ 60 ~'\~ ~ ~
1:::; 1'--.
~
50 \~ ~\ ~ &-
~ 1/ ~ ~ ......
"""
,\X '-, b! y
-~
~ 40
lfi 1\. ~ ~ ..... KFFIC~~c
..........
~ 30 ~ K\\ 1\:
~ \ t'-. ~ -......... ~ t--, "'
71 ''\ 1\, \' """
~
~ \ ' '- '
\\ ~~ ""
................
"':
-" """' r-~

20 '·
~ 1.\ !'-\ \
"""""' l'\.
10
0
\\\ I\~ t ''\
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
WELDING CURRENT IN AMPERES
Fig. 25.18.-Typical characteristic curves of a 300 ampere single-operator d-e motor
generator
Rectifier-Type Power Sources I 25.31
would be rated in the 50 horsepower area at generator operating speed. A diesel

engine with a lower nominal horsepower rating can normally produce the same
output, because accessories are usually included in the engine rating.
In order to provide for engine accessory load, generator losses and the over-
all capacity of the generator, the use of about 70 cu. in. of piston displacement
per 100 amperes of generator rating is a good rule of thumb. This is based on
an engine speed of between 1500 and 2000 rpm. At higher engine speeds, the
cubic inch displacement per 100 amperes drops at about the same rate that
the speed increases.
Constant-current welding generators can be obtained without electric motor
or engine. These usually come equipped with a shaft extension for belt or direct
connection to any suitable source of mechanical power.
SERVICE CLASSIFICATIONS
Ratings of constant-current d-e welding generators were shown in Table 25.3.
The duty cycle of the generators is normally 60%, but manufacturers supply
welding generators of the constant-current type with duty cycles other than 60
percent. Such ratings may vary from 30 to 100%, depending on the design
and application.
APPLICATIONS
The response of the power source to the transient load conditions of the arc
determines whether the power source is suitable for use with the various weld-
ing processes. Transient load conditions concern current density, composition
of the arc atmosphere and mode of weld metal transfer, as opposed to the static
load conditions that involve open-circuit voltage, arc voltage, short-circuit cur-
rent and welding current. The dynamic response of the constant-current weld-
ing generator makes it capable of handling the wide variety of arc transfer
characteristics of the various types and kinds of manual electrodes and, there-
fore, suitable for use with the shielded metal-arc welding process. In addition,
the units continue to experience wide use with submerged arc welding and gas
tungsten-arc welding.
The versatility and portability of constant-current equipment, plus its reputa-
tion for rugged, trouble-free performance make such units particularly appro-
priate for maintenance welding activities both in shop and field; it can also be
used for stud welding and arc-air gouging, but is not necessarily the best power
source selection for these types of jobs. The constant-current welding genera-
tor can be used as a power source for mechanized welding with one of the
various gas shielded or self-shielded open-arc welding processes; however, this
type of application is not recommended. The constant-voltage welding genera-
tor has performance characteristics better suited for these processes.
RECTIFIER-TYPE POWER
SOURCES-CONSTANT CURRENT
A feature common to all arc welding power sources in this category is that
the output is direct current obtained from rectifiers and the input to the rectifiers
is alternating current. The so'urc~ of the alt'ernatlng c'urrent varies with the type
of machine.
25.32 I Arc WeldinR~Power Sources
Single Phase
A single-phase transformer is used to change the a-c voltage of the incoming
power line to a suitable lower voltage. An example would be a transformer
wound for a 460 volt primary and an 89 volt secondary.
Multiphase
A multiphase, or polyphase transformer is almost always a three-phase sys·
tern. There are two-phase systems, but they are rare. A three-phase transformer
is used to change the high primary voltage to a lower secondary voltage. An
example would be a 460 volt primary and a 55 volt secondary.
Engine-Driven Generator
An engine-driven generator has a generator that may be either single-phase
ac or three-phase ac in its output. The a-c output is then fed into the rectifiers
the same way as that from single-phase and three-phase transformers. The
engines commonly used are gasoline or diesel fueled.
Electric Motor Driven Generator

It is also possible to drive an a-c generator by an electric motor. However,
this type of drive is not commonly used. A single-phase or multiphase trans-
former would be preferred.
Transformer-Rectifier AC/DC Constant-Current Machine
This type of machine is a variation of the single-phase type referred to above.
A switch is provided so that the rectifier can be connected to, or removed from,
the secondary circuit to furnish either a-c or d-e current at the output terminals.
These machines involve some engineering compromises, but they are very useful
and have wide acceptance because of their versatility.
Constant-Current-Constant-Voltage
Constant-current-constant-voltage machines are built to allow the user to
choose either type characteristic. This is done by internal taps or switching that
must be changed by the user when going from one type of characteristic to
the other.
OPEN-CffiCUIT VOLTAGE
Open-circuit voltage for constant-current rectifier-type machines depends on

the intended welding application and can range from 50 to 80 volts. Industrial
machines are usually in the 70 to 80 volt range.
An important electrical characteristic is the relation of the output current to

the out~ut volta~e. T~ere is a static (steady-state) relationship and a transient
(dymmuo) relationship that are of interest. The first relationship is easily
measured and shown by volt-ampere curves (Fig. 25.19), usually reprooenting
100
90
80
70
60
(/) 50
I-
-1
0
::::. 30
20
/0
0 100 200 300 400

WELDING CURRENT - AMPERES
Fig. 25.19.-Static volt-ampere curves of constant-current rectifier machine
the maximum and minimum curves for each current range setting as the load
current is increased from zero to the short-circuit value. The dynamic relation-
ship is seldom published, since it is difficult to define and measure for all load
conditions. The dynamic characteristic determines the stability of the arc under
actual welding conditions.
GENERAL DESIGN
Transformers are designed so that the primary can be connected to the in-
coming supply line. In the United States, the usual voltages of the a-c supply
mains are 200, 230, 460 and 575 volts with a frequency of 60 Hz. With 50 Hz
input, voltages are 220, 380 and 440 volts. Transformers are seldom designed
to work on all the above voltages, although a choice of two or three of those
voltages is often provided for in a single machine. This is done by arranging
the primary coils in sections and with taps so that the leads from each section
can be connected in series or parallel with other sections to suitably match
the incoming line voltage. On three-phase machines, the primary can be con-
nected in delta or Wye and the secondary is frequently connected in delta be-
cause a delta connection makes it easier to use for low voltages and high current
from the standpoint of wire size. There are exceptions to this, and transformers
can use the Scott Tee connections as well as the Vee or open delta. The latter
two methods are convenient in machines that use the moving coil type of cur-
rent control.
The method of varying the current is usually in the a-c section of the ma-
chine before the rectifiers. The control of the current uses the principle of
variable inductance or impedance. The methods of varying the impedance for
current controls are: (1) moving coil, ( 2) moving shunt, ( 3) saturable reactor
or magnetic amplifiers, ( 4) tapped reactor and (5) moving reactor core. In
addition to these five systems is a type that employs resistors in series with the
d-e portion of the circuit.· Methods (·1), (2) and· (5") are classed as mechanical
Table 25.4-Methods of current control for constant-current rectifier-type power sources
Transformer Transformer Three-Phase One-Phase

With Three- With One- Alternator Alternator
Phase Input Phase Input (Alternator- or (Motor- or
Line Line Engine-Driven) Engine-Driven)
--------
Moving Coil Seldom used Used often Cannot be used Cannot be used
Moving Shunt Seldom used Used often Cannot be used Cannot be used
Saturable Reactor Used often Used often Can be used Can be used
Tapped Reactor Seldom used Suitable Can be used Can be used
Moving Core Suitable Can be used Can be used Can be used
Resistor Suitable Can be used Can be used Can be used
I
controls; method ( 3) as an electric control; method ( 4) as the resistor type
of tap control. These are the same methods used in control of a-c transformer
constant-current machines. On constant-current rectifier-type machines, the suit-
ability of these methods varies as shown in Table 25.4.
Rectifiers are used to convert the alternating current to direct current. The
rectifiers are in the class of semiconductors and are made of selenium or silicon,
selenium rapidly being replaced by silicon. Silicon diodes are smaller than those
of selenium and are mounted on a suitable fin for cooling. Selenium cells have
lower voltage capability than silicon. Two or three selenium cells may be
required in each leg of a rectifier stack where a single silicon cell would suffice.
Silicon is vulnerable to transient voltages and currents. Manufacturers design
transient protection into the equipment. Selenium has protection inherent in the
cell or diode construction. Both require forced air cooling for optimum eco-
nomic designs. Theoretically, silicon has greater rectification efficiency than
two or three selenium diodes per leg; however, the rectifier losses are small
compared to over-all losses in constant-current machines, and are not of great
economic significance. Recent advances in both selenium and silicon rectifiers
are such that the choice of rectifier type is largely a matter of manufacturing
economics-both units perform well. Thermal sensing elements are often placed
in the rectifier stack to avoid current overload and damage to the rectifiers.
When actuated, these thermal sensors can either remove power to the machine
or reduce the current to a lower level until the rectifier temperature drops.
Figure 25.20 shows typical single-phase and three-phase rectifier circuits.
A stabilizer is used in the d-e circuit to minimize excessive current surges
in load current. These surges have two sources: some arc loads produce surges,
and there is also the inherent ripple in rectifying alternating current into direct
+
THREE-
PHASE
AC
INPUT
SINGLE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER THREE-PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER
Fig. 25.20.-Briage rectifier circuitry

current. A three-phase rectifier has relatively little ripple so that the size of
the stabilizer (often called reactor) is determined by the need to reduce arc
load surges. On single-phase rectifiers, the ripple is quite high because the volt-
age goes to zero twice each cycle, or 120 times per second on 60 Hz power.
Therefore, the stabilizer on single-phase input machines will be larger than on
three-phase input machines. The stabilizer is required to smooth the ripple pro-
duced by the arc as well as the ripple in the rectifier output. Machines of this
type often have a switch in the d-e output so that the polarity of the voltage
at the machine terminals can be reversed.
CONTROL DEVICES
Control devices are those used by the operator in the normal operation of
the machine such as power on-off switches, range switches and current controls.
Frequently, transformer-rectifier machines have the total current range broken
into segments or steps. This is similar to coarse adjustment. The range selector
is similar to a knife switch. In general, the wider the machine range, the more
switch positions necessary. As many as five ranges is common. The current
control is that device used by the operator to vary the current within a given
range.
Mechanically controlled machines can use a hand wheel rotating an ad-
justing screw to transmit motion to the controlling element. In electric control,
a rheostat, potentiometer or variable transformer is used to vary the control
current to a saturable reactor. Electric control machines are easily adjusted
from a remote location. Mechanical controls require the addition of a motor
drive for remote current control and, in some types, the current cannot be
adjusted while there is a load on the machine. In resistor-controlled machines,
switches on the control panel change the magnitude of resistance in series with
the d-e portion of the welding machine circuit.
ELECTRICAL RATING
Electrical ratings are given to the input and output. The input or primary
ratings that are of interest are the primary input voltage, current for each volt-
age at rated output load and power factor. The output rating is the d-e load
current at a specified load voltage at the machine terminals. Duty cycle and
current range are specified. Output ratings established by NEMA standards for
industrial machines are shown in Table 25.5. (See Table 25.2 for ratings for
limited service type d-e and ac/ de arc welding machines.)
Service classifications for these welding machines fall into industrial and
limited service types as identified under NEMA specifications. (See Table 25.2
for data on limited service d-e and ac/ de arc welding machines.)
APPLICATIONS
Applications of machines of the industrial transformer-rectifier type include
shielded metal-arc welding, gas tungsten-arc welding, carbon-arc gouging, sub-
merged arc welding, plasma arc welding and stud welding processes.
Table 25.5-NEMA ratings of industrial transformer-rectifier d-e arc welding machines
Output Ratings~60% Duty Cycle at Rated Output
Rated Minimum Maximum (at 35% Duty Cycle)

~~~--~~~~~---- ~~~~---~-- ~--~ ~----~-------------
Load A mperes ,at l)Load A mperes at {Load

Amperes at {Volts* Volts* Volts*
200 28 40 22 250 30
300 32 60 22 375 35
400 36 80 23 wo 40
500 40 100 24 625 44
600 44 120 25 750 44
800 44 160 26 1000 44
•Voltages are based on the formula E = 20 +

0,04 I, where E is the load voltage and I is the load cur-
rent. For currents above 600 amperes, the voltage sha!l remain constant at 44 volts.
DIRECT-CURRENT WELDING
GENERATORS-CONSTANT VOLTAGE
A constant-voltage welding generator can be defined as an arc welding power
source that will maintain a relatively constant arc voltage throughout the entire
current range of the machine. A few typical volt-ampere curves for a constant-
voltage welding generator appear in Fig. 25.21. Since this type of power source
offers continuous voltage control, similar output curves for any desired arc
/00
80
)(
~
60t----------------------
lll
~
t------------------------------------------------------
~ 40
-
20+----------------------------------------
/00 200 300 400 500 600 7'00

CURRENT (AMPS)
Fig. 25.21.-Typical volt-ampere curves of constant-voltage generator

voltage between the maximum and minimum voltage settings of the machine
may be obtained.
The open-circuit voltage and arc voltage of a constant-voltage welding genera-
tor are almost identical. Although the curves in Fig. 25.21 demonstrate a slightly
drooping characteristic, some constant-voltage welding generators have a per-
fectly flat characteristic; others have a slightly rising characteristic, while still
others offer limited slope control.
Since the arc voltage of the constant-voltage type of power source remains
almost constant throughout the entire current range of the machine, variations
in arc conditions produce a substantial, instantaneous change in welding cur-
rent. This instantaneous current-voltage response relationship differs signifi-
cantly from that of the constant-current welding generator. The current response
to a change in arc conditions for the curves, (1), (2) and (3), illustrated in
Fig. 25.22 provides an example. The welding current for a specific wire-feed
speed has stabilized at 200 amperes. Any change in wire-feed speed will pro-
duce a compensating change in welding current. If the wire-feed speed is in-
creased, the wire, entering the arc at a higher speed, tends to reduce the arc
length, thus causing a lower arc voltage. However, the design characteristics
REDUCED WIRE -FEED SPEED INCREASED WIRE-FEED SPEED

OR OR
MOMENTARY ARC VOLTAGE INCREASE MOMENTARY ARC VOLTAGE REDUCTION
PRODUCES AN PRODUCES AN
INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT REDUCTION INSTANTANEOUS CURRENT INCREASE
100
80
60
40
20
100 200 300 400 500 600 AMPS
Fig. 25.22.-Curves showing current changes with wire-feed speed changes

of the constant-voltage welding generator will not permit a reduction in arc
voltage, and the welding current changes automatically to raise the energy in-
put at the arc, thus increasing the melting rate of the wire electrode. If the
increased wire-feed speed is maintained, the generator output stabilizes at the
higher current level. The same response occurs, but in a reverse manner, when
the wire-feed speed is reduced.
The same generator response is produced by momentary variations in arc
conditions, which continually occur as the droplets of molten metal cross an
arc, or are caused by the welding operator's inability to maintain a constant
distance between his welding gun and the surface of the weld puddle. But in
such cases, the wire-feed speed has not been permanently changed and, after
answering the need for more or less arc energy, the welder returns to the 200
ampere welding current output. If the generator output is observed with meters
while a weld is being made, the voltage reading will remain steady, whereas
the current will be continually changing to compensate for the varying arc
conditions.
As Fig. 25.22 shows, the direction of the current change will be the same
regardless of the slope of the volt-ampere curve. This response characteristic
of the constant-voltage generator is clearly contrary to what has already been
stated concerning the volt-ampere response of the constant-current welding
generator. The slope of the curve of a constant-voltage welding generator does,
however, affect the rate of response to varying arc conditions during welding.
It also affects the arc starting characteristics as welding commences. A droop-
ing curve will have a definite short-circuit current value and this will have
less tendency to generate a lower starting current. Thus, there will be less
likelihood of blasting the tip off the electrode when establishing the arc.
GENERATOR DESIGN
The constant-voltage welding generator is of the separately excited, com-
pound-wound design with interpoles. The generator field windings are cumula-
tively compounded as compared to the differential compounding in the constant-
current design. Cumulative compounding develops the flat volt-ampere output
curves characteristic of the constant-voltage welding generator.
A constant-voltage welding generator has a single rheostat control for chang-
ing generator output. Adjustment of this control varies the strength of the
generator's shunt fields, thereby raising or lowering the open-circuit voltage
and the arc voltage of the machine. The control cannot change either the slope
of the volt-ampere curves or the current output.
Limited slope change can be accomplished on some constant-voltage weld-
ing generators by reconnecting the electrode cable to an alternate output ter-
minal, internally connected to a different point in the series field of the genera-
tor (Fig. 25.23). This change is made when the normal volt-ampere perform-
ance of the generator does not meet the requirements of the welding process
being used. Addition of a small resistance in series with the generator is an-
other method of slope control.
Current control is accomplished by varying the wire-feed speed. This forces
the constant-voltage generator to automatically change the welding current to
provide sufficient energy to the arc to melt the electrode at a rate that main-
tains the preselected arc voltage.
Comparison of the schematic diagrams in Fig. 25.23 with those appearing

at the top of Fig. 25.16 shows the similarity of the two designs.
VOL TAG£ RHEOSTAT GENERATOR SERIES FIELD
BRUSHES
0 0
OUTPUT
TERMINALS
~ GENERATOR
'\.ARMATURE AND 0
COMMUTATOR
GENERATOR SEPARATELY
INTERPOL£ FIELD COILS
EXCITED FIELDS
Fig. 25.23.-Separately excited, cumulatively compounded welding generator circuit
An electric motor is used to provide the mechanical energy needed to drive

the constant-voltage welding generator. Gasoline engine driven models are also
available but experience limited use, since an engine drive suggests portable use
of the generator for maintenance or some type of field welding. These applica-
tions normally call for the use of manual shielded metal-arc welding as well
as a mechanized welding process and would require constant-current perform-
ance as well as in the constant-voltage category. A combination constant-volt-
age--constant-current engine-driven welding generator would be preferred as
the better power source selection for this type of work and would thus elimi-
nate the need for an engine-driven constant-voltage welding generator.
CONfROL DEVICES
The output of the constant-voltage welding generator may be completely con-
trolled by a small shunt field rheostat or a solid state control device. In either
case, it is a simple matter to provide for remote control. One type of remote
control is usually a second rheostat attached to the voltage knob in the con-
trol panel of the wire feeder. It is usually wired in series with the rheostat at
the generator and provides limited adjustment of the welding generator at the
welding station. If total range control is required, however, it is usually neces-
sary to return to the control box on the welding generator. Solid state controls
using a small potentiometer mounted at the wire feeder provide full voltage
control if desired.
ELECTRICAL RATINGS AND SERVICE CLASSIFICATION
Constant-voltage generators are normally rated at 100% duty cycle owing to

their use for mechanized welding involving either semiautomatic or fully auto-
matic wire feeders. Consequently, this power source is usually providing more
current for a greater time period than its constant-current counterpart. For this
reason, it is important to consider both the welding procedure and operating
factor when specifying siZe.
APPLICATIONS
The performance characteristics of the constant-voltage welding generator

make it particularly suited for the various open arc welding processes being
used for semiautomatic and fully automatic welding. These include both the
gas shielded-arc and self-shielded arc processes using solid or flux cored wire
electrodes. Such generators also work well for small wire submerged arc weld-
ing where the wire electrode diameter is 1116 in. or smaller.
The constant-voltage welding generator is not a suitable power source for
manual shielded metal-arc welding or submerged arc welding with the larger
electrode diameters. These processes call for the performance characteristics
of the constant-current design.
CONSTANT-CURRENT-CONSTANT-VOLTAGE
WELDING GENERATOR
The expanding industrial acceptance of the various arc welding processes

suited to mechanized welding and the continued use of manual shielded metal-
arc welding has created a need for a combination power source capable of both
constant-current and constant-voltage performance. This type of power source
can be used for all existing arc welding processes-manual shielded. metal-arc
100
CONSTANT VOLTAGE PERFORMANCE
CONSTANT CURRENT PERFORMANCE
80
60
40
\ ,, "'
\ \
20
\ \ \ \ \
~:----,~\-\- \\
\ \\ \ \
100 200 300 400 500 600
Fig. 25.24.-Typical volt-ampere curves for a constant-current-constant-voltage

generator
Rectifier-Type Power Sources/ 25.41
or the mechanized gas shielded-arc, self-shielded arc and submerged arc proc-
esses. The typical applications for this power source are such that relatively
low generator capacity (300 or 400 amperes) is adequate.
GENERATOR DESIGN
The volt-ampere curves for various control settings shown in Fig. 25.24
demonstrate the performance range of the constant-current-constant-voltage
type of machine. This combination power source, like the constant-current and
constant-voltage units, is a separately excited, modified compound-wound gen-
erator with interpoles. Solid state components are used in the excitation circuit
to achieve optimum performance. The same schematic diagrams appearing in
Figs. 25.16 and 25.23 present the arrangement of the major electrical com-
ponents. The generator is differentially compounded when performing as a
constant-current power source and cumulatively compounded for constant volt-
age.
The presence of solid state regulation of shunt field excitation simplifies re-
mote control. A small control box can be carried to the welding site to provide
voltage and limited current adjustment for either mechanized or manual shielded
metal-arc welding.
Electrical Rating
The combination welding generator carries the same NEMA ratings as t~e
constant-voltage and constant-current machines. The generator can be driven
by an electric motor or by a gasoline or diesel engine. Since its use invariably
involves welding-mechanization, the decision on welding generator size should
involve consideration of the application, the process or processes to be used
and the anticipated operating factor.
Applications
The combination constant-current-constant-voltage power source has poten-
tial use in respect to the existing arc welding processes within the current ca-
pacity of the welding generator.
RECTIFIER-TYPE POWER SOURCES-

CONSTANT VOLTAGE
Rectifier constant-voltage welding power sources are the newest family of
welding power supplies and have undergone considerable evolution since their
introduction. This evolution, the result of advances and new techniques in
consumable electrode gas shielded metal-arc welding, may have reached a
leveling-off point with the present state of the art. The first machines in this
classification had a relatively flat output curve of about 1 volt drop per hundred
amperes. Some machines have a rising volt-ampere curve designed to match
the arc-length-arc-voltage characteristic of the arc and were adjustable from
0 to 6 volts rise per hundred amperes. The actual steady state load that was
present at the terminal. of the power source by the arc was also within the range
of constant-current machines. For some welding processes, easier arc starting
and better arc stability could be obtained with this rising-voltage type. The most
recent step has been the inclusion of a variable inductance (or stabilizer) to
improve the welding with low-voltage arcs.
TYPES
AU high-current machines of this type are designed for three-phase input.
Low-current machines are designed for three-phase input and in some cases for
single-phase input.
An important variation is the amount of inductance (stabilizer) built into
the machine and whether it is located electrically in the a-c or d-e part of the
circuit. Machines with a large range of adjustment in the inductance in the a-c
part of the circuit are often referred to as constant-voltage variable-slope weld-
ing machines.
The volt-ampere curve of this class of machine ranges from relatively fiat to
a slope that approaches that of a constant-current machine. The machines that
do not have a variable inductance have a constant slope of 1 or 2 volts per
hundred amperes of load current. In the machines with variable-slope induct-
ances, a change in the slope inductance affects the static volt-ampere and the
dynamic characteristics.
GENERAL DESIGN
There are several popular approaches to the design of constant-voltage power
sources. In the versions using a variable inductance, the power transformer
secondaries (three-phase) have an adjustable voltage taken off the secondary by
contacts (brushes) moving along the secondary windings or by some other
means of tapping the transformer secondary winding. This is the open-circuit
voltage control. A series inductance in the secondary side of the transformer
is adjustable to give proper output characteristics under load.
Another design approach is to have taps selected by a switch on the secondary
at about 4 to 6 volt increments and then use a saturable reactor for the fine
voltage adjustment. Some designs use a stabilizer in the d-e circuit. These ma-
chines do not incorporate a polarity switch in the d-e output circuit. They are
normally used with the negative terminal connected to the work.
In a third approach, a booster transformer with its secondary winding in
series with either the primary or secondary of the main transformer is used.
The secondary voltage of the booster transformer adds to the secondary voltage
of the main transformer, producing a change in total output voltage. The pri-
mary of the booster transformer is fed by a variable transformer whose output
is adjustable froiD; 0 to 115 or 230 volts. When the variable transformer is
adjusted, the voltage supplied by the booster transformer changes, and thus, the
output voltage of the welding machine changes.
A fourth approach involves employment of a transformer, reactor in series
with the secondary and a stabilizing reactor in the d-e circuit. The secondary
of the transformer is tapped at 1 to 2 volt intervals for voltage control. The
reactor is tapped for slope control, and the stabilizer may also be tapped.
Swiiches on the control panel ate used to select the proper tap.
Special Power Sources I 25.43
Frequently, a separate control transformer is built in with a 115-volt sec-

ondary. The 115 volts is brought to a receptacle where it is available to power
accessory equipment.
CONTROL DEVICES
Constant voltage rectifiers are provided with line contactors controlled through
a receptacle on the control panel by the trigger on the welding gun. By this
means the operator can prevent accidental arcs.
These units are normally supplied with both a voltmeter and an ammeter to
permit monitoring of both arc voltage and current, primarily in order to aid
in setting wire-feed speed, arc voltage and sometimes slope.
ELECTRICAL RATINGS
The primary rating is specified in the same way as for constant-current rec-
tifier-type machines. The d-e secondary rating method is not as well established
with respect to output voltage. The voltage ratings range from 25 to 50 volts.
No-load (open-circuit) voltages go as high as 75 volts. For machines designed
to include the low-voltage arc processes, the no-load voltage may be as low
as 10 volts. Current ratings are from 200 to 1000 amperes.
Rectifier-type constant-voltage machines are rated for industrial service only.
The duty cycle rating is usually 100 percent.
APPLICATIONS
The applications for these machines are with semiautomatic and automatic
welding processes using the gas shielded-arc, flux-cored electrode, small wire
submerged arc and electroslag processes. It should be borne in mind that the
volt-ampere curve (when all the reactance is in the circuit) of machines with
the variable-slope feature is similar to that of a constant-current machine. Al7
though this feature might appear to suggest suitability of constant-voltage ma-
chines for some applications that use constant-current units, it is not a wise
use: if the reactance were inadvertently reduced to the minimum, very high
current surges could take place during striking of the arc, and these surges
could damage the machine.
SPECIAL POWER SOURCES FOR

OTHER APPLICATIONS
MULTIPLE-OPERATOR WELDING
Multiple-operator welding equipment has proved economical where there. are
a number of welding stations in a small area. Multiple-operator welding equip~
ment is used to advantage in shipbuilding and construction, for example.
Multiple-operator installations are supplied from either rotating-type motor-
generator sets, static rectifier-type power supplies, or from transformers. Com-
mercially available units vary from 500 to 2500 amperes for rotating units, from
500 to 1500 amperes for rectifier-type installations and from 500 to 2000 am-
peres for the transformers. Rectifiers used in these power supplies are silicon or
selenium. Overload protection and circuit breakers protect the equipment from
damage.
The usual practice is to provide a power source voltage of 70 to 80 volts with
provisions for paralleling two or more units for combined output. The manu-
facturer's instructions should be followed to assure proper parallel operation.
Large copper bus bars are run from the power source to the welding centers
and are there connected to welding outlet panels. Sometimes individual panels
are installed for each welding operator. As many as ten circuits may be grouped
in one panel. Each circuit is basically a resistor for direct current or a reactor
for alternating current, connected in series with the electrode holder.
Individual Modules
One type of power supply consists of individual power-packed modules that,
housed in a common cabinet, provide remotely controlled d-e welding current
to individual stations at distances up to 200 feet from the main unit. Where
the output of an individual module is not sufficient for a particular welding
job, two or more modules may be paralleled. Common grounding connection of
all modules is provided. Such a welding machine consists of eight separate
modules powered by one three-phase power transformer. Each module consists
of a d-e control coil, a-c control coil, rectifier stack, control rectifier, current
control rheostat, stabilizer and thermal protection thermostat. Each individual
welder can use whichever polarity he requires, since each module can be indi-
vidually controlled. Individual control is also possible on multiarc systems
using grid resistor banks, although two power sources are required for such
applications.
Adjustable Resistor Banks
A second type of power supply is a constant-voltage motor-generator set or
transformer-rectifier providing 75 to 80 volts to a group of adjustable resistor
banks. Use of two power sources permits individual polarity selection by the
welder. Three-phase full-wave bridge rectifiers are used to change the output
of the transformer from a-c current to d-e welding current.
Current Control
The current that will flow in the circuit is limited to the value that produces
a voltage drop in the ballast equal to the difference between the constant-
potential source voltage and the arc voltage. Varying the value of the ballast
resistance or reactance will change the value of current required to produce
this drop, thus permitting control of the welding current.
Advantages
In large installations, use of multiple-operator equipment usually results in
the reduction of fixed costs of equipment, cables and the amount of power used.
Maintenance costs are also reduced since only one power supply must be main-
tained in place of the many it replaces. The individual resistor bank or reactor
panels can usually be located close to the welder to enable him to make current
adjustments conveniently. Although most installations are direct current, some
shipyards are using a-c multiple-operator apparatus.
Special Power Sources i 25.45
The power supply used for submerged arc welding may be d-e constant cur-
rent, d-e constant voltage or alternating current. Direct-current power supplies
may be either motor generators or rectifiers. Transformers are used for a-c
power supplies. The power supply and the wire-drive mechanism must be de-
signed to operate together so that effective control of the arc length can be
maintained. Constant-current types of power sources are used with arc voltage
controls. If current control is used to regulate the arc length, a constant-voltage
power supply must be used. Submerged arc welding generally is done at higher
currents (350 to 1200 amperes) than other types of arc welding, so the power
supply must have a high current rating at high duty cycles.
A standard NEMA-rated motor-generator or rectifier-type d-e welding power
supply can be used for submerged arc welding if the machine is rated high
enough for the application. Machines may be paralleled to obtain the necessary
current capacity; however, this should only be done by an experienced operator
or an electrician. Duplex units are available consisting of two single-operator
units assembled and connected for single or parallel operation. The use of these
machines as well as the single units of larger current ratings is preferred over
the use of standard power supplies, individually or in parallel.
Constant-voltage power supplies, either motor generators or rectifiers, used
for submerged arc welding should have an open-circuit voltage in the 50 volt
d-e range and a current rating high enough for the application. With this type
of power supply, the arc voltage is adjusted by raising or lowering the open-
circuit voltage of the power unit. The welding current is automatically controlled
by the feed rate of the electrode wire. One of the advantages of this method
is the simple control system used. This system provides a uniformly stable arc
voltage, which is of particular advantage for high-speed, light-gage welding,
as well as more consistent starting because of the high initial surge current.
The higher load voltage of some submerged arc applications causes addi-
tional load on the motor driving the generator. At a given current, the input
to the generator is roughly proportional to the load voltage of the generator.
Care should be taken to select units having adequate motor rating. This pre-
caution also applies to some rectifier-type machines when arc voltage exceeds
the rated output voltage of the welding machine.
The flow of d-e welding current is started and stopped by means of a mag-
netic contactor in the welding circuit, or by means of a relay in the generator
field circuit, depending upon the design and characteristics of the generator.
Rectifier-type power supplies control the current by means of a contactor in
the primary ( a-c input) line of the machine. Duplex rectifier welding power
supplies are generally equipped with primary contactor control.
Magnetic deflection of the arc (arc blow) , a characteristic of direct current,
usually limits the magnitude of direct current which can be used in submerged
arc welding. Reference should be made to Chapter 24, Submerged Arc Weld-
ing, for additional details. Altho~gh some applications of multiple-arc welding
employ alternating current, most applications use direct current on one or more
electrodes and alternating current on others, or direct current on both.
Transformers with standard ratings, up to and including 2000 amperes, are
available with special features adapting them to submerged arc welding ap-
plication. A schematic of a standard welding transformer is shown in Fig.
25.25. The main factors to be considered are special control features, high
current and high load voltage. Remote control adjusters, actuated by controls
on the operator's panel, are usually required for convenience.
POWER
LINE
WELDING
TRANSFORMER
WORK
Fig. 25.25.-Alternating-cur rent arc welding transformer supplying single sub-
merged arc welding machine
Alternating current arc welding units of similar design may be paralleled to
obtain additional welding current. The relatively high arc voltage, plus the
reactive impedance drop in the high current welding circuit, usually require
the use of units with at least 80 volts (open circuit) but preferably 85 to 100
volts.
Welding current for multiple-arc welding may be supplied in a number of
different ways. For parallel arc welding, a d-e power supply can be used, con-
nected in the conventional single-electrode manner. With this method, the two
or more welding wires are not insulated from each other and are usually fed
by a single-drive head through a common contact nozzle or jaw.
A single transformer or d-e power supply can be used for supplying two
independent welding heads feeding into the same puddle, by connecting the
power supply work lead to a second welding head. This is called a series arc
system and requires a power supply with a high open-circuit voltage.
High-speed tandem welding generally utilizes two independent welding heads,
supplied by multiple-transformer units using either a closed delta or a Scott
connection across a three-phase line. Since heavy currents are frequently used
D []
~PHASE
A
rtJ~
8
c
I I WELDING
I I rRANSFORMER
I I
I I
._--~~ I
I
I
I I
I I
IL ____ _ I
A.J
WORK
Fig. 25.26.-Alt ernating-c urrent arc welding transformer connections for three-phase
closed delta system
in tandem welding, these systems have the advantage of equalizing the load
fairly evenly on the three phases.
The closed delta system requires the use of welding transformers with sepa-
rable reactors, so that the transformer secondaries can be connected in closed
delta ahead of the reactors (Fig. 25.26). This system provides maximum flexi-
bility in the adjustment of welding currents in the two arcs, the ground current
and phase-angle displacement between the three currents. Adjustment of these
conditions is important to obtain desired arc deflection (magnetically), pene-
tration and weld contour.
The Scott-connected system uses J-fflASC
two transformers connected as in 1 =F=~= ===r-t:::::J=r

~C0~_~WELDWG
Fig. 25.27; these may be specifically
designed, but standard units can be
LLJ I I
I ===== ~
rRANsFORM£1f
used if at least one has a center tap I x:t I:;;:,~ ;:;MtNAL

X2
connection on the primary. It is I

I
also preferable that the units have Il _______ jI
secondary OCV connections for 85
-
'----+---- -, "
and 100 volts. Although this system
does not provide the extreme flexi-
bility of adjustment inherent in the
closed delta system, it gives, in a Fig. 25.27.- Alternating-current arc
simpler manner, the essential re- welding transformer connections for
quirements for current and phase- Scott-connected system
angle adjustment, and is considered easier to control.
STUD WELDING
Electric arc stud welding must be done using a d-e power source-a motor
generator, an engine generator, a transformer rectifier or a battery unit. Be-

cause stud welding demands more capacity, more consistency and better con-
trol than is normally afforded with conventional d-e power sources, special
power sources have been designed for this process. The general characteristics
desired in a stud welding power source are:
1. High terminal voltage in the range of 70 to 100 volts d-e open circuit.
2. A drooping volt-ampere characteristic such that 30 to 38 volts de appears
across the arc at maximum load.
3. A rapid current rise time.
4. High current capacity for a relatively short time. The current require-
ments are higher, and the duty cycle is much less in stud welding than in
other types of welding.
Each of the various types of special power sources available, including motor
generator, battery unit and transformer-rectifier units, has its own characteris-
tics. This is why it is difficult to compare these types with other sources of
power. One method of comparison would be to evaluate each power supply in
terms of current output and stud welding base diameter. Table 25.6 indicates
the range of requirements. A power source would be expected to develop the
required current on any size of stud under the following conditions: terminal
voltage during weld, 50 volts minimum; open-circuit voltage, 75 volts minimum;
welding voltage across the arc, 33 to 37 volts; welding cable in the circuit,
150ft 4/0; duty cycle-minimum (12 studs 7/8 in. in diameter per minute),
20 percent.
Table 25'.6--Maximum stud welding capacity of various power sources
Stud Weld Base

Power Sources Diameters, In., Max
400 ampere d-e NEMA-rated units

600 ampere d-e NEMA-rated units
Two 400 ampere units in parallel
Two 600 ampere units in parallel
Battery unit •
"1000" power unit t
Two "1000" power units in paralle
"2000" power unitf
Two "2000" power units in parallel
•Used where 230 or 460 volt power is not available; requires 115 volts, a-c power for charging batteries
while welding is being performed.
tFurnishes power for welding from 10 gage pins to % in. diameter studs with recommended stud weld-
ing unit; requires 230 or 460 volt, three-phase incoming power.
tRequires 230 or 460 volt, three-phase power.
Table 25.7 shows the approximate weld time, in cycles, and the actual weld
current, in amperes, required for the various stud weld base diameters. It should
be noted that the currents are actual w:eld current readings and have no rela-
tion tQ ~enerator settings.
GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING
Almost any type of power source, either ac or de, may be used with the gas
tungsten-arc welding processes; however, special power sources designed for the
particular application are preferred. Special welding power sources designed
for use with the gas tungsten-arc welding process may be as simple as a mechan-
ically controlled a-c unit with built-in high-frequency stabilization, or as sophis-
ticated as a three-phase d-e power source that has facilities for completely
programming gas tungsten-arc welds.
The choice of a particular kind of welding current, either ac or de, depends
on the type of metal to be welded, the type of shielding gas used, the welding
techniques, etc. Selection is normally based on metal type. Alternating current
is usually used for the light metals such as aluminum and magnesium. The basic
reason for this selection is that ac provides the cleaning action necessary during
the reverse polarity half-cycle.
Some excellent d-e welding techniques have been developed recently for
gas tungsten-arc welding of aluminum. Helium shielding gas is employed with
direct current straight polarity for this type of welding application. With these
procedures, aluminum up to 1 in. thick has been welded in two passes. Direct
current straight polarity is normally used for welding steel, low-alloy steel,
stainless steel, copper and its alloys, refractory metals, etc. Very little direct
current reverse polarity is used for the gas tungsten-arc welding process. Chapter
23, Gas Shielded-Arc Welding contains additional information.
Alternating-current welding power sources of the transformer type, designed
especially for the gas tungsten-arc welding process, are equipped with gas and
water solenoid valves, a gas timer and usually some means of arc stabilization.
Alternating-current power sources usually have an open-circuit voltage between
70 and 80 volts rms, which is sufficient for consistent arc establishment on
straight polarity half-cycles when the electrode is negative, but is insufficient
when the electrode is positive during the reverse polarity half-cycles. The result
is a very unstable, erratic arc, unless some method is used to impress a suitably
high voltage into the welding circuit at the start of each reverse polarity half-
cycle. The impressed high voltage serves to re-establish an ionized path in the arc
region and produce a stable arc condition.
When changing direction, current must come to a stop before it can reverse.
At the instant the arc is struck, the current begins flowing in one direction. As
the current reverses direction no
current flows; then for an instant
the arc will either be reignited or Table 25.7-Time and average current
required for welding steel studs
remain extinguished, depending upon
the electrical characteristics of the Stud Weld Weld
system and the particular arc condi- Weld Base Time,
Cycles
Current,
Amperes
Diameter, In.
tions.
In an inert-gas atmosphere, current 10 425
flows more readily in one direction 15 500
20 550
than in the other from a tungsten 25 675
30 800
electrode to another metal. The dif- 38 1200
44 1750
ference in current flow is consider- 55 2175
able with some metals (aluminum, 62 2500
magnesium and copper) and is
greater in the presence of heavy oxide films than with chemically clean metal.
This resistance to current flow in one direction produces a tendency toward
rectification of alternating current, which is the unbalanced flow in that one
direction. Arc reignition and maintenance following current reversal are dif-
ficult and uncertain on one half of the cycle but easy and sure on the other.
The easiest flow is obtained when the electrode is negative (the straight polarity
half of the cycle) .
Exhaustive tests have shown that during current reversals involving change
from electrode negative to electrode positive about 150 or more volts rms are
required for reliable arc reignition. The exact voltage differs for different metals
and varies with surface condition, amperage, gas and electrode type used.
Figure 25.28 illustrates the various electrical conditions: partial and complete
rectification, arc stability with ordinary unstabilized a-c machines, and the effect
of stabilizing accessories and systems. Figure 25 .28A illustrates partial and
complete rectification from greater resistance to flow in one direction than the
other with added resistance in one instance and complete blockage in the other.
Both partial and comple,te rectification normally occm together when stand-
ard 75 to 80 volt welding transformers are used without stabilizing accessories.
Partial rectification occurs when reverse polarity half-cycles ignite the arc but
impose higher resistance to current flow than the the straight polarity half-cycles.
Complete rectification occurs when reverse polarity half-cycles fail to ignite
the arc at all. Both conditions, as well as the extra voltage required for ignition
of reverse polarity half-cycles, are illustrated in Fig. 25.28A, together with a
wave form typical of welding arc voltage.
Three methods have been developed for commercial use in obtaining the
voltage necessary to ignite the reverse polarity half-cycles and thus stabilize the
arc. These methods are:
1. A superimposed high-frequency voltage of 3000 to 5000 volts.
2. The use of a welding transformer having a relatively high open-circuit
voltage of 150 to 200 volts rms.
D. C. VOLTAGE
BUT NO POSITIVE
+
vvvvv
HALF CYCLE ARC
0 ,., 0 • i 0 A
CURRENT VOLTAGE
+
0 ooooo
VlfV VV B If bch,bvbvh~
CURRENT VOLTAGE
I~ QAhJth"
+ 1\f\f\f\[\
0 c
VVVYV
CURRENT VOLTAGE
Fig. 25.28.-E/ectrical conditions resulting from the use of alternating current

3. Surge injections wherein a 200 to 400 volt condenser charge is injected
into the welding circuit at the start of each reverse polarity half-cycle.
The effect of arc-stabilizing accessories, such as superimposed high-frequency,
voltage surge injection or high-voltage transformers, is shown in Fig. 25.28B.
Figure 25.28C illustrates the effect of current-balancing systems.
Balanced flow can be achieved by the use of condensers in the welding circuit,
or by placing batteries in the circuit in such a way that their voltage will be
additive to the reverse polarity half-cycle and subtractive from the straight
polarity wave side. Six to eight volts of battery power are usually sufficient to
accomplish balancing with at least 100 amp-hours of storage battery capacity
per 100 amperes of maximum welding current.
The advantages of balanced current flow are as follows:
1. Better oxide cleaning action is obtained with full reverse polarity current
flow.
2. Smoother, better welding action is obtained.
3. Electrical upset in the welding transformer, resulting from unbalanced
core magnetization, is lessened. Unbalanced core magnetization occurs
from rectification and the resulting d-e component.
The disadvantages of balanced current flow are as follows:
1. Larger electrodes are required.
2. The higher open-circuit voltages generally associated with some wave-
balancing means may constitute a safety hazard.
3. The addition of a wave-balancing system increases equipment cost con-
siderably.
Although desirable for some applications, balanced flow is not essential for
most manual welding operations. It is, however, desirable for high-speed mech-
anized welding.
Available voltage at the start of the reverse polarity half-cycle is the main
factor in arc stability with alternating current, but other details, such as elec-
trode size, current density, type of shielding gas, shape of the electrode tip and
type of electrode, also influence arc stability. Pointing the electrode at low
current density is helpful for stability. High current density in the electrodes is
also beneficial, however, pointing is not necessary as the electrode will ball at
the end because of the high current density. It is good practice, therefore, to
use the smallest electrode capable of carrying the required amperage.
Direct-current power sources of the transformer-rectifier and motor-genera-
tor types designed especially for gas tungsten-arc welding have drooping volt-
ampere characteristics, with open-circuit voltage between 70 and 80 volts rms.
The current rating of the power source depends on the particular application.
Power sources with current ratings between 200 and 600 amperes are available.
These machines are equipped with built-in high-frequency oscillators for arc
initiation, gas and water control circuits, and a welding current control circuit.
The increased demand for thin-skin structural members in commercial and
military products has led to the development of electronically controlled power
supplies for automatic gas tungsten-arc welding. One such power supply de-
signed for automatic gas tungsten-arc spot and seam welding has a drooping
volt-ampere characteristic that has been extended to the extreme to produce a
steep (almost vertical) volt-ampere curve. Changes in arc length will not cause
160 ~~~:::;;::::-
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 5 20 60 80
/0 30 50 70 /00
WELD CURRENT (AMPS)
Fig. 25.29.-Relationship between load voltage and welding current; arrow indicates
gas tungsten-arc welding range
changes in welding current. Novel magnetic circuitry and a high open-circuit

voltage provide a power source that displays a very high internal impedance.
Load voltages from 4 to 40 volts do not materially affect the output current.
Tape-wound cores are used for the magnetic elements. A hybrid connection
utilizes the best characteristics of both the saturable reactor (stable, with good
starting characteristics) and the magnetic amplifier (fast response, wide range).
The curves in Fig. 25.29 show the results in a single welding range of direct
current from 2 to 150 amperes. A larger model provides currents to 400 am-
peres. Since the achievement of the vertical volt-ampere curves is attributed
primarily to the magnetic circuitry of the poWer source, it was possible to
considerably simplify the required electronic circuitry. The electronic systems
are not compelled to make extremely large corrections.
Fig. 25.30 is a block diagram of a typical electronically controlled gas tung-
sten-arc welding machine. A closed-loop feedback system is used, wherein the
output welding current is continuously compared with the desired value, and
any error corrected. The output current-sensing element is a special d-e current
transformer utilizing "square hysteresis loop" core material. The design of this
transformer is such that its output voltage is directly proportional to the in-
tegrated heating value of the welding current.
The magnetic amplifier-reactors feed the desired amount of three-phase cur-
rent from the constant-potential transformer into the rectifiers. Tape-wound
magnetic cores are used. The rectifier is a three-phase, heavy-duty, low-leakage
selenium stack chosen for its ability to handle the transient voltages encoun-
tered. The individual components used in the rectifier stack of this machine
must be chosen for reliability, because of the greater number used, as compared
LINE
Fig. 25.30.-Block diagram for gas tungsten-arc welding machine
to a standard welding machine and, hence, because of the greater cost involved.
The output choke serves as a moderate ripple filter at low currents where arc
outages would be more likely to occur, and prevents the pulse generated by the
arc starting mechanism from entering the welding machine, thereby routing it
to the electrode holder (torch). The choke, in combination with the magnetic
amplifier-reactor and high open-circuit voltage, contributes to the "intensified"
arc produced. Efficiency has been subordinated in favor of performance. Power
factor correction brings the power factor to 100% at a 40 ampere load.
The arc is started and stabilized by the use of an impulse type of arc starter
that was developed for use with the power supply. This device provides the high-
voltage spark necessary to break down and initially ionize the gas and, secondly,
to superimpose on the spark a short pulse of lower voltage, higher current. The
arc zone and electrode are given an initial heat sufficient to reliably strike a
stable arc.
The impulse polarity is reversibly independent of the basic machine polarity
with a two-position front panel toggle switch. Storage capacitors are precharged
with a front panel "intensity" control. The characteristics of the pulse, with
respect to slope of the leading edge and total width of the pulse, are of con-
siderable importance. The time of discharge must be long enough to definitely
"light" the arc, yet short enough to allow an output reactor to block the pulse
effectively from the power source. The system is safe because of the extremely
short duration (milliseconds) of the starting impulse. Radio interference prob-
lems associated with high-frequency starting are greatly reduced because of
the short duration of this starting impulse.
No special electrode holders or extra cables are required to use the system.
The impulse suffers no severe losses owing to long conductors. In practice,
impulse starting allows the operator greater freedom of electrode shape. In
production spot welding, for instance, erosion can be minimized because the
electrode need not be ground down to a fine point to ensure good starts but
can be tailored for the desired arc cone and nugget diameter.
ELECTROSLAG AND ELECTROGAS WELDING
The equipment used for electroslag and electrogas welding is very similar,
and the same power sources can be used for either process with one exception:
a-c power supplies cannot be used with the electrogas process. Both a-c and
d-e power supplies can be used with the electroslag process. Any standard a-c
or d-e power supply with an open-circuit voltage up to 80 volts and capable of
delivering 600 amperes continuously is suitable for electroslag welding; any
standard d-e power supply with an open-circuit voltage up to 80 volts and
capable of delivering 600 amperes continuously is suitable for electrogas weld-
ing. The power supplies should be equipped with remote controls for use with
either process. The number of power supplies required depends on the number
of welding wires being used. One power supply is required for each welding
wire used; therefore, a two-wire welding head would require two power sources.
Special constant-potential d-e power supplies designed for electroslag and
electrogas welding are available. These power supplies are transformer-rectifiers
having an open-circuit voltage of 74 volts and are rated at 750 amperes at 50
volts output, 100% duty cycle. The primary input is 60 Hz, three phase, 75
amperes at 460 volts or. 150 amperes at 230 volts.
PLASMA ARC WELDING

Conventional direct current power supplies with drooping volt-ampere char-
acteristics and 70 volts open circuit are suitable for most plasma arc welding
applications where argon or a mixture of argon and up to 5% hydrogen is
used. However, if helium or an argon~hydrogen gas mixture containing more
than 5% hydrogen is used, additional open-circuit voltage is required for reli-
able arc ignition. This may be accomplished by connecting two power supplies
in series. An alternate approach, requiring the use of only one power supply,
is to strike the arc in pure argon and then switch over to the desired argon-
hydrogen, or helium mixture for the welding operation.
The power supplies may be either rectifiers or motor generators; however,
rectifiers are preferred because they have better current stability during the
time required for the power supply to warm up to operating temperature.
Because of the relative insensitivity of the plasma arc process to arc length
variations, arc voltage control equipment is not normally used. However, arc
voltage control can be used with the process for applications such as welding
contoured joints if precautions are taken to lock out the height control when
current or gas sloping is used.
Plasma arc controls have built-in high-frequency generators for arc ignition;
therefore, the power supply does not have to be equipped with high frequency.
Special power supplies designed specifically for plasma arc processes are now
available. These power supplies were developed to meet the specialized re-
quirements of plasma arc surfacing and cutting, as well as welding and, there-
fore, are not generally compatible with other welding applications. They are
usually rated between 500 and 1000 amperes with a 100% duty cycle and an
open-circuit voltage of 400 volts.
PULSED ARC WELDING
A pulsed arc welding machine normally consists of a three-phase transformer-

rectifier providing a constant d-e voltage output together with a single-phase
half-wave rectifier, which is superimposed on the d-e or background current.
Bibliography I 25.55
Both transformer-rectifiers are mounted in a single configuration with appro-

priate controls for adjustment of background and pulsed current.
The pulsed arc welding process is used with electrodes and shielding gases
that normally operate only in the high current density or spray-transfer region.
The power level is between the spray-transfer and dip-transfer regions and fills
an operational gap between them.
The pulsed arc welding machines have the advantages of welding at lower
mean welding currents, controlling the size of the metal droplet transferred
and using lower average welding currents for a given wire size.
BIBLIOGRAP HY
Welding Handbook, Section 1, "Fundamentals of Welding," Chapter 9, Safe Prac-
tices in Welding and Cutting, 6th Ed., American Welding Society.
Welding Processes and Power Sources, B. R. Pierre, Power Publications Co., 1967.
Power Sources for Gas Metal-Arc Welding, B. R. Pierre, Canadian Welding Society,
Toronto, 1965.
"Which Power Supply?" A. C. Mulder, Iron Age, 1965.
"Plasma Arc Welding," S. P. Filipsky, Welding Journal, 43 (11), 937-943, 1964.
"Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding Techniques with a New Electronically Controlled
Power Supply," F. J. Grist and R. L. Hawkins, Ibid., 43 (7), 598-604, 1964.
Materials and Material Process Services, Arc Welding, Office of the Assistant Sec-
retary of Defense (Installations and Logistics), Washington, D. C., 20301.
"New Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding Electrode," I. S. Goodman, H. J. Ehringer and
R. L. Hackman, Welding Journal, 42 (7), 567-570,1963.
"Production Welding of Aluminum Tank-Type Covered Hopper Cars," H. Ber-
trand, G. LeBlanc, H. McClymont, and W. D. Bailey, Ibid., 42 (7) 561-566, 1963.
"Automatic Vertical Welding and Its Industrial Applications," R. J. Franz and
W. H. Wooding, Ibid., 42 (5) 489-494, 1963.
"New Developments in Gas Shielding," E. F. Gorman, Ibid., 41 (8}, 728-734, 1962.
"Western European Techniques in Electroslag Welding," F. G. Danhier, Ibid., 41
(1), 17-23, 1962.
"Inert Gases for Controlled-Atmosphere Processes," E. F. Gorman, Ibid., 37 (9),
882-889, 1958.
"Why Constant Voltage?" G. Williams, Welding Engineer, 1957.
"New Power Sources for Metal-Arc Gas-Shield Welding," A. U. Welch, Welding
Journal, 36 (1}, 36-40, 1957.
"Power Supplies for Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding," A. Lesnewich and E. Cush-
man, Ibid., 35 (7}, 655-664, 1956.
"How to Choose an Arc Welder," A. F. Leach, Mill and Factory, 86-89 (February)
and 118-120 (March), 1956.
"Characteristics of a Rectifier-Type Constant-Voltage Power Supply," J. W. Poma-
zal, Welding Journal, 35 (2), 142-144, 1956.
"New NEMA Standard for D-C Motors and Generators," J. F. Davis, Electrical
Engineering, 1080-1085 (December), 1955.
"Arc Welding Power Sources," J. H. Blankenbuehler, Welding Engineer (Novem-
ber), 1955.
"Metallic Rectification for Arc Welders," G. K. Willecke, Welding Journal, 34 (3),
231-236, 1955.
"Current Rectification and High-Frequency Interference in Inert-Gas Welding,"
J. G. Murray, Ibid., 33 (6), 561-563, 1954.
"Recommended Installation and Test Procedures for High-Frequency-Stabilized
Arc Welders," NEMA, 1953.
"Dynamic Characteristics of D-C Welding Machines," C. H. Jennings, AWS Adams
Lecture, 1950.
"A-C Arc Welders with Saturable Reactor Control," S. Oestreicher, AlEE Trans-
actions, 1950.
"Arc Welding Machine Characteristics as They Affect the Welding Arc," G. R.
Wagner, Ibid., 1950.
"Design Features of a Welding Generator," J. M. Tyrner and 0. Kobel, Welding
Journal, 29 (5), 399-402, 1950.
"Power Supply for Inert-Arc Welding," A. U. Welch, AlEE Transactions, 1948.
"Alternating and Direct Current Welding," L. Cline, Welding Journal, 25 (1),
51-52, 1946.
"That Problem of Power Factor," J. H. Blankenbuehler, Welding Engineer (March),
1948.
"Capacitor Stabilization of Arc Welding Transformers," J. H. Blankenbuehler and
R. V. Lester, Electrical Engineering (February), 1946.
_ _ _ _ ,CHAPTER 26
SPOT, SEAM AND
PROJECTION WELDING
Fundamentals of Processes 26.2

Spot Welding 26.22
Roll-Resistance Spot Welding 26.28
Seam Welding 26.28
Projection Welding 26.35
Effects of Processes on Materials 26.44
Common Applications 26.53
Recommended Practices for Spot, Seam and Projection Welding 26.56
Bibliography 26.86
J. M. DIEBOLD J.P. THORNE

Ford Motor Co.-Chairman National Electric Welding Machines Co.
M. A. GUETTEL H. F. ZIMMERMAN
Square D Company General Electric Co.
DR. A. D. THOMAS
1 racor, inc.
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 26
SPOT, SEAM AND
PROJECTION WELDING
FUNDAMENT ALS OF PROCESSES
SPOT, ROLL-SPOT, seam and projection welding comprise the group of resist-
ance welding processes wherein the required heat at the joints to be welded is
generated by the resistance offered through the work parts to the relatively
short-time flow of low-voltage, high-density electric current. Force is always
applied before, during and after the application of current to assure a continuous
electrical circuit and to forge the heated parts together. The maximum tempera-
ture achieved is ordinarily above the melting point of the base metal. Equipment
and controls employed to achieve these ends are described in Chapter 28,
Resistance Welding Equipment. The standard definitions relating to these
processes are:
Spot W eld.-A weld made between or upon overlapping members wherein
coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces or may have proceeded
from the surface of one member. The weld cross section (plan view) is ap-
proximately circular.
Roll Resistance-Spot Welding.-The making of separated resistance-spot
welds with one or more rotating circular electrodes. The rotation of the elec-
trodes may or may not be stopped during the making of a weld.
Seam W eld.-A continuous weld made between or upon overlapping mem-
bers, wherein coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces, or may
have proceeded from the surface of one member. The continuous weld may
consist of a single weld bead or a series of overlapping spot welds.
Projection W elding.-A resistance welding process wherein coalescence is
Jilroduced by the heat obtained from resistance to electric current through the
workparts held together under pressure by electrodes. The resulting welds are
Fundamentals of Process J 26.3
localized at predetermined points by the design of the parts to be welded. The

localization is usually accomplished by projections, embossments or inter-
sections.
The important distinction between spot and seam welding is that in spot
welding the electrodes are retracted after each individual weld, or after each
simultaneously completed group of welds, whereas in seam welding, at least
one rotating electrode is against the work under continuous pressure, making a
seam weld. Seam welds are less efficiently produced by making tangent or
overlapping spot welds with a spot welding machine.
Spot welds may be made with a seam welding machine by suitably adjusting
the speed of the circular electrode and current interruptions. This procedure
is known as roll-resistance spot welding. Spot welds may also be made by
individually retracting the seam welding electrodes after each weld.
Projection welds are made by localizing the welding pressure, welding current
and heating during welding at one or more predetermined points by the con-
figuration or design of one or more of the parts being welded. The pointed or
domed electrodes employed in spot welding are not used. Machines and controls
similar to those employed for spot welding are used.
Characteristic differences between the spot, seam and projection welding
processes are shown in Fig. 26.1.
Spot, roll-resistance spot and seam welds may be made on material as· low as
0.001 in. in thickness. Spot welding may be used on joints having members as
thick as 1 in., although the bulk of all spot welding is done on material less
than 1/4 in. thick. Seam welding is most commonly done on material less than
1/8 in. thick. Projection welding is best suited for thicknesses of 0.02 in. and
up. All materials require precise control for production of uniform welds.
WELDING CYCLE
In the process of spot welding, the sequence of which is shown graphically

in Figs. 26.2 and 26.3, there are four definite stages of time:
1. Squeeze time-the time between the initial application of the electrode
force on the work and the first application of current in making spot and
seam welds by resistance welding and in projection or upset welding.
2. Weld time-the time that welding current is applied to the work in
making a weld by single-impulse or flash welding.
PROJECTION
~s
~
~ AFTER
WELDING
SPOT WELD SEAM WELD PROJECTION WELD
Fig. 26.1.--Comparison of spot, seam and projection welding

26.4 / Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
aiCTIIODE FORCE
SOUNOID VALVE
COR. VOLTAGE 1\J\/V\f\
TIMER --
1
t---wao---+-- HOLD--+---
TIMER
INITIATED
MACHINE OPERAnNG TIME
Fig. 26.2.-Graphical representation of simple resistance welding cycle; simulates

functions of NEMA type N2 control
3. Hold time-the time during which force is applied at the point of welding
after the last impulse of current ceases in resistance welding.
4. Off time-the time during which the electrodes are off the work in resist-
ance welding. The term is generally applied where the welding cycle is
repetitive.
Figure 26.4 illustrates a single-impulse welding cycle with up and down slope
control.
CURRENT
Three types of current supply systems generally are used: ( 1) alternating-

current systems, (2) direct-current systems, (3) stored-energy current systems.
WELDING PROCESS
TIMES -
SOLENOID
VALVE
VOLTAGE
SOOEEZE"
Y•MACHINE OPERATING TIME

UC FORGE SOLENOID VOLTAGE SHOWN
Fig. 26.3.-Graphical representation of complex resistance welding cycle; single

impulse simulates functions of NEMA type N2UDFTPZ or S2UDFTPZ
MAXIMUM
CURRENT
t------------WELD TIME----
Fig. 26.4.-Welding current with slope control; simulates functions of NEMA type
NJAUD or SJUD
Alternating Current
By far the majority of resistance welding machines operate on single-phase
alternating current of the power line frequency, usually 60 Hz (cycles per
second) throughout the U.S. and Canada. This method incorporates a single-
phase transformer to convert the power line voltage to a low voltage, normally
in the range of 1.0 to 25.0 volts, and to provide the high currents required.
Depending upon the thickness and type of material to be welded, currents may
be from 1000 to as much as 100,000 amperes or more. The general electrical
power connection is shown in Fig. 26.5.
A second type of a-c system is the three-phase frequency changer. In this
equipment, line frequency power is converted to lower frequencies by controlled
pulses of rectified current supplied to a special transformer connection resulting
in the low-frequency current output to the weld. Welding frequencies in the
order of 3 to 60 Hz are commonly used. The weld may be generated with one
low-frequency impulse, or with a series of impulses.
High-frequency resistance welding is a third alternating-current method.
Welding current frequencies on the order of 450,000 Hz are used, delivered
WELDING TRANSFORMER _1_ -- HORN ELECTRODES
I I
FROM
1 PHASE
POWER LINE
Fig. 26.5.-Typical spot welding circuit

26.6 j Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
by a power unit somewhat similar to a radio frequency transmitter. A special

transformer closely coupled to the weld area provides current to the parts
through contact shoes or an induction coil. This method is mostly used for
applications of continuous seam or butt-seam welding.
Direct Current
Direct-current systems considered here are of the direct-energy category insofar
as energy is delivered directly from the power line and rectifier to direct current
on the secondary side of the welding transformer. Various types of rectifiers
have been used, however water-cooled silicon diodes have evolved to become
the most widely accepted because of inherent reliability and efficiency. The
normal system is a three-phase rectifier connection with multiple diodes in
parallel in the secondary to convert to the high direct-current values.
Stored Energy
There are many types of stored-energy systems, most of which should be
mentioned; however, it should be understood that these systems are generally
obsolete except for the capacitor type predominately used in present-day
production for welding in the small electronic parts industry.
The capacitor stored-energy type involves charging a group of capacitors
from a high-voltage rectifier unit, and subsequent discharge of the energy from
the capacitors through a welding transformer. A unidirectional pulse of current
results to drive the weld. Most systems maintain unipolarity current direction,
although means can be provided to reverse the polarity for each following weld.
Other stored-energy systems are: storage batteries, electromagnetic-type
systems and the homopolar generator. Although some of these are still in use,
they have very limited application in production today.
TIME
The time of current application, hereinafter referred to as time or weld time.

for both alternating and direct current of the nonsurge types is controlled and
varied by electronic, mechanical, manual or pneumatic means. Times commonly
ranging down to one half-cycle of 60 cycle frequency are used for the thinnest
sheets and as long as several seconds for thicker plates, depending somewhat
upon the metal being welded. For the capacitor and magnetic types of stored-
energy systems the weld time is determined by the electrical constant of the
system. Welding currents are varied not only in length of total interval from
the start of welding current to the end of welding current, but also in the order
of their application, as shown in Fig. 26.6.
Single Impulse
The use of one single, continuous application of one half, or more, cycles of
current to make an individual weld is called single-impulse welding. Up or down
slope control may be added and may be selected separately.
Mu:tiple Impulse
Multiple-impulse welding consists of two or more applications of current,
each of which flows for a duration of one-half or more cycles, separated by an
SINGLE IMPULSE
WELD
oAAA~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~A~ SINGLE IMPULSE WITH UP AND DOWN SLOPE

Vl ~ ~r~ n~n~~~ ~r H~~HH
UP SLOPE WELD DOWN SLOPE
Vv~VNv - ~H~~~
T:JITITf
MuLTIPLE IMPuLsE wnH PREHEAT
OFF
PREHEAT (IF ANY) WELD
- - - -· - - MULTIPLE IMPULSE WITH llUEIICII MD TE11PE11
WELD QUENCH TEMPER
_
.-4MAA,-- . ~~~u. )JW,__ AAAAA MULTIPLE IMPULSE WITH
J vvv vv o~ ) ~m~.rOF--;vmr PREHEAT, QUENCH AND TEMPER
SQUEEZE (IF ANY) QUENCH (IF ANY) REFINE
PREHEAT WELD TEMPER
MULTIPLE IMPULSE
-JJJlL -
~~\~~A JilliL
_illll_
--vvvrr ---vmT lVVVf
(PULSATION WELDING)
~"WELD PERIOD" EQUALS SUM OF
"ON" AND "OFF" TIMES
ON OFF FOUR PULSATIONS
Fig. 26.6.-Variations in current-time arrangements
off period of a predetermined amount. This timing may be used for welding in
several ways.
A series of on-off impulses of current, of the same magnitudes and of one-
half or more cycles' duration each, may be employed to build up the required
welding temperature slowly. This is called pulsation welding when applied to
the spot or projection welding process, and interrupted timing when applied to
the seam welding process.
A series of on-off impulses of current of selected varied levels and lengths
may be used. The functions of each successive level are: (1 ) to preheat the
material, (2) to form the weld, (3) to temper the quenched structure and (4)
to refine the grain structure. Any two of these functions in addition to the
second may be employed.
There are two important time intervals in addition to the total interval be-
tween the first initiation and final termination of welding current. The period
before the initial current application, or the squeeze time, is the interval between
the instant the electrode contacts the work and the initial application of the
current. A finite interval is required because the pressure is not instantaneously
built up to its required value. The second time interval occurs between the final
current termination and the instant of pressure release from the electrodes.
This interval, known as hold time, is required to permit solidification of the
weld ingot under pressure. If the current is inadvertently applied either imme-
diately before the electrodes contact the work or during the electrode retraction,
a low-voltage, high-amperage arc will momentarily occur between the electrodes
and the work destroying the electrode tip contour and damaging the work
surface.
ELECTRODE FORCE
Completion of the electrical circuit between the electrodes and through the
work is assured by the continuous application of a clamping pressure. This
pressure is exerted on the work through electrodes by the use of manual, hy-
draulic, pneumatic, magnetic or mechanical means. For a given material com-
position and thickness, the higher the magnitude of the applied force, the more
it serves to: ( 1) bring the various interfaces into intimate contact, (2) reduce
initial contact resistance between the interfaces as well as between the exterior
surfaces and contacting electrodes, (3) require and permit the use of higher
secondary current and ( 4) reduce porosity and internal ingot cracking.
The force throughout the squeeze, weld and hold times may be applied in
the following magnitudes:
1. A constant single force throughout.
2. A double force with a high initial value for reducing initial contact re-
sistance and for bringing the parts into intimate contact, followed by a
lesser force permitting the use of a smaller current for welding.
3. A triple force, the first two forces of which are applied in a manner
similar to that described in item 2, and followed by reapplication of an
equal or even higher force than the first near the end of the current flow
to reduce porosity and internal ingot cracking.
4. A double force with the current applied first with a suitably low pressure,
followed by a higher pressure near termination of current flow to reduce
welding current and reduce porosity and cracking.
5. A double force with the current applied first with a suitably low pressure,
followed by a rising, magnetically applied pressure which is synchronized
and related to the instantaneous weld current to reduce the welding cur-
rent and to reduce porosity and internal ingot cracking.
There are practical limits to each of these possibilities. For example, the use
of insufficient pressure during welding will result in high contact resistance,
causing excessive surface heating even with currents too low to form satisfactory
welds.
ELECTRODES
Resistance welding electrodes perform four functions:
Fundamentals of Process/ 26.0
1. They conduct the total welding current to the work and determine the
current density in the weld zone. (In projection welding, the current
density is not necessarily determined by the electrodes.)
2. They transmit the force to the weld area and determine the pressure in
the weld zone.
3. They dissipate the heat from the weld zone, thus preventing surface
fusion of the work, and also help to generate heat balance at the weld
zone. (See section below on Heat Generation.)
4. They maintain alignment of the work and often act as work locators in
projection welding.
The first of these functions is electrical. If the application of pressure were
not involved for mechanical reasons, suitable electrode selection could be made
almost entirely on the basis of electrical and thermal conductivity, taking into
account the resistance of the electrode itself and the resistance at the area of
contact between the electrode and the work surface.
The second function is mechanical. During welding operations the electrodes
are subjected to stresses that are often of considerable magnitude. They must
withstand these stresses at elevated temperatures without excessive deformation.
Maintenance of proper electrode shape is important because the current not only
must be conducted to the work, but also must be localized within a fixed area.
The transmitted pressure forges the heated workpieces together and restricts
the passage of welding current to a fixed area.
Successful execution of any resistance welding operation, however simple or
complicated it may be, is dependent upon the proper functioning of the elec-
trodes. Recent developments have made it more evident than ever that good
resistance welding requires precision. The welding equipment is designed to
furnish the electrical and mechanical systems and the sequencing of each. It
becomes the over-all function of the electrodes to conduct the current and to
withstand the high pressures, in order to maintain a uniform contact area and
to ensure the continued proper relationship between correctly selected current
and pressure. Uniform contacting areas should therefore be maintained.
When only one spot or seam weld is to be made at a time, only one pair of
electrodes is used. In this case, the full magnitude of the force and current is
applied by shaped electrodes to the individual weld being made. Only one pair
of electrodes need be used for making several closely spaced projection welds.
The operations of spot, roll-resistance spot, seam and projection welding in-
volve a coordinated application of current of the proper magnitude for the
correct length of time. This current must pass through a closed circuit. Its con-
tinuity is assured by forces applied to the electrodes, which are shaped to provide
the necessary current and pressure densities. The entire sequence of operations
is required to develop sufficient heat to raise a confined volume of metal to its
plastic state, and then cool this metal, under pressure, to a temperature at which
it has adequate strength to hold the parts together. The achieved temperature
must be such that fusion or incipient fusion is obtained, but not high enough
to force molten metal from the weld zone. The rates of the temperature rise
and fall must be sufficiently rapid to obtain commercial welding speeds, but
neither rate may be permitted to be so rapid that either inconsistent or brittl~
welds will be produced. The rates of rise and fall of temperature and the time
at temperature are determined by the characteristics of the metals being welded
and by the capacity of the available equipment.
The heat required for any resistance welding process is produced by the
resistance offered to the passage of an electric current through the workpieces,
in exactly the same manner as in any other electrical heating device. Since the
ohmic resistance of any resistance weld is low, high welding currents are re-
quired to develop the necessary welding heat.
The total heat in watt-seconds generated in the work being welded and in
welding electrodes is expressed by the formula:
H = J2Rt
where I is current in amperes, R is the summation of the contact resistances,
the resistance of the work to be welded and the electrode resistance in ohms,
and t is the time in seconds.
Mechanical Characteristics
Spot, seam and projection welding machines have essentially the same manner
of mechanical operation. The electrodes approach and retract from the work
at properly controlled times and rates, and the clamping force of the electrodes
is applied in the meantime by manual, pneumatic, magnetic or mechanical
means. The rate of electrode approach must be rapid, but controlled so that
the electrode faces are not hammered out of shape. The locally heated work-
parts both expand and contract during the welding operation, and the electrodes,
under pressure, are in dynamic motion. The rate of changes of motion is in-
fluenced by the weight of moving parts, or inertia, and by friction between the
moving and fixed parts. Under these conditions adequate pressures must be
maintained.
Two parallel conductors carrying current in opposite directions, as shown in
Fig. 26.5, are mutually repelled. The repelling force tends to push the electrodes
apart. To prevent the electrodes from actually leaving the work, the total force
applied must be greater than the repelling force. In addition, this force must be
sufficient to press the parts together when they become molten or plastic. If the
height of the embossments in a projection weld is 0.025 in., and the two pieces
are to be welded flush in one cycle, with the actual time the metals are plastic
approximately one half of the total time the current is applied, or 1/120 second,
the net force available for accelerating the electrodes during the I I 120 second
must be sufficient to cause the electrodes to travel 0.025 in., the height of the
embossment. The accelerating force, together with the momentum of the head
weight itself, must not be great enough to deform the contacting tips of the
electrodes or to flatten and crush the parts to be welded. This would negate the
value of the short time at temperature needed to make such a weld.
When the electrodes do not follow through as fast as the materials melt,
excessive surface heating may occur, and an arc may form between the elec-
trodes and the work. The arc burns or pits the electrode faces and causes them
to stick. If the delay is long enough, the parts being welded may vaporize
because of the additional heat owing to the increased resistance, which is caused
by the low electrode pressure. This may happen with explosive violence. The
condition is greatly aggravated in some metals, such as brass or aluminum,
where the time at temperature required to change them from the solid to the
liquid state, or from the liquid to the vapor state~ i~ very short.
High-speed follow-up, low-inertia head machines have been developed and

are available for the welding of such nonferrous metals as aluminum and brass,
and are also useful on other materials. A properly designed lower arm of ade-
quate rigidity to prevent deflection in excess of the upper arm is needed to
prevent lateral electrode skidding.
Electrical Characteristics
Sufficient voltage should be available in the electrical system to provide the
required rms current at the work in order to produce a weld of desired size. The
voltage necessary to produce this required current is determined by the geometry
of the secondary circuit (i.e., the size of the secondary loop), the electrical
conductivity of the conductor in this circuit and the summation of the contact
joint resistances and the resistance of the work. This voltage is referred to as
the secondary open-circuit voltage; when multiplied by the welding current
(secondary current) and divided by 1000, it gives the demand kva of the weld-
ing transformer. The output or demand rating (kva) of a welding transformer
is usually many times its thermal rating, since the welding current flows for a
small part of the total time. The duty cycle of a transformer is defined as the
percentage of time in each one-minute period that the transformer is actually
carrying current. It may be expressed by the following formula:
rr~ D u ty eye1e = Current on-time X 100

Current on-time + Current off-time
-;o -----~----
It is standard practice to rate welding transformers on a 50% duty cycle. A

100 kva transformer can carry a 100 kva load for 30 seconds of each one-minute
period. It is often necessary to find the permissible kva output of a welding
transformer while it is operating at a certain duty cycle, or to find the permis-
sible duty cycle at which a welding transformer can operate while supplying a
known kva demand. These can both be found easily by the use of the curve
shown in Fig. 26.7, which gives the percent load allowable at various duty cycles.
The following general principles may be stated:
1. With a given secondary voltage, the welding current decreases as the
throat depth is increased (Fig. 26.5).
2. The power factor (cosine of angle a, Fig. 26.8) usually decreases with
increasing throat depth and throat gap. The effect of the latter is greater.
3. With the welding of increasingly heavier materials that do not extend
into the throat, the reactance is not appreciably changed but the resistance
and the power factor increase.
4. With the insertion of magnetic materials into the throat of the machine,
the reactance is significantly increased and thus reduces welding current.
Power Requirements
Where power problems exist, welding machines can be provided utilizing
three-phase power to considerably reduce the high electrical load and improve
the power factor. These are the energy storage type, the frequency converter
type and the rectifier type of equipment. Series capacitors sometimes can be used
for special cases.
In general, the source of power should be adequate and stable to the extent
400
JSO
300
.."" 250
-
~
-...
~
""""
z:
200
~
w
lSO
100
50
0 20 40 60 80 100
_P_m m !I~TY CYCLE

Fig. 26.7.-0perating duty cycle vs. percent nameplate rating
that variations in power-supply voltage are not more than ± 10 percent. It is

important to provide constant voltage and current to the primary of the weld-
ing transformer to obtain uniformity of secondary current at the weld.
Heat Generation
The secondary circuit of a resistance welding machine, including the work
being welded, is considered as a series of resistances, the arithmetical total of
which, in each circuit, affects the flow of current. The current flow in amperes
must be the same in all parts of each circuit regardless of the resistance at any
point in the circuit, but the heat generation at any point will be directly propor-
tional to the resistance at that point. Thus, it is possible to design an electrical
circuit to produce heat exactly where it is wanted, leaving the connecting parts
of the same circuit relatively cool.
An important characteristic of resistance welding is the rapidity with which
this heat can be produced. The composite effects of heat generated and lost in
the part of the secondary circuit embracing the work and electrode tips are
illustrated in Fig. 26.9. There are, in effect, at least seven resistances connected
Fundamentals of Process J 26.13
~
z:
....
<
...
~
R=RESISTANCE
Fig. 26.8.-Relationship between resistance, reactance and impedance
in series for any one weld, and there are more for joints of multiple thickness.
For a two-thickness joint, these are: (1) upper electrode, (2) contact between
upper electrode and upper sheet, ( 3) body of upper sheet, ( 4) contact between
upper and lower sheets (interfaces) , ( 5) body of lower sheet, ( 6) contact
between lower sheet and lower.electrode and (7) lower electrode.
Not all the heat is generated at the proper point, the juncture of the work-
parts. The flow of heat to or from this point, which in turn assists or retards the
creation of the proper localized welding heat, is governed by the temperature
gradient established by the welding current acting on the various resistive
components.
Heat will be generated in each of the seven sections in Fig. 26.9 in proportion
to the resistance of each. Welding heat, however, is required only on plane 4,
and efforts should be made to reduce the heat as much as possible at all other
points. The temperature at all parts at the start of the weld is represented by
the solid vertical line. Since the greatest resistance is at plane 4, heat is most
rapidly developed at that location. Points of next greatest resistance are 2 and 6.
The temperature rises rapidly at these points also, but not as fast as at plane 4.
WATER
20% OF
WELD TIME
WATER
:____ _ ___.TEMPERATURE
WATER
Fig. 26.9.-Temperature distribution in spot welding

26.14 /Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
After a low percentage of the total time allowed for the weld, the heat gradient
probably corresponds to the jagged line shown at the far right in Fig. 26.9. Heat
generated at 2 and 6 is rapidly dissipated into the contacting liquid-cooled elec-
trodes 1 and 7, whereas the heat at 4 is partially trapped and dissipation is much
slower. Therefore, as the weld time progresses, the rate of rise for plane 4 will
be much more rapid than for 2 or 6. The welding temperature is indicated by
the vertical dotted line. In a perfectly controlled weld the welding temperature
would first be reached by pinpoints on the interfaces, which would grow into a
nugget with the progress of time.
Factors affecting the amount of heat being produced in the weld by a given
current for a unit of time are: ( 1) the electrical resistance of the materials
being welded, (2) the electrical resistance of the electrode materials, (3) the
contact resistance between workparts as determined by surface conditions, scale,
welding pressure, etc. and ( 4) the contact resistance between the electrodes and
the workparts as determined by surface conditions, area of electrode contact
and welding pressure.
Influence of Current.-In the heat formula, H = J2RT, it should be noted
that current has the greatest effect on the generation of heat. Current, therefore,
is the variable to be controlled most carefully. Some factors that cause variation
in secondary currrent are: (1) fluctuations in line voltage and (2) variations in
secondary impedance caused, when a-c machines are used, by variations in
geometry of the throat and the introduction of varying amounts of magnetic
materials into the secondary loop of the machine. Direct-current machines
would not be affected by magnetic materials in the machine throat, and are
little affected by throat geometry. In addition to variations in magnitude of
delivered current, variations in current density are produced at the weld interface.
This is caused by the shunting of current through preceding welds and through
metallic contact at points other than between the clamping electrodes (Fig.
26.10.). Mushroomed or oversized electrodes result in reduction of welding
heat and weld properties by reductions in current density.
A finite amount of current is always required before any weld is formed.
Once incipient fusion temperature is reached, however, the weld nugget size and
strength increase rapidly with slight further increases in current. Excessive
amounts of current result in weld expulsion, cavitation, weld cracking and re-
duced mechanical properties. Typical variations in shear strength of a spot
weld, as a function of current magnitude, are shown in Fig. 26.11.
Influence of Time.-The rate of heat generation must be such that the weld-
ing will be achieved in the required interval with proper compensation for heat
losses. The total heat developed is a linear function of time. The losses are
caused by conduction into the surrounding workparts and into the electrodes,
as well as by radiation from the workparts into the surrounding air. Although
Fig. 26.10.-Current distribution in spot welding

these losses increase with increases

in total time, they are essentially Y- ......._
/--- -- f--
noncontrollable. / "0
In the heat gradient curve in Fig. /
26.9, time moves to the left from the /
starting point (solid vertical line). If B
the time is continued beyond the 1/
point shown in the figure, the tem-
perature of plane 4 will exceed the
melting point and, at some points, C=EXPULSION BEGINS
pass the boiling point of the work-
pieces. Gas pockets, which ~y Aj
result in the expulsion of minute
CURRENT
particles, or spitting, will be caused.
If the contact planes 2 and 6 are Fig. 26.11.-Current influence on spot
scaly or pitted, the same thing may shear strength in material over 1I 16 in.
happen there. A continued applica- thick
tion of current will cause the peaks to be less pronounced, the nugget will
grow completely to the electrode faces, and volumes 3 and 5 will become
plastic. This may result in severe embedding of the electrodes, particularly
for high face angles. Furthermore, the heat-affected zone will extend far
into the sheets beyond the electrodes. Finite values of time are required before
any weld nugget is formed. The exact minimum length depends upon current
magnitudes, material thickness and composition. In most cases, at some period
during an extended welding interval, the heat losses will equal the heat input,
thus stopping further temperature rise. The relationship between weld time and
spot weld shear strength is shown in Fig. 26.12.
24
s1TRENGTH .._ D
1:::::- ~
20
......-
....
:z:
!j
"'
~
16
I I 4 ~
II
C>
C>
:z: C>
...;:: I
0
..."' 12
)
>
..... OPTIMUM
...
0 191 31
:z:
UJ
I I
I
v
:::
i I
UJ
8
'<. l
VARIATION
/
0 A
a} ~
0
0 16 24 32 40
TIME (CYCLES-60 CPS)
Fig. 26.12 .-Relationship between weld time and spot
weld shear strength
Since the heat generated is proportional to the square of the current, if losses
are neglected, doubling the current will quadruple the heat developed over any
period of time. To a certain extent, time and current may be complementary.
A desired change of total heat may be secured either by a change of current or
by a change of time. Heat transfer, however, is a function of time, and the
development of the proper nugget size requires a finite length of time, regardless
of any increase in current. The first effects of insufficient time are noticed when
heat is generated too rapidly at the contacting surfaces, resulting in pitting and
spitting, especially at the electrode contacting surfaces.
When heavy plates are spot welded, the current is commonly applied in sev-
eral relatively short impulses or pulsations without removal of electrode pres-
sure. By reference to Fig. 26.9 the cumulative results of these several impulses
can be observed. It is desired to build up the central peak and retard the elec-
trode face peaks. On certain occasions, given proper heat balance, a continuation
of impulses causes a more rapid rise at this central peak than at the electrode
faces. This is aided by the quenching action of the high-conductivity electrode
material.
Influence of Net Welding Force and Pressure.-The variable R in the heat
equation is influenced by electrode pressure through its effect on contact re-
sistance. Force is considered to be the net dynamic force of the electrodes upon
the work, and it is the resultant pressure that varies the resistance.
Pieces to be spot, seam or projection welded must be held together at the
weld area to enable the passage of the current. The amount of this pressure
determines, to some extent, the total resistance between the electrodes and,
therefore, the amount of current flowing through the weld. Everything else
being equal, as the pressure is increased the current also increases, and vice
versa. The effect on the total heat generated, however, may be the reverse.
As the pressure is increased, the contacting surface resistance is decreased,
often necessitating an increase in secondary voltage to provide more current to
compensate for the reduced resistance.
Most of the secondary impedance is made up of the larger reactance and
resistance components of the machine. The resistance of the work is a small
percentage of the whole, in magnitude, and still smaller in vector sum. Thus,
pressure changes have little effect on impedance and, therefore, on the welding
current. This is illustrated by the relatively small effect of pressure variations
on heat generated, since the J2 quantity is little affected and R is the only
quantity manifesting this change of pressure.
If the surfaces of metal sheets are highly magnified, they appear somewhat
like a washboard or choppy body of water. When they are subjected to light
pressure, the actual metal-to-metal contact may be only a small percentage of
the nominal area of contacting surface. As the pressure is increased, these high
spots are depressed. The actual metal-to-metal contact is increased, thus de-
creasing the contact resistance. The ideal solution would be to control sepa-
rately the force exerted at the interfaces and the force exerted at the outside
surfaces of the sheets. This is achieved in projection welding. Except for a few
applications, the electrode material is softer than the workpieces. Consequently,
the application of a given force may result in better contact at the electrode
contacting surfaces than at the interfaces.
Standard welding machines are provided with sufficient adjustment to cover
a wide range of both force and current control. These ranges are balanced in
accordance with sound engineering, economic and commercial practices.
When the electrodes are slow in following any sudden decrease of total work
thickness, a momentary reduction in pressure will occur. The usual causes of
a sudden lessening in work thickness are weld overheating and possibly an
expulsion of metal. Rapid contraction following current termination may also
occur where short-time welds and thin materials are involved because of their
high rate of cooling.
A momentary reduction in pressure while the current is flowing causes in-
creased surface contact resistance, with a resultant increased rate of heat gen-
eration. Between the workparts the greater rate of heat generation causes, or
tends to cause, further and more violent expulsion of metal. Beneath the elec-
trode tips the increased heat tends to cause the following: melting of the weld
through to the exterior surfaces, pitting and loss of corrosion resistance of the
surface, and marked reduction in electrode life.
Another consequence of the reduction of applied pressure is the expulsion
of molten metal from within the weld. Molten metal is retained by a ring of
unfused metal surrounding the weld nugget at the interfaces, because of the
pressing action of electrode force. A momentary reduction in electrode force
permits the internal metal pressure to rupture this surrounding ring of unfused
metal.
Pressures that are too high are likely to cause objectionable distortion.
Influence of Electrodes.-Commercially pure copper is an excellent electrical
conductor. It was used extensively for resistance welding electrodes until other
materials possessing adequate electrical conductivity, together with superior
mechanical properties, became available. Because of the development of pro-
cedures that utilize higher currents, higher pressures and greater welding
speeds, the use of pure copper as an electrode material has been almost dis-
continued.
The principal difficulty with cold-drawn copper is its low resistance to both
static and dynamic compressive forces and its low annealing temperature evi-
denced by its mushrooming. Although the welding current is usually considered
in terms of total current in amperes, in a closer analysis it must be considered
in terms of current per unit area of electrode contact. A welding electrode
with a specified contact area, which will produce a current density in the work
of a satisfactory number of amperes per square inch, should be used for any
given welding conditions. The electrode face becomes mushroomed by con-
tinued use. This results in an increased diameter and area, which in turn de-
creases the current density (amperes per square inch).
To overcome these objectionable features of commercially pure copper, a
number of copper alloys of superior physical and mechanical properties have
been developed. Generally speaking, the harder the alloy, the greater its elec-
trical and thermal resistance. Therefore, the choice of the proper alloy for any
application is governed by a comparison of its electrical and thermal properties
with its mechanical qualities. Electrodes for aluminum welding, for instance,
provide high conductivity at the expense of high compressive strength. Elec-
trodes for welding stainless steel, on the other hand, sacrifice high conductivity
to obtain maximum compressive strength.
Resistance to mushrooming depends on the proportional limit and the hard-
ness of the copper-base alloys. The proportional limit is largely a matter of heat
treatment. The temperature of the body of the electrode is relatively unim-
portant, since the governing factor is the temperature of the contacting surface.
This is where the annealing and mushrooming take place.
The size and shape of electrodes are usually determined by the size and shape
of the work to be welded. Spot and seam welding electrodes for ordinary work
should be either domed or flat faced, with low angles of face taper, and should
be of sufficient size to carry their electrical, thermal and mechanical loads.
Influence of Surface Conditions.-The surface conditions of the parts being
welded influence the heat generation through the resistance of the contacting
surfaces, 2, 4 and 6 in Fig. 26.9. The most uniform results are obtained when
all these surfaces are clean.
The welding of any kind of material with nonuniform oxides, scale or other
foreign material on the surfaces produces unpredictable results. Scale on the
work surfaces also becomes embedded in the electrode faces, causing rapid
electrode deterioration. The greatest trouble from oil and grease is the pickup
of dirt, which also causes electrode deterioration.
Influence of Metal Composition.-The specific electric resistivity of a metal
directly influences the magnitude of the value R in the heat formula and, con-
sequently, of the temperature for a given current, as shown in Fig. 26.9. Re-
sistivity is the inverse of conductivity. In high-conductivity metals, such as
silver and copper, little heat is developed even under high current densities.
Since the thermal conductivity of these metals also is high, the small amount of
heat generated is rapidly transmitted into the surrounding work and into the
electrodes.
The composition of a metal determines specific heat, melting point, latent
heat of fusion, thermal conductivity and density and, consequently, the total
amount of heat that must be generated to bring it to its melting point. The
amounts of heat necessary to raise unit masses of most commercially available
metals to the fusion temperature are very nearly the same. For example, two
metals differing as widely in spot welding characteristics as stainless steel and
aluminum require the same number of Btu's per pound of material to reach
fusion temperature. The thermal conductivity of aluminum, however, is ten
times greater than that of stainless steel. Many more Btu's must be generated
in the aluminum spot weld than in the stainless steel weld to compensate for
the greater heat losses into the electrodes and surrounding metal. Also, the
electrical resistance of aluminum is about 10% that of stainless steel. In the
heat equation, therefore, the welding current for aluminum must be consider-
ably greater than that used for stainless steel.
The composition of a metal also influences the temperature range over which
it is in the readily molded state. This is the range in temperature between the
point of softening and melting. Steel begins to soften at about 1500° F (815° C)
and actually melts, or becomes liquid, at about 2200° F (1200° C). For this
reason the conditions for welding steel are not critical-any two pieces can be
welded over a wide range of current, time and pressure. Aluminum has a very
short plastic range and, to secure good results, the welding variables must be
closely controlled.
The composition of a metal also affects the temperature range between solidus
and liquidus. In this range it is possible to produce plastic fusion welds or
recrystallization across the interface. Composition also affects the surface con-
ditions at this plastic range. Aluminum or chromium, for example, produces an
oxide protective film that interferes with welding. In wrought iron the slag acts
as a flux at this forging temperature, making plastic or solid phase welding easy.
Heat Balance.-lf two pieces of equal composition and thickness are welded
Fundamentals of Process j 26.19
together with electrodes of equal mass and contour, heat will be generated in
both pieces uniformly, and the weld cross section will be of the typical oval
shape. When this condition exists, there is a correct heat balance. However, if
one of the pieces has a higher electrical resistivity than the other, heat will be
generated more rapidly in that piece than in the other, resulting in a less than
perfect weld corresponding to the amount of heat unbalance. When dissimilar
metals, such as carbon steel and stainless steel, are welded, the dissimilarity
can be compensated for either by increasing the contacting electrode area on
the high-resistivity stainless steel side or by using an electrode material of higher
resistance on the low-resistivity carbon steel side.
The same considerations, in a general way, hold true for similar metals of
unequal thickness. When ratios of dissimilarity of thickness are higher, the
proximity of the cooled electrode to the thinner part often results in the failure
to generate sufficient heat at the interfaces. Proper heat balance can be achieved
by using a smaller contacting electrode area on the thinner side of the joint,
with short times and high current densities.
Electrode d1ameters are usually given for various work thicknesses within a
narrow range, and if the proper sizes are used for each thickness, the heat
balance may be considered satisfactory.
Heat Dissipation.-In the formula for heat generated there is usually a correc-
tive factor for radiation or dissipation of heat from the weld. This heat dissipation
continues at a varying rate from the instant of current application until the weld
has cooled back to room temperature. A study of heat dissipation should be
divided into two phases: during the time of current application and after the
cessation of current flow. The extent of the first phase depends upon the com-
position of the metal, the mass of pieces, the welding time and the external
cooling means. The composition and mass of the workpieces cannot be con-
trolled, but the external cooling means can.
The heat generated for a given amount of current is inversely proportional
to the electrical conductivity. The thermal conductivity determines the rate at
which this heat is dissipated or conducted from the weld. These two factors
run closely parallel in most metals. In a high-conductivity metal, such as copper,
the small quantity of heat generated is dissipated at a rapid rate into the sur-
rounding metal and into the electrodes.
If the electrodes remain in contact with the work after current flow ceases,
the weld is rapidly cooled by virtue of the high thermal conductivity of the
electrode material (hold time should be provided to make certain that no current
is flowing at the start of electrode retraction).
This rapid heat dissipation is aided by efficient liquid cooling of the electrodes.
The rate of lateral quenching from the surrounding metal of the parts being
welded is reduced if a longer welding time is employed (Fig. 26.13). This
procedure allows more heat to transfer into the surrounding metal, raising its
temperature and reducing the temperature differential between it and the weld
nugget. This differential is important in governing cooling rates. For heavy
masses of metal where longer spot welding times are generally employed, the
cooling rates will be slower. In very thin sheets, or in projections on heavy stock,
where shorter times are employed, the quench rate is much greater.
If the electrodes are removed from the weld immediately, the heat is dissi-
pated into the atmosphere and the metal surrounding the weld zone. The quench
rate is somewhat reduced. Where thin sheets are concerned, this procedure
26.20 f Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
may be objectionable because of warpage. When welding heavy stock, adequate
time to permit cooling of the larger mass below the molten state is necessary
for strength reasons. It is usually desirable, therefore, to leave the electrodes
in place long enough to permit cooling of the weld, without allowing complete
transfer of the heat into the surrounding volume of metal. Production demands,
in many cases, necessitate a compromise, and the hold time is cut to a
minimum.
The hold time for seam welds becomes short because of the continuous rota-
tion of :the electrodes. It is necessary, therefore, to flood cool the work in order
to remove the heat as rapidly as possible. In some cases, it is desirable to
perform welding operations entirely under water.
It is not always good to cool the weld rapidly. Where quench-sensitive metals
are concerned, it is usually desirable to remove the electrodes as quickly as
possible :to permit the heat to radiate into the surrounding metal and prevent
an otherwise steep quench gradient.
Forging Pressure
The clamping force used to achieve the required heat quantity may not be
adequate to consolidate the weld nugget so that it will be free from internal
porosity or cracking. Multilevel force machines may be employed to provide
additional pressures during weld solidification. The magnitude of these pressures
varies with the composition and thickness of the metal and the geometry of
the parts. The forging or cooling pressure is very often two or three times that
used during welding.
Since the weld cools from the periphery inward, the forging pressure must be
applied at or close to the current termination point in the welding impulse
(Fig. 26.13).
Surface Preparation
Preweld surface preparation controls the magnitude and minimizes the varia-
tions of contact resistance at faying surfaces of the workparts. The contact
resistance between external work surfaces and the welding electrodes is also
minimized.
Surface resistance is caused by the presence of foreign substances on the
workparts. They may have been deposited during handling, or they may have
been formed chemically by the action of the atmosphere or of other agents
brought into contact with the work during its fabrication. The mechanical and
chemical films constituting the surface resistance of metals are in no way similar,
and different methods must be employed for their removal.
The fundamental principle of spot, seam and projection welding is the crea-
tion of fusion between the contacting surfaces of the parts rather than on their
outside surfaces. Heat produced between electrode surfaces and the workparts
is usually harmful and may result in surface marking of the work.
Dirt and oxide film that may come in contact with the electrodes should
be removed or reduced in resistance to ensure good surface appearance of
welds. Electrode pickup will be minimized and electrode life consequently
increased. The faying surfaces of the material should be treated similarly. Any
deposited film, such as oil or dirt, will not be uniform. Variations will be intro-
duced into the contact resistance and will vary the amount of heat generated.
Methods of Cleaning.-There are many methods of removing the mechani-
THERMAL SERIES
WATER COOLED
COPPER- ALLOY ELECTRODE
Fig. 26.13.-Heat flow in spot weld

cally deposited film of dirt or oil from the surfaces of workparts. Vapor de-
greasers and chemical baths are the most satisfactory, although properly super-
vised and well-performed hand wiping may be acceptable.
The removal of foreign substances from the workparts is necessary to permit
the subsequent removal of the oxide film. Most agents used for attacking this
film will not work in the presence of oil or grease; they require a surface that
is chemically clean.
The film of oxide present on all surfaces can be scraped off by mechanical
operations. Although the action must be sufficiently severe to cut through the
oxide film, it should be gentle enough to prevent formation of an excessively
rough or scratched surface. Where clad or coated materials are involved, the
action must be controlled to guard against removal of significant amounts of
the cladding. For this reason the bristles of wire brushes and the grades of
abrasive used must be fine enough to produce comparatively slow removal of
material with each application.
The principal advantages of mechanical methods of surface cleaning are:
1. Ability to remove surface films locally without danger of subsequent
deposit of other high-resistance films.
2. Ability to remove surface films from any part of a surface without the
need of treating the entire surface.
3. Low capital investment.
The principal disadvantages of the mechanical methods of surface cleaning
are:
1. High labor cost: steel wool, wire brushes or abrasives, depending upor
the metal, must often be applied to the surface by hand, and the remov!'
is comparatively slow.
2. Difficulty of ensuring uniform action: the extent of removal depe:
on the length of application and the force applied by the operato•
the rotary brush, abrasive sander or steel wool pad.
If economy or other factors make it impractical to use pickled or cold-rolled

stock, some recourses are to grind or polish the edges to be welded. This prepa-
ration should extend far enough back from the edge of the workpart to clear
the width of the electrodes. It can be done by hand or by machine. Some
fabrciators have found it more economical to devise semiautomatic machines
for grinding the edges than to use pickled stock. This method also has the ad-
vantage of leaving the protective coating of scale intact except at the weld line.
This feature is desirable for such applications as automobile mufflers.
Other methods of cleaning, such as sand, coarse grit or shot blasting, are
usually not satisfactory, since they tend to embed particles of sand or scale in the
surface. The use of fine, sharp steel gritblasting, however, has been found to be
satisfactory.
Annealing in a reducing atmosphere is also an acceptable cleaning method
for some materials.
The chemical methods are widely used. Although specific cleaning agents vary
with material composition, manufacturers of metals can usually provide thor-
ough information on cleaning methods.
The principal advantages of the chemical method of cleaning are:
1. Uniformity of results and the ability to reproduce consistently the same
surface condition, provided proper process control is exercised.
2. Low unit labor cost: the only labor cost of the properly installed opera-
tion is the loading and unloading of the cleaning basket or conveyer line.
The principal disadvantages of the chemical method of cleaning are:
1. Necessity, with some metals, to control accurately the time of exposure
of the surface treated to the action of the agent used; either overexposure
or underexposure may result in higher surface resistance for these alloys.
2. Presence of corrosive acids or alkalis on the factory floor, and their po-
tential danger to personnel.
3. Comparatively elaborate installation including corrosion-resistant tanks,
automatic temperature and time controls, hoists, dipping baskets, etc.
Surface Preparation Control.-Surface preparation control is checked by
measuring the cold contact resistance of the surfaces involved. The measurement
is most readily taken from electrode tip to tip through two or more pieces of
stock, but it can be made for any contacting areas. U.nit surface resistance
varies inversely with pressure, temperature and area of contact. These values
must be known and specified in order that reported values have significance.
SPOT WELDING
SPOT WELDING METHODS
Spot welding methods are generally distinguished as being series, direct or

indirect. However, the use of these terms without reference to a circuit schematic
has caused considerable confusion. In order to define these welding methods
clearly, the following terms, as well as Figs. 26.14 and 26.15 are presented.
Direct Welding
Direct welding is a welding method wherein all the secondary current passes
Spot Welding / 26.23
through a weld nugget being formed. No shunt path exists through any of the
panels being welded. One weld is made per transformer secondary (Figs.
26.14A, B, C and D).
mRECT WELDING DIRECT WELDING

(A) (B)
DIRECT WELDING DIRECT WELDING

(C) (AFTER HEM)
(D)
Fig. 26.14.-Types of single spot welds
Series Welding
Series welding is a welding method wherein a portion of the secondary cur-
rent bypasses (shunts) any weld nugget being formed. This shunt current passes
through one of the panels being welded. Generally, two welds are made per
transformer secondary (Fig. 26.15A, p. 26.24).
Direct Welding in Series

This is a welding method identical to direct welding except that two welds are
made for each secondary transformer winding (Fig. 26.15B).
Push-Pull Welding
This is a special form of series welding wherein opposing electrodes are con-
nected to different transformers and are of opposite polarity (Fig. 26.15C).
This is sometimes referred to as over and under welding.
Parallel Welding
In parallel welding, a special form of direct welding, multiple welds are
made from one or more electrodes connected to a common transformer second-
26.24 I Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
SERIES WELDING
(A) DIRECT WELDING
IN SERIES
(B)
OYER AND UNDER PARALLEL SPOT

WELDING WELDING
(C) (D)
Fig. 26.15.-Types of multiple spot welds
ary. This technique is used for both spot and projection welding, but special
precautions must be taken to assure good current distribution (Fig. 26.150).
SPOT WELDING SCHEDULES

It is possible to establish a welding schedule for any particular combination of
the following variables: the dimensions, properties and characteristics of the
metals to be welded, the specific type of welding equipment, the methods em-
ployed and :the joint design involved. Because of the multiplicity of variables,
it is impractical to attempt to prespecify welding schedules for every conceiv-
able condition and combination. Data intended to serve as a guide for spot
welding the most commonly used metals are given in Tables 26.1 through
26.19; data on multiple-impulse (pulsation) welding will be found in Tables
26.20 and 26.21. These recommended practices have been taken from A WS
Cl.l, "Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding," and AWS Cl.2,
"Recommended Practices for Spot Welding Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys."
(Tables appear at the end of the chapter, beginning on page 26.56.) For addi-
tional information, reference should be made to the full text of the recommended
practices.
The schedules have been compiled to provide uniform information for use
by design, manufacturing and inspection departments. The interrelation of de-
sign, welding practice and results produced makes it necessary for these groups
to employ the same welding data in order to obtain uniform production. The
designer must be guided in the choice of overlap, flange width, weld spacings
and weld strengths by the equipment and conditions to be employed in the
Spot Welding / 26.25
manufacture of the product. The manufacturing units should employ, as speci-

fied, the applicable factors of the schedule-electrode dimensions, force, cur-
rent and time-if the anticipated weld strengths are to be achieved.
Welding Current
The values given in the recommended practices are approximate, and are
intended to help calculate and specify the capacity of welding machines; they
should not be used as exact values to obtain a given weld strength. Optimum
strengths may be obtained by increasing the current to the point at which
metal expulsion occurs and then reducing it to just below this point.
Time
The values shown for all time factors are based on 60 cycles, except that
weld time for pulsation welding is in number of current pulsations, or weld
interval time.
Force
The values refer to the net forces between the contact surfaces, such as would
be obtained in actual welding.
Electrodes
Two forms of electrodes are used, one having a flat face and beveled sides,
the other having a dome-type face.
Where the flat-face electrode is used, the small diameter, d, should not exceed
the value specified in order to control electrode contact area. (Refer to the ap-
propriate tables at the end of the chapter-Tables 26.1 through 26.19.) The
use of a much smaller end diameter than that specified will cause metal expul-
sion and a reduction in weld strength. Care should be exercised to prevent
excessive increase in the contacting diameter by dressing to size when required.
The electrode body diameter, D, is a minimum. The use of a diameter smaller
than that specified will result in overheating and excessive mushrooming.
HEAT BALANCE
Heat balance may be defined as a condition in which the fusion zones of

both pieces of material to be joined undergo approximately the same degree of
heating and pressure application. Heat balance is influenced by ( 1) relative
thermal and electrical conductivities of the materials to be joined, (2) relative
geometry of the parts to be joined, ( 3) thermal and electrical conductivities of
the electrodes and ( 4) geometry of the electrodes.
For example, it may be desired to weld a high copper content alloy of high
thermal and electrical conductivity to a material of low thermal and electrical
conductivity, such as stainless steel. The weld may not be of the best quality
because of a poor alloying condition of the dissimilar materials. The nearest
approach to a satisfactory weld would be the use of one of the techniques shown
in Fig. 26.16.
Figure 26.16A shows a correct heat balance obtained by using a smaller elec-
trode area on the copper alloy than on the steel alloy to obtain approximately
equal degrees of fusion by variable current density. Figure 26.16B shows a
correct heat balance obtained by using an electrode with a facing of high thermal
resistance material, such as tungsten or molybdenum, to create approximately
the same fusion in the copper alloy as in the steel alloy. Figure 26.16C indicates
the use of a combination of both techniques.
A proper heat balance may also be achieved in these two dissimilar alloys
by the method indicated in Fig. 26.16D. The increase in the thickness of the
higher-conductivity alloy compensates for the higher conductivity.
An artificial method of creating a heat balance consists of using a very thin
plating of lower-conductivity material. Thin strips of such material may be
inserted between the two pieces of work to be welded. Thin plating of copper
or brass is an example of this technique.
~~~~UCTIVITY~ATERIAL~F
HIGH
AllOY RESISTANCE
~~~
LOW-::,.
CONDUCTIVITY
A AllOY B C
Fig. 26.16.-Techniques for obtaining heat balance in spot welding dissimilar metals
Heat Shrinkage
It is often desirable to produce flush or invisible welds. All factors must be
controlled closely. The most important factor is heat shrinkage. When the work
is heated, it tends to expand in all directions (Fig. 26.9). Because of the pressure
exerted by the electrodes, any vertical expansion is immediately forged out.
All the local expansion takes place in the horizontal plane, usually causing a
slight ridge as shown at A in Fig.
26.17. When the work is cooled, the
contraction takes place along the lines
of least resistance, or almost entirely
EXPULSION OF WELD
METAL
TOO SHARP ELECTRODE
:::=c----
A CONTOUR
r r
./
Fig. 26.17.-Efject of heat shrinkage on Fig. 26.18.-Causes of electrode mark-

spot welds ings on material surface
in the vertical plane, which results in the concave surfaces shown. This is not to
be confused with electrode marks where the electrodes embed themselves in the
work because of improper control (Fig. 26.18). Actual depth of shrinkage
Spot Welding/ 26.27
depression seldom exceeds a few thousandths of an inch. In some forms of

finishing operations, however, and with certain forms of light reflection, it is
conspicuously noticeable. It is almost impossible to eliminate these heat shrink-
age marks completely, but they may be reduced materially by proper control.
The radiation of heat to the surface can be minimized by making the welds in
the shortest practical space of time.
Various techniques are used to minimize these markings. The most common
method is to use an electrode of greater area on the side of the material that
should have a minimum of marking, as shown in Fig. 26.16A. If this electrode
is made of a copper alloy having a higher proportional limit than that of hard-
rolled copper, the surface contacting
the weld does not deform as quickly.
Thus surface marking of the welded
material is minimized.
One method, shown in Fig. 26.19,
recognizes that the marking cannot
be prevented entirely and that an
imperfection can more readily be
dressed off if it is above rather than
below the material surface. Such a Fig. 26.19.-Depression in electrode
condition is deliberately created by used to pi event surface indentation
using a depression in the electrode
contacting the surface to be finished. The hot metal conforms to this depression
and, since it is above the surface of the surrounding material, it is more easily
removed. When this method is used, however, a depression around the pe-
riphery of the weld may be obtained.
CLAMPING
\l-·1
PRESSURE
INSULATION
~
PATH /._.
CLAMPING
PRESSURE
Fig. 26.20.-lndirect introduction of current to minimize surface markings
Introduction of current to the weld, as shown in Fig. 26.20, assists in

obtaining a minimum of marking on part B by affecting current distribution in
that part.
ROLL-RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
ROLL-RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING METHODS
Roll-resistance spot welding consists of making a series of separately spaced

spot welds in a row by means of one or two rotating circular electrodes, without
retracting the electrodes or removing the welding force between spots. The
principles described for spot welding apply also to this process. The radius of
the electrode determines the contacting longitudinal radius. The use of the
same transverse radius provides, in effect, a domed or spherical electrode.
The weld spacing is obtained by proper adjustment of electrode speed and
current off-time, using the continuous rotating-electrode process. The individual
roll-resistance spot welds are essentially the same as spot welds made in the
usual manner, except that shorter hold times are employed. Because of electrode
travel, the welds tend to have an elongated nugget. Single and multiple welds
may be made by the methods discussed under Spot Welding. Roll-resistance
spot welding may also be obtained through use of the intermittent motion process
as described in the next section under Seam Welding.
ROLL-RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING SCHEDULES
When continuously moving electrodes are employed, as is commonly the

case, welding times are usually held to lesser values than those used for spot
welding. The higher currents employed may sometimes require the use of
higher roll forces.
SEAM WELDING
SEAM WELDING METHODS
Continuous Motion
The electrodes are driven at a constant speed consistent with the work being
done. In some cases the work is pushed or pulled at a constant speed, and the
electrodes idle under the proper electrode force.
The electrode drive on seam welding machines may take several forms. In
the standard seam welding machine the upper or lower wheel may be gear
driven by a motor directly through a gear box and clutch. Also, both electrodes
may be driven with a knurl drive, which is a steel disk, or roll, formed to fit
the face of the electrode a short distance up its side. The surface contacting
the face of the electrode is knurled to give traction. The knurled type of drive
propels both wheels at the same peripheral speed, irrespective of their diameter,
and is particularly adaptable to the welding of coated materials, such as tin
plate, terne plate and galvanized iron. This type of drive tends to break up
the coating from these materials picked up on the face of the electrodes. In
the traveling roll-type machine the work is clamped to a bar electrode and
pushed under an idler electrode. Power is applied to push the work rather
than to rotate the electrode. In other cases the electrode mounting member is
pushed parallel to the seam resting on the bar electrode. In multiple-seam
welding the bar electrodes are used as shunting members under the work. A
Seam Welding I 26.29
hydraulic drive is usually used; it provides a smoother and steadier motion than
most types of mechanical drive.
When several parallel seams are made on flat work, electrodes in multiples of
two-each pair with its own transformer-may be used. There is no current
interference between the various- pairs of electrodes on the same workpiece in
this method.
Interrupted current is usually necessary for most seam welding operations for
the following reasons: (1) much better control of the heat is obtained, (2) each
successive increment in the seam is allowed to cool under pressure, (3) distor-
tion of the workparts, owing to overheating of material adjacent to the weld, is
less, ( 4) better control of flashes or burns, caused by adverse conditions of the
material, is obtained and ( 5) sound welds with less surface disturbance are
made. The choice of interrupter is important. The synchronous-precision elec-
tronic interrupter is claimed to be the best type for seam welding (see Chapter
28, Resistance Welding Equipment). The use of mechanical interrupters for
seam welding is not advised, because of their nonsynchronous switching, slow
speed and other inherent inaccuracies. A type of seam welding where an
interrupter is not necessary is that which welds at speeds high enough to cause
the frequency of the electrical circuit itself to act as an interrupter. No inter-
rupter is required for some conditions of welding with direct current.
Intermittent Motion
In cases where heavy workparts are to be welded, or where more than a single
weld pulse is required (for example, where it is necessary to apply preheat and
quench and temper times or long weld times) , intermittent motion must be
used in order to retain electrode force over the weld nugget while the weld is
being completed. Continuous motion would result in premature release of
electrode force, and, therefore, cause cracking, porosity and unacceptable welds.
The work travels between the electrodes the distance required for each suc-
ceeding weld increment. The work stops during the time required to make each
individual weld and then automatically moves the proper distance for tlie next
weld increment. This is repeated for the full length of the weld.
With intermittent motion, either overlapping spot to give a continuous seam,
or roll-resistance spot welding, can be accomplished.
TYPES OF WELDS
There are several different types of seam welds, and these are generally
similar to those used for spot welding applications. The most commonly used
type is :the simple lap seam weld, in which the pieces or edges to be welded are
lapped sufficiently to prevent spitting of the weld metal from the edges of the
stock (Fig. 26.21). Common examples are the lap joints in cans, buckets, water
tanks, mufflers and large diameter, thin-walled pipes.
The flange joint is another example of a lap joint. The construction in Fig.
26.22A, in which one of the pieces is straight, is commonly used for welding
out-turned flanged bottoms or tops to containers of various types. In Fig.
26.22B, both pieces are shown flanged. This design is used on automotive
gasoline tanks. Often the flanged pieces are dished to obtain added strength, in
which case it is necessary to mount one or both wheels at an angle to clear the
work. Best practice limits this angle to 6° although angles up to 10° have been
26.30/ Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
used. Angles greater than 6° compli-

cate the machine by causing excessive
bearing thrust, lack of bearing clear-
ance and the necessity for using
larger welding electrodes.
It is sometimes necessary to place
the electrodes at an angle for the A
and B types also, especially if the
radius at the flanges is too small to
permit sufficient clearance between
the electrode and the work. On small
Fig. 26.21.-Common type of lap seam diameter containers with dished
weld heads it is often impossible to place
the wheel at an angle to clear the dish. Figure 26.23 shows an alternative con-
struction using one special electrode. This is to be avoided where possible
because of greater cost and shorter electrode life.
The joint types in Fig. 26.22 may be used in either flat or round parts. Designs
of the type shown in Fig. 26.24 involve rectangular containers. One application
consists of welding 2 in. radius corners into a rectangular container measuring
about 14 in. square. The lower welding wheel must have a radius less than that
of the corner, for example, 1 7 I 8 in. ( 3 3/4 in. diameter). Because of the
differences in area of contact of both the upper and lower electrodes, entirely
different welding conditions are presented for welding the corners as compared
with welding the straight sides. Since, in practice, welding the corners is slower
and more difficult, the machine is set for this condition at a sacrifice in welding
speed for the balance of the seam. (However, the types of special applications
shown in Figs. 26.23 and 26.24 are generally not recommended.)
Another type of weld commonly used is the mash seam weld (Fig. 26.25).
This is a weld in which the overlap is usually considerably less than for the lap
joint. ~trong, high-quality welds will be produced if the overlap is held at about
1 1/2 times the shock thickness. The total thickness after welding will be on the
order of 110 to 125% of the sheet thickness. Flat-faced welding wheels wide
enough to completely cover the overlap are normally used. Higher weld force
and higher noninterrupted weld current are required. Weld speed is determined
by the end results required for the specific application; these results have been
found to vary from as low as 12 feet per minute to as high as 45 feet per
Fig. 26.22.-Common types of seam-welded flanged joints

Seam Welding/ 26.31
Fig. 26.23.-Special electrode for seam Fig. 26.24.-Use of small diameter elec-
welding dished heads trode for seam welding corner joints
minute with alternating current. With applications using direct current, the
speeds may be significantly higher. For consistent results the overlap must be
accurately maintained and held to close tolerances. This is usually done by
rigid clamping of the pieces to be welded; however, preweld tacking is sometimes
used.
Applications that require subsequent painting are usually disk sanded so that
the mash weld area will not be objectonable: disk sanding is also performed
when the appearance of the finished product is important. Recently the tech-
nique of using hardened planish rolls to reduce the weld joint closer to the
original sheet thickness has permitted painting of the mash weld without the
need of disk sanding to eliminate appearance defects.
The appliance industry makes extensive use of mash seam welding for
porcelain enameled applications. Ranges, refrigerators and home laundry equip-
ment are examples of products in this category. This industry uses a variation
of the normal type mash seam welding in that the end results require that only
one side have a good mash weld, which can be porcelain enameled.
The requirement is that the inner or show surface be mashed as nearly flat as
possible at the weld joint so that it will porcelain enamel properly as well as
present a good appearance. In most cases the product design is such that the
welding electrodes on the inside surface are flat bars, which are part of a
mandrel, which holds the piece parts to be joined. The welding wheels are on
the outside or nonappearance surface. Proper positioning of the wheel with
respect to the joint at inner surface
is required in order to obtain a mash
acceptable for enameling.
It should be noted that for con-
sistent results in production all piece
+
parts must be accurately made and
be repetitively the same. Further-
more, locating and clamping must
be such that these parts will be
properly positioned for welding each
time. In addition, all welding pa-
rameters such as weld force, weld
current and wheel speed must be
Fig. 26.25.-Mash seam weld accurately controlled.
Low-carbon steel is considered to be the most satisfactory metal for mash

seam welding, but stainless steel has been mash welded for certain applications.
Nonferrous metals cannot be mash welded because of their narrow plastic range.
For best results wheel electrodes should be used on each side of the weld. As
previously described, a mandrel can be used in place of one of the wheels, but
this results in a mash that, although not as complete, nevertheless can be satis-
factory for many applications.
A third type of seam weld is the foil-butt seam weld, made by a process in
which the edges of the sheets to be joined are butted together. A thin narrow
strip of foil is introduced above and below the joint as it is passed between
conventional seam welding wheels. The foil acts as a bridge to distribute the
current to both sheets and also prevents the too rapid withdrawal of heat from
the sheets. Foil strip offers added electrical resistance and helps contain the
molten weld nugget while it grows in area and cools. The sheets are generally
clamped. In some instances the foil is roll-resistance spot tack welded at lower
heat before it is seam welded.
The welding machine may be operated at a reduced force, reduced current
and increased speed. The resultant weld is of superior strength and appearance
with a joint thickness of 110 to 125% of the original sheet thickness. The foil-
butt seam weld process has been used extensively in Europe in the transportation,
appliance and steel mill industries.
A fourth type of seam weld is the butt seam weld, which is commonly used
in the manufacture of welded piping and tubing. A variation of this is sometimes
used for such applications as toys, automobile horns and other inexpensive and
low-strength joints.
Direct Welds
The electrodes contact the workpiece directly opposite each other and con-
sist of two circular electrodes, or one circular electrode and a bar, as illustrated
in Fig. 26.14.
Series Wetds
In series seam welding both rotating electrodes are usually on the same side
of the workpart, and a short-circuiting bar is placed on the other side for the
return circuit (Figs. 26.15A and B). In addition to the bar, circular electrodes
electrically connected by a shaft may be used. With this arrangement two seam
welds are made simultaneously.
Multitransformer Seam Welds

Two or more seam welds are made simultaneously by means of an arrange-
ment of two or more pairs of circular electrodes or circular and bar electrodes.
Each pair has its separate transformer, as illustrated in Fig. 26.15C. This is a
multiple arrangement of direct welding.
Single-Row Welds
The two edges of the material in this type of seam weld are lapped sufficiently
to retain, on each side of the weld, cool material of sufficient width to support
the hot metal and prevent the expulsion of the metal formin~ th«< wt:ld nugget
(Fig. 26.21).
Seam Welding j 26.33
Multiple-Row Welds
These are seam welds made parallel to each other, usually with two or more
pieces of metal lapped their full width. They are made either in several passes
with one set of electrodes or in one pass with parallel electrodes.
Continuous Welds
Each individual spot in this type of weld overlaps the preceding one. Thus a
gas or liquid pressure-tight weld is made.
Intermittent Seam Welds

Each individual weld contains a number of overlapping spot welds or weld
increments, resulting in a joint that has good mechanical strength but is not
pressure tight.
WELDING SCHEDULES
Current and Voltage

The correct welding current is so dependent upon other conditions that it
is not practical to give rules for its determination. The amount of cooling water
applied to the electrodes, for example, will change the current requirements.
The following general statement may be made: the shorter the "on time," or
the faster the welding speed, the more current required. All other variables,
however, should be established first. The current can then be determined by
trial and error, until the desired quality of weld is obtained. Recommended
practices for the most commonly welded metals are given in Tables 26.22
through 26.27 (pp. 26.78-26.83).
The required transformer tap voltage is dependent upon the type and thick-
ness of the material, the speed of welding, the throat depth, the surface condi-
tion of the material and the welding machine impedance. It is usually some-
what higher than the voltage used for spot welding the same thickness of
material. Higher currents are required because of the continuous shunting
effects and the distribution of the current and weld areas.
Time
No definite timing schedule is recommended for a given stock. Many vari-
ables influence the choice. Some of these are welding speed, capacity of the
machine, thickness of stock and type of joint desired. If a gas-tight or liquid-
tight joint is desired, the best timing will be one that will allow for fastest
welding speed within the capacity of the machine. For best results the "on
time" should be equal to or greater than the "off time." The "on time" is deter-
mined by the welding speed. The thicker the stock, the longer the "on time."
The faster the welding speed, the shorter the "off time."
Force
The electrode forces used for seam welding are usually higher than those
used for spot welding the same material. The fit of the material in the joint
has much to do with the force required. The material should fit closely together
and be free from wrinkles and excess metal. Slack between the two pieces will
run ahead of the wheel electrodes and give trouble near the end of the weld.
This is of particular significance where circular parts, like the bottom of a tank
or can, are involved._
Electrodes
Seam welding electrode shapes are shown in Fig. 26.26. A is the electrode
used where clearance is available on both sides of the work. B is used where
the weld must be made close to an obstruction, such as a flange or the bottom
of a tank-type structure, and C is used where an obstruction may be at right
angles to a seam. A notched electrode can be used for bridging transverse
obstructions. A notch is close to the obstruction each time and rolls away from
the obstruction with the electrode. Where the obstruction is on one side only,
a notched electrode, shown in C, and a plain electrode, shown in A, may be
used. Bar electrodes may assume the face shape shown in A or B.
The diameters may vary from a minimum of 2 in. to as much as 2 feet for
special machines; from about 6 to 10 in., however, is the common range. The
usual material is a copper alloy of the heat-treated, precipitation-hardening
type. The edge or face in contact with the work usually has a slight crown and
rounded corners.
The rate of electrode wear is determined by the following: the pressure used,
the surface condition and analysis of the material being welded, the electrode
temperature as influenced by values of welding current and amounts of cooling
water, abrasion of work and drive rolls, and the material used for the electrode.
As heavier thicknesses of materials are welded using heavier forces and higher
currents, the face widths of the electrodes must be increased to avoid excessive
pressure and current density in the work.
The width of the weld at a point on the centerline between the two work-
pieces ranges from 1 1/2 to 3 times the thickness of the thinner piece being
welded. The higher ratio of weld width to plate thickness occurs when the
thinner thicknesses are welded. This ratio decreases as the material increases
in thickness. The lower limit of commercially practical electrode face width
is usually 1/8 to 3/16 in., because of excessive electrode wear. This explains
the high ratio of weld width to sheet thickness for the lesser work thicknesses.
The weld width is always slightly less than the face width when commercial
welding schedules are used. An estimate wherein weld width is 80% of electrode
width is approximately correct.
A B c
Fig. 26.26.-Shapes of seam welding electrodes

Projection Welding/ 26.35
EXTERNAL COOLING
Flood, immersion or mist cooling is used in seam welding. This is in addition

to the internal cooling of the arms and secondary circuit of the welding trans-
former. Where no flood cooling is used on the work or the welding electrodes,
excessive electrode maintenance and badly warped work usually result. In
welding nonferrous materials and stainless steel, ordinary, clean tap water is
satisfactory. In welding the ordinary steels, which are susceptible to rusting
after becoming wet, a 5% borax solution is commonly used. This solution may
be recirculated by a small motor and pump at each machine, coupled with a
small subtank of sufficient capacity to take care of the particular welding
machine. Where a number of welding machines are located in close proximity
to one another, it is usually economical to install a large tank and have the
solution drained or pumped into this tank, with a common tank for the com-
plete installation. Whether the single machine tank or the large tank is used,
adequate water-cooling coils should be inserted in the tank to keep the borax
solution cool enough for satisfactory cooling of the electrodes and work. The
lower the temperature of the borax solution, the more efficient the cooling.
The solution should not circulate through any internal piping of the machine
cooling system, since borax plugging can result.
PROJECTION WELDING
FORMATION OF PROJECTIONS
A projection may be embossed on a sheet of metal. It may be produced on a
solid piece of metal by machining or it may be produced on an edge in a punch
press in several ways. The height may be anywhere from a few thousandths of
an inch to 1I 8 in. or more, depending upon the job. The purpose of projections
is to localize the current and pressure at predetermined points. In this modifica-
tion of the spot welding process, the concentration of the welding current is
determined by the preparation of the workpieces rather than by the size and
shape of the electrodes.
The following are the advantages to be gained by the use of projections:
1. The achievement of satisfactory heat balance for welding difficult com-
binations of metals and thicknesses.
2. More uniform results in many applications.
3. Increased output per machine because several welds are made simultane-
ously.
4. Longer electrode life.
5. Welds may be spaced more closely together.
6. Parts are more easily welded in an assembly fixture.
7. Finished appearance is often improved.
8. Parts that could not be spot welded may be projection welded.
The major portion of the heat tends to develop in the part bearing the
projections during the welding operation. For this reason the projections should
be produced on the heavier of two pieces of the same metal or, if possible, on
the piece of higher conductivity if dissimilar metals are being joined. The
reverse can, however, take place under some conditions.
Because uniform projections may be obtained readily on a punch press, several

variables, such as contact area between the parts and electrode mushrooming,
are avoided. The surface condition of the parts does not seem to affect the
welds as much as in spot welding. If a part requires several welds, they are
made simultaneously, thus avoiding difficulties owing to shunted currents. Both
the location and strength of the resultant welds are more certain.
The number of welds that can be made simultaneously is limited only by
the ability to control pressure and current. The capacity of the equipment and
the efficiency of the control system are the governing factors. When several
welds (from two to eight) are needed, they are usually made simultaneously.
Proper division of pressure and current with projections is necessary, because
the currents pass through parallel paths. The paths of lowest resistance carry
the heaviest currents.
The areas to be joined are frequently flat, except for the projections. In
such cases the electrodes are flat and large enough to contact a large area. In
other cases, when the surface to be contacted is irregular in shape, the electrode
is fitted to the surface. A high force may be applied without distorting the
part, and the large current may be introduced without injuring the surface.
Electrodes and dies having large contact surfaces show less wear and, therefore,
require less attention or maintenance.
If two spot welds are located too close together, there may be difficulty be-
cause current from the second weld is shunted through the preceding weld.
Since the projection welds are made simultaneously, there is less trouble from
this source, but if they are placed too close together, irregular forms may lead
to poor distribution of current. The ability to equalize the distribution of
pressure and current and the available size of machine limit the arrangement
and spacing of projections. However, if more than three projections are welded
simultaneously, the height of the projections must be uniform, within close
limits, to avoid having some of the projections fused before others have made
contact. The use of upslope or direct-current welding is of assistance in this
case.
When parts are located by an assembly fixture, the fixture and work have
to be moved in a conventional spot welding machine to make successive welds.
Additional spot welds may have to be made after the fixture is removed from
the parts. When projections are used, the fixture may be mounted solidly on
the machine. The parts are simply placed in the nest, and with one operation
of the machine all the welds are made at once. One part may be located in
relation to the other by punching holes in one and semipunchings in the other
to match. The projections can usually be embossed or forged in the same
operation.
When small parts, such as brackets or handles, are to be welded to large
pieces, they are often hard to locate in a spot welding machine. Misplaced
spots and extruded metal may result.
In such cases embossings would be
less unsightly and a fitted electrode
would not mark the exposed surface.
Thus, projection welding results in
better control of the finished appear-
ance.
Fig. 26.27.-Ring-type embossment for Thoughtful design and preparation
projection welding of metal parts can make the use of
Projection Welding /26.37
projection welding practical. For instance, in handling heavy steel stampings or

forgings, where spot welding is out of the question, the welding pressure and
current can be localized by projections, either swaged, forged or coined.
APPLICATIONS OF PROJECTION WELDING

The application of projection welding is limited only by the ingenuity of
the designer. The principal uses of projection welding are those in which
punched, stamped or formed parts are assembled and the embossments are
formed during the stamping operation. The projection is usually circular in
shape but may be of almost any design. The circular shape, however, has
advantages both in welding and in the simplicity of punch and die design.
Projection welding is also applicable to the use of screw machine parts. The
projection is turned on the screw machine part by means of a forming tool.
This part may be used in connection with a stamping, or flat or formed sheet,
in order to obtain the assembled piece.
Cross wire welding, which is used extensively in making wire mesh and other
forms of wire products, is a form of projection welding. The general factors
that affect projection welding also apply to cross wire welding. In addition,
there are specialized applications of projection welding, such' as welding bolts
and nuts, which may be obtained with projections cold forged in place.
The methods of preparation that make projection welding possible are fre-
quently specialized to suit particular conditions, so that only general directions
can be indicated. Annular or ring projections are frequently used on screw
machine parts and for applications that require a pressure-tight joint around a
hole between two parts. Such preparation also gives high strength when a large
stud or boss is to be applied to thin sheet material. In some applications it is
preferable to form a ring-type projection in the sheet, as shown in Fig. 26.27.
The round head of a screw, without the slot, is a good preparation for
projection welding. The shoulder under the head is of advantage, since it affords
a bearing surface for the electrode to introduce the current near the welding
point. If there is no such shoulder on the stud near the weld, the stud should
be placed in a hollow electrode that fits it closely and comes as close to the end
as is practical. If the current must travel through more than four times the
diameter of the stud, there is danger that the stud will become overheated and
collapse before the weld is completed.
SIZE AND SHAPE OF PROJECTIONS
Experience has indicated that projections of the form shown in Fig. 26.28
are satisfactory for most work in flat or irregular stampings. Instead of being
round, projections may be oblong, square, oval or any shape that may be
made conveniently. With a carefully designed projection, the weld grows from
the center outward and, to obtain a uniform growth, the round projection is
theoretically desirable.
When projections are made on formed pieces that are circular or not flat
where the projection contacts the piece, it may be desirable to elongate a
projection to make certain that proper contact is obtained. Such a design of
projection for curved pieces is shown in Fig. 26.29. It is always desirable to
start with a point or line of contact from which the weld may grow, rather
24 TO 13 GAGE
12 TO 5 GAGE
Fig. 26.28.-Satisfactory forms of pro-

1: II II :1
Fig. 26.29.--Elongated projections for
jections welding curved pieces
than to attempt to contact a plane surface against another plane surface. The
latter usually results in point contact, and this contact may be at some point
that would not permit obtaining a complete weld.
The diameter of a circular projection weld may be 1 112 times the diameter
of the original projection. Such projections should be domed rather than
pointed.
A prick-punch may be used to produce smaller annular projections. The rim
produced around the punch mark serves as a suitable projection for the welding
of very thin metal to a heavier piece, which carries the punch marks.
Figure 26.30 illustrates a screw machine product. If the projection is located
on the very edge, the ring will squeeze out, leaving a poor weld. Annular projec-
tions may have either rounded tops or sharp 90° edges (45° each way). The
latter design is frequently used on screw machine parts that are applied to
sheet stock. The rounded top gives a better heat balance, when applied to
heavier parts, and is used when an annular projection is formed in sheet parts
to be joined around a hole.
Although studs may be applied with annular projections, as already described,
domes are more often used. The dome may be on the end of the stud, or it
may be formed on the other piece at the right point. When it is on the end of
the stud, the end is usually formed as a section of a sphere. A radius of 1 112
in. has served very satisfactorily on a wide range of stud sizes. Samples of such
parts are shown in Fig. 26.31. Some authorities recommend that the radius
of the head equal I II 2 times the diameter of the stud. If there is no head on
the stud, a weld cannot be made equal to the cross-sectional area without some
material being squeezed or splashed outside this diameter.
Another advantage of the large diameter head is that it allows an electrode
contacting surface and also covers up
any extruded metal, while facilitat-
ing a good weld for the full area of
the stud. Another way to provide for
the extruded metal from a smaller
weld, when the end of the stud is to
INCORRECT PROJECTION CORRECT PROJECTION fit squarely and tightly to the surface,
Fig. 26.30.-Projection for screw ma- is to provide a groove around the
chine products projection to receive the excess metal.
Projection Welding I 26.39
Crossed wires make an almost

ideal welding condition. Thin sheets
may be projection welded satisfac-
torily by the use of ridges formed in
the sheets. The ridges on one sheet
will be parallel, but the sheet parts
are brought together so that the
ridges cross each other as in cross
wire welding. Single ridges may be
used for a single weld or many may
be used to form a mesh. This method Fig. 26.31.-Typical screw and stud
has been used to weld handles to cans. parts suitable for projection welding
A projection in sheet material should meet the following requirements:
1. It should be stiff enough to support the initial force before the current is
applied.
2. It should have sufficient mass to raise a spot in the plane surface to
welding temperature. If too small, it will collapse before the other surface
is heated.
3. It should collapse without splashing between the sheets. Surfaces should
have minimum sheet separation after welding.
4. It should not be partially sheared. Such projections may be weak and
easily torn out.
5. It should be easy to form, and the punch and die should require little
maintenance.
6. It should cause little distortion of the part during forming.
When parts that span an appreciable portion of a curved surface are as-
sembled, the tendency is for the projections to slide slightly around the curved
surface as they are pushed down. To avoid finishing with cold metal against
hot metal at the end of the weld period, the projections for such applications
are elongated, as shown in Fig. 26.29. When parts are made in a punch press,
such projections can be added for welding at slight additional expense.
A common type of preparation, when a nut or bushing is to be welded over
a hole, is illustrated in Fig. 26.32. A pilot portion enters the hole to make the
part self-locating. Then a 45° bevel meets the edge of the hole to form the weld.
START FINISH
OF OF
WELDING WELDING
Fig. 26.32.-Preparation of parts for projection welding nut or bushing to sheet

TllTT
WELD BOLTS
WElD PINS
lf WElD NUTS AND PADS
Fig. 26.33.-Parts available with welding projections
Many types of studs and nuts prepared with different details for projection
welding are available on the market. Examples are shown in Fig. 26.33. To
weld a countersunk screw head into sheet material, four flutes or bosses are
formed on the contacting surface of the head, as shown in the top of Fig. 26.33.
The sheet is punched to form a countersunk contacting surface.
Elongated projections may be used for welding box corners together. Such
elongations are embossed at right angles to the edge to be joined and are ex-
tended to this edge. The result is similar to that obtained when wire sides are
welded to the edge of a sheet. An alternative method is to leave the sheets flat
and, in shearing the abutting part, leave similarly shaped projections on the edge.
These methods are also used to weld parts on edge to the center of sheet parts.
The side of a round rod is easily welded to a flat surface for a limited dis-
tance. A short piece of rod may be welded to a flat surface to serve as a stop.
Part of the length of a stud may be welded to the edge of a tank and used
either for support or to hold a cover in place. Two flat pieces of bar stock may
be welded simultaneously to the opposite sides of the end of a rod to form
a clevis.
WELDING SCHEDULES
Welding Current
The current required per weld for projection welding is slightly less than
that required for spot welding.
If an annular weld is to be made, or several individual projections are to be
welded simultaneously, more uniform heating results when more current is
applied for a shorter time than when a longer time is used with less current.
The maximum current that does not cause excessive splashing is recommended
when it is used in conjunction with the proper pressure. The A WS Recom-
mended Practices for Projection Welding are shown in Tables 26.28 to 26.31
(pp. 26.84-26.86).
Projection Welding / 26.41
Time
The timing of the current in projection welding is not as critical as the
pressure, provided that the time is sufficient for the amount of current used.
As the projection collapses, the contact area increases. Thus the current density
is reduced. When the projections have collapsed completely, the parts are in
contact over too large an area to permit further welding. If large, flat electrodes
are used, the current density can result only in general heating of the work,
the transformer and the secondary circuit. A shorter time results in higher
efficiency, less discoloration and perhaps less distortion of the work. After the
proper pressure is applied and the current determined, the time should be
adjusted to make the desired weld.
One of the advantages of upslope welding is its tendency to prevent splashing
or spitting of metal. This is especially true in multiple-projection welding. Part
of the projections frequently becomes heated ahead of the others. Upslope
welding allows the parts to seat themselves better after the first application of
power, and helps set several projections down together more uniformly. Even
with single projections, or in welding studs, a sloping current frequently pro-
duces better results. Direct-current welding has many of the same characteristics.
Force
The pressures used in projection welding depend not only upon the material
and size of projection, but also upon the design of projection and upon the ma-
chine used. Whether the projection is embossed in a sheet or machined on solid
steel, too great a pressure will cause the projection to collapse or spread out
before welding heat is obtained.
On the other hand, best results require appreciable pressure. To obtain the
best appearance, embossed sheet material should be flattened out after the weld-
ing temperature is developed. Pressure is a critical factor in the welding tech-
nique for a particular projection and should, therefore, be set first.
If the projection is high, requiring much travel to push it down, a machine
having heavy moving parts should be avoided. The projection may melt and blow
out before the machine can follow up to push it down. Quick action is needed,
and high inertia is a handicap that cannot be overcome by force in this case.
Electrodes
The assembly fixtures for projection welding usually become a part of the
welding dies and machine. It is possible, with the proper fixtures, to attain ac-
curacy with projection welding equal to that of any other assembly process.
The welding fixtures should meet the following requirements:
1. Accurate positioning of the parts.
2. Rapid loading and unloading. A jet of air will remove small parts. A lever
may be used to kick out heavier parts, or the top electrode may pick up
the part.
3. There should be no alternative path for the electric current. Electrical in-
sulation must be used to ensure that all the current goes through the welds.
4. For a-c welding all magnetic iron and steel should be eliminated from
the fixtures. These materials reduce the electrical capacity of the machine
and are apt to get hot when near the secondary loop.
S. The parts that bolt' onto the top and bottom arms of the machine must
r:-tl
L..,.L---!..-1
ElECTRODE
Fig. 26.34.-Use of insulated pin as locator
register accurately like punch-press tools. (This is not true for d-e weld-
ing.)
6. Fixture parts that must be handled should be as light as possible. Alumi-
num is frequently used.
7. The safety of the operator is of vital importance.
The arrangements for welding three common types of nuts are shown in
Figs. 26.34, 26.35 and 26.36.
When the smaller part can be placed in the bottom of the assembly fixture
with the larger part on top, it is a simple matter to hold the smaller part in a
recessed lower electrode. When it is desired to locate a small part on top of a
larger part, a problem exists. Sometimes the small piece can be located and
held by a removable device, while a flat upper electrode makes the weld. Parts
that nest into the upper electrode may be held by spring clips assembled on
either the outside or the interior of the electrode. A ball or plunger pressing
against one side of the part and backed up by a spring, all assembled in a
drilled hole through the side of the electrode, is sufficient to hold small parts
(see Fig. 26.36). Vacuum may also be used to hold small parts in the upper
electrode.
The harder electrode materials are usually used for the construction of
projection welding dies. Dies for large production or really severe requirements
often have inserts of RWMA Group B material at the points of greatest stress.
At other times it is more economical and equally satisfactory to make the
whole electrode of one piece of RWMA Group A, Class 3 material.
~
l
UJJ
ELECTRODE
IT IS NECESSARY TO RECESS THE UPPER & LOWER ELECTRODES AS

SHOWN ONLY IF THE "B" DIMENSION IS LESS THAN "A" OR .094.
· Fig. 26.35.-Use of recessed e{ec(rodes (o «id if! prop~,!r location of welded n14t
Projection Welding I 26.43
-
DRILL HOLE IN ELECTRODE
TO CLEAR THREADS
A
Fig. 26.36.-Methods of accurate location of projection welds between bolts and sheet
HEAT BALANCE
The problem of maintaining proper heat balance may become complicated
in projection welding. If there is improper heat balance, it is possible to melt
the projection away from one piece without bringing the mating surface to
welding heat. As a result, no weld is formed.
The factors affecting the heat balance are: ( 1) design of the projection,
( 2) thickness of the parts, ( 3) kind of material backing up the weld, ( 4)
conductivity of the metals being welded, ( 5) rate of heating and ( 6) the
projection location with respect to the throat on a-c welding.
An undesirable condition exists when a massive steel part is projection welded
to thin sheet steel. A projection in the thin sheet would not sufficiently heat a
spot in the massive part. The usual water-cooled copper electrode will retard
the thin sheet from heating if the projection is on the heavy piece. This condi-
tion is alleviated by using one of the hard electrode materials of low electrical
conductivity to back up the sheet material.
When two different metals are to be projection welded together, the projec-
tion should be formed on the material of higher electrical conductivity. Higher
electrical conductivity means higher heat conductivity. The speed of heating
therefore becomes a factor.
The important principle is that the two mating surfaces must be brought to
the welding temperature at the same time. Sometimes it is advantageous to put
projections on both parts and locate them so that projection meets projection.
In special cases where there is doubt concerning which piece should carry the
projections, it may be advisable to make samples and try all three ways.
Not all metals can be projection welded. The metal must be strong enough
to support the projection. Some brasses do not lend themselves to this welding
process, since the projections collapse too rapidly under pressure. Copper is
considered unweldable by this process. Aluminum has been welded to a limited
extent and the best results have been obtained with extruded parts. Coated
stocks, such as galvanized iron, terne plate and tin plate, are being successfully
welded. It is also possible, in some cases, to weld dissimilar metals, such as
9teel to brass and ;teel to bronze. Tnei\e latter metals require more current and
shorter time than are required for steel. Thin steel sheets are more readily spot
welded than projection welded, because of difficulty in maintaining exact and
small projections.
EFFECTS OF PROCESSES ON MATERIALS
PHYSICAL AND METALLURGICAL

Warpage, Shrinkage and Distortion
Spot, seam and projection welding involve the localized heating of a metal
to its plastic point under the pressure of shaped electrodes. During the making
of the weld its volume is surrounded by unheated metal. The metal at the
interfaces is at the highest temperature and has the lowest strength. There is a
tendency for the exterior workparts to bend around the impressing electrodes.
Even cold metal may be deformed, prior to the application of the welding or
preheating currents, when soft metals under excessively high electrode pressure
are involved. The tendency to deform is greater with heated metal. Steeply
faced electrodes and higher forces may increase distortion.
Several factors in addition to the actual welding setup affect the appearance
and quality of the finished product. In seam welding, more than in any other
resistance welding process, warpage must be prevented as far as possible. It is
impossible to give universal cures for warpage, but an understanding of the
causes will enable the designer and operator to reduce it to a minimum. In
general, warpage is caused by the nonuniform contraction of the cooling metal,
which is surrounded by unheated metal. The unheated metal tends to retain its
original dimensions. The heated metal cools to dimensions smaller than the
original. This induces differential stresses that cause, or tend to cause, move-
ment. When many seams are used on a single assembly, the welds can sometimes
be staggered so that the warpage from one seam will offset that from another.
When, for example, the bottom of a rectangular box is welded, the welds should
not be made in continuous rotation. They should be made first on one side and
then on the opposite side. When several parallel seams are made, as in evap-
orators or condensers, simultaneous welding of all seams on special machines
will usually reduce the warpage to a negligible amount. Peening of spot, seam
and projection welds in long, flat sheets will also relieve warpage.
The most effective means of eliminating warpage in seam welding is the use
of flood cooling. The most common practice is the use of a jet of cooling water
immediately before and after the weld on both sides-four jets in all. Each jet
should be regulated by an individual valve and should come from a nozzle of
copper tubing, about 3/16 in. in diameter, impinging on the work as closely as
possible to the weld. The weld line is hot for some distance because of contact
with the electrodes. The length of this "tail" depends upon stock thickness,
speed of operation and other factors. The jets should be adjusted to keep this
tail as short as possible, for this determines, to a large extent, the amount of
warpage.
Residual Stresses
Stresses of undetermined magnitudes result from cooling of the welds. These
stresses are caused by differential heating and cooling and are of sufficient mag-
nitude to contribute to distortion of the structure. They may be compensated
Effects of Processes on Materials/ 26.45
for by arranging the order of welding in continuous symmetry around the

center of the parts. Low-temperature stress relief and peening may be desirable
in special cases to relieve residual stresses. Jigging the parts under stress prior
to welding tends to reduce the final stresses. A more complete discussion of
shrinkage and distortion will be found in Chapter 5, Residual Stresses and
Distortion, of Section 1 of the 6th edition of the Handbook.
Metallurgical Effects
The rate of quenching spot welds is extremely rapid in the thinner members
where the liquid-cooled electrodes are nearest to the weld center. The total
quantity of heat is at a minimum because of the short welding times and the
small weld volumes used. Because longer times are employed on thicker mem-
bers more heat is dissipated into the surrounding metal. Since the quenching
potential of the electrodes is also at a minimum, the cooling rates for these
conditions are at a minimum. In short-time projection welds, severe solid
metal quenching is obtained, and such techniques may be employed for thicker
members. Quench rates for spot, seam and projection welds under some condi-
tions may be so severe that, even for low-carbon steels, the fully hardened
condition is achieved. It is for this reason that recommended practice limits
the carbon content of carbon steels to 0.15% max., unless special techniques
are employed. The metallurgical result in resistance welding is the same as that
obtained if the base metal is heated to, or above, the melting point for a short
time and quenched under pressure at a corresponding rate. Although the
quenching rate may vary, depending upon the welding conditions employed,
its effect on the microstructure of the alloy is equivalent to the most drastic
quenching methods employed in modern heat treating practice.
Welds in low-carbon steel withstand the rapid quench without embrittlement
only because the carbon content is below that required to produce a brittle struc-
ture. Aluminum alloys, copper alloys and magnesium alloys are not quench
hardenable, since quenching retains the alloying elements in solid solution.
Hardening is achieved by a heat treatment that produces precipitation of the
alloying element in a compound form. Austenitic stainless steels are not quench
or precipitation hardenable. They derive their higher mechanical properties
from cold working. Accordingly, heat treating welding techniques reduce the
mechanical properties of these metals in the weld area.
Special quench and temper techniques for the higher-carbon and quench-
sensitive alloy steels have been developed. They improve the ductility and tough-
ness of the welds without the need for subsequent furnace heat treatment. The
weld is permitted to quench under pressure. Enough time under pressure is
allowed to permit transformation of the metal constituents to martensite. A
lower-level current is then applied, the function of which is to reheat the mar-
tensite to its tempering temperature. The weld may then be cooled rapidly.
Tempered martensite has one of the toughest structures. Tempering in the weld-
ing machine does not allow enough time to develop a fully tempered structure,
since the tempering of martensite is a time-temperature process. The time re-
quired is much longer than that required for welding. Tempering in the machine
is applicable where the initial quench rate is sufficiently rapid to cool the metal
faster than the critical rate, thus assuring the formation of the martensite. It is,
therefore, most readily applicable to thinner spot-welded sheets and to projection
welds on heavy members.
With sequencing controls it is possible to work out various combinations of
preheating, welding and postheating techniques for use in welding special metals
or combinations of metals, in order to produce desirable microstructures.
Surface Appearance
Surfaces of spot and seam welded parts are always subject to indentation
and marking on at least one side. It is usually possible to make welds without
such surface markings on one side by using a flat electrode on that surface.
Sometimes a concave electrode is employed for thin parts, and the resultant
raised surface is later ground flush. The use of improper machine settings and
electrode dressings will result in the welds shown in Fig. 26.18. Electrode
marking becomes pronounced after the parts are painted, because of the struc-
tural change of the metal under pressure, even though no surface distortion
takes place.
The surfaces of coated materials are partially destroyed during the welding
operations. If corrosion resistance is of prime importance, it may be desirable
that the parts be welded prior to coating. Some coatings, however, do not
require full coverage to give protection.
WELD, JOINT AND STRUCTURE QUALITY

High-quality joints can be produced consistently by the use of proper designs
and welding procedures. In all welding processes the properties obtained de-
pend upon the specific metal being welded. It is essential that in spot welded
joints the schedules be adjusted to compensate for current shunting losses
through prior welds or that the design be adjusted to fit the particular schedule
available. This is important for all materials and is particularly appropriate for
those metals, or combinations of metals, for which proved standard recom-
mended practices are not available.
Weld Diameters
The average weld size recommended is three times the thickness of the thin-
nest outer piece, plus 0.06 inch. The specific size varies for each metal. The
weld sizes are based upon calculations obtained from the highest average unit
shear strength achieved at failure, without producing inconsistent welds. In
projection welding, the size varies to suit special conditions, but in general the
diameter of the final fused zone is maintained the same as for spot welding.
Weld Properties
Structures employing spot and projection welds are usually designed so that
the welds are loaded in shear when the welded parts are stressed in tension or
compression. For the more commonly used metals, welded joints stressed in
this manner will develop the full tensile strength of a strip of the base metal
for a width somewhat greater than that of the weld diameter. The ratio of that
width to the weld diameter can be taken as a criterion of weld quality for a
given material. The direct tensile strength of spbt and projection welds is some-
what less than the strength in shear for ductile welds and very much less for
non-heat treated welds in hardenable materials. The variation in this ratio is so
pronounced that the ratio of direct tension to tension shear strength is com-
monly taken as a criterion of weld ductility. Untempered welds in hardenable,
but stronger, metals may be weaker in direct tension than those in less strong
ductile metals that are not as susceptible to quenching. The strength of welds
increases with increased diameter, although the average unit stress decreases.
The second relationship is caused by the increasing tendency of failure to occur
at the edge of the weld, because of stress concentrations, as weld size increases.
This factor renders meaningless an expression of average unit shear strengths
for spot, seam and projection welds in any material, unless the weld size is
specified. In low-carbon steel, for example, the calculated average shear stress
of good welds at rupture will vary from 10,000 to 60,000 psi. The low values
are obtained in thin sheets, where relatively large welds are employed, and the
high values are obtained for relatively small welds. In both instances, the actual
tensile stress at the material at the weld periphery is at or near the ultimate of
the unwelded base metal. This factor tends to cause the shear strength of
circular welds to vary linearly with diameter.
Single spot and projection welds are not strong in torsion, where the rotational
direction is in the plane of the welded part, and the weld diameter is small. This
strength tends to vary with the cube of the diameter, and larger welds, therefore,
are much stronger in torque than small welds.
Little torsional deformation is obtained from brittle welds prior to failure.
Angular displacements from 5 to 180° are obtained when varying from
extremely brittle to very ductile welds. This spread provides the basis for using
torsion loading as a test method.
All weld properties are dependent upon the temper, strength and composition
of the unwelded base metal. In all cases where the quenched metal responds to
temper treatment, the weld properties respond in like manner. The improvement
is of a high order where such materials as high-carbon and alloy steels are
concerned.
Weld Penetration
Penetration into the base metal is ordinarily permitted to vary from 20 to
80% of the thickness of the outer member. Full penetration is unsightly and
also denotes a condition that results in low electrode life. Too little penetration
denotes inadequate heat, or heat balance, and inconsistent weld quality. De-
sirable and undesirable weld sections are shown in Chapter 6, Inspection of
Welding, in Section 1 of the 6th edition of the Handbook.
Weld Symmetry
Weld nuggets should preferably be symmetrical. Irregularities could denote
excessive deflection, skidding, improperly dressed electrodes, dirty stock or
misalignment of electrodes.
Cracked Welds
Cracked welds are the results of overheating, improperly applied loading dur-
ing welding or the use of improper schedules on crack-sensitive materials.
Quench cracks at the weld periphery are particularly damaging, since this is the
zone of highest stress, whereas those at the weld center usually have no signifi-
cant effect upon the weld properties.
Porous Welds
Most commercially produced welds contain some center porosity, usually the
result of overheating, inadequate pressures, the premature release of an adequate
pressure or too late application of an adequate forging pressure. Weld center
Fig. 26.37.-Edge distance, the distance from the center of the weld to the edge of
the part, must be sufficient to avoid poor welds
porosity has no demonstrable influence upon weld properties, since the applied
stresses are concentrated near the periphery of the welds. It can be eliminated
or reduced by using lower rates of heat build-up, lesser maximum temperatures
and higher pressures.
Weld Consistency
The consistency of weld quality is determined by the following: the uniform-
ity of the thickness, composition, surface conditions and temper of the materials
being welded; the consistency of the mechanical-electrical operations of the
equipment; electrode maintenance; the choice of welding schedule.
Since the weld properties are a function of the thickness, composition and
temper of the metal being welded, even perfect equipment could not produce
welds of a higher order of consistency than that of the metal furnished to the
welding electrodes. The magnitude of variation in surface conditions and the
secondary current are the most important welding variables. Variations in
alternating current are serious because the current tends to fluctuate with line
voltage variations, varying amounts of magnetic materials in the throat of the
welding machine and variable shunting effects. Under proper control, however,
there is little difficulty in maintaining high shear strength consistencies.
Surface Indentation
Surface indentation may be held to negligible magnitudes by the use of flat
electrodes on one side of the joint. The electrode impression on the opposite side
may be held to 5 to 10%, as desired, of the individual member thickness.
Indentation is increased by the use of excessive heat, excessive force and steeply
faced electrodes (See Chapter 6, Section 1.)
Effects of Processes on Materials I 26.49
Surface Melting and Electrode Pickup

Surface melting of the parts, exclusive of coatings, is the result of insufficient
pressure or insufficient time with excessive current, or a combination of both.
Inadequate electrode cooling and inadequate squeeze and hold times also
contribute to this difficulty. Electrode pickup is particularly pronounced when
refractory metals are welded in air with copper-alloy electrodes.
Sheet Separation
Excessive sheet separation results from the same causes as surface indentation,
to which it is related. A steeply tapered electrode, applied under high pressures
to the exterior of a sheet having a highly heated interface, acts as a punch. It
tends to depress the exterior of the sheet and raise the interface radially around
the weld periphery.
Interface Expulsion
Expulsion is the result of overheating, particularly when combined with in-
adequate pressure, steeply faced electrodes or inadequate follow-up of the
electrodes. It results in internal cavitation and usually reduces weld strength.
This tendency is so pronounced that it is a general operating rule to regulate
the current to such a point that expulsion is just avoided. Experience indicates
that the resultant weld will have maximum shear strength for the force-time-
electrode conditions used.
Edge Distance
Edge distance must be sufficiently great to provide adequate heat conduction
between the weld periphery and the edge of the workpart, as well as adequate
strength to resist the lateral forces of deformation. Values required vary with
the material, weld size, sheet thickness and schedule used. Appropriate values
for different metals, measured from the weld center, may be derived from the
recommended practices. Figure 26.37 shows the electrodes properly positioned
with adequate edge distance. When edge distance is less than minimum, poor
results are obtained as illustrated.
Contacting Overlap
The contacting overlap cannot be less than twice the minimum required edge
distance, measured from the center of the weld. Values for different metals
are given in the recommended practices.
E!ectrode Clearance
Sufficient clearance should always be provided to permit entry of the elec-
trodes. Values for this dimension are considered in the recommended practices.
See Fig. 26.38 for illustrations of proper and improper electrode clearance.
Joint Properties
Properly designed and welded joints can develop the full tensile strength of
the unwelded base metal. When joints of lesser strength are required, it is more
economical to provide a minimum number of welds.
The use of a single row of welds results in more angular deflection of the
joint under high loading. This causes a higher direct tensile component to be
' :
''
l..r.;;.;
,.:..,
POOR IMPROVEMENT AlTERNATE GOOD
Fig. 26.38.-Proper and improper electrode clearance
applied to the weld edges, which tends to reduce their strength still further.
Multiple rows of welds reduce their deflection tendency and permit wider weld
spacings with reduced shunting. They require, however, a greater overlapping
of material.
Spaced, Tangent, Overlapped and Seam-Welded Joints
For those metals in which a spot or projection weld loaded in shear will de-
velop the full strength of a strip having a width greater than the weld diameter,
it is obviously not necessary to space the welds closer together than the developed
strength ratio in order to provide a joint of the full base metal strength. Closer
spacings are required only when seam tightness is necessary. Since closer weld
spacing contributes to current shunting losses, the spacing should never be held
closer than is necessary to provide the required total joint strength.
ELECTRODE MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of electrodes is necessary for the production of strong, consistent
welds. Allowing electrode deterioration to proceed until welds become unsatis-
factory is poor practice. Abnormal increases in the size of contact area should
be regarded as a danger signal to weld strength and quality. If a 1/4 in.
diameter electrode face is allowed to increase to 5/16 in. by mushrooming,
the contact area is increased 50%, with a corresponding decrease in current
and pressure densities. Depending somewhat upon the schedule being employed,
the result may be weak or defective welds. A danger sign is the production of
poorly shaped spots, which may be caused by: (1) the noncircular outline of
the tip face, ( 2) the use of too large a flat face on the tip, ( 3) the use of a
flat tip with a blunt and irregular edge, ( 4) the concavity or convexity of the
tip, (5) failure to maintain tips parallel to the work and (6) misalignment of
electrodes.
Correct alignment is relatively easy to maintain when stationary welding
machines are used. Lack of alignment, however, is common with portable ma-
chines. The seriousness of this condition is dependent upon the ease with which
the equipment for the particular application is manipulated. It is to be expected,
therefore, that the same electrode will have longer life between dressings on
positioned work; (stationary machines) than on nonpositioned work (portable
welding guns).
The success of projection welding operations in production depends largely

upon the following three factors, as far as electrodes are concerned: proper
selection of materials, proper installation and proper maintenance. If the dies
are of correct design and construction, the installation is next in importance.
First, the platens of the machine should be checked carefully to make sure that
they are level and at right angles to the motion of the ram. The platens should
also be smooth, clean and free from dirt, nicks and pit marks. If these condi-
tions are not met, the platens should be removed and machined before any
attempt is made to install the dies. The check for parallelism of the platens
should be made under normal operating forces. This can best be done by
inserting a steel block with known smooth and parallel faces between the platens
and checking with feelers. Another good check is to place tissue paper under the
corners and then feel for looseness. Prussian blue may be placed on the block
to register on the paper. However, Prussian blue should never be allowed to get
on the platens, since it is difficult to remove and can start corrosion of the
platens.
The next step is to check the base of the die blocks. They must be clean,
smooth, level and free from burrs and nicks. If they are not, a machine cut
should be taken. Silver plating of contact surfaces is often desirable, since silver
oxide is an electrical conductor.
The dies can now be installed in the machine. Most machines have tee slots
in the two platens, cut at right angles to one another, to permit universal align-
ment of the dies. When they are properly lined up, they should be bolted down
securely. With the work in place, the ram or knee, whichever is adjustable,
should be adjusted for the proper stroke, making the necessary allowance for
upset of the projections.
If the faces of the projections are all in one plane, and if they have been
checked for uniform height, it can be assumed that the setup is ready for trial
welds. If the trial indicates nonuniformity of current or pressure, before attempt-
ing to correct the dies make sure that the trouble does not lie elsewhere. The
trouble may be caused by the following: shunting of current through locators;
unequal distribution of current, caused by some projections being considerably
closer to the transformer than others; too much play in the welding head; too
much deflection in the knee.
The use of shims between dies components or between dies and platens is to
be avoided as much as possible. When shims are used, they must be of only
clean, high-grade, soft copper sheet and should have sufficient area to carry the
secondary current.
If the projections are located on curved or angle surfaces, accurate templates
should be provided for checking the dies, keeping in mind that the final proof
of the setup is the actual weld. Also, when curved surfaces are welded, or two
or more pieces are welded to other parts, difficulties may be encountered be-
cause of the manufacturing tolerances of the metal thicknesses involved. There
is no cure for this condition, except to provide for it in the design of the parts
and arrangement of projections.
Dies can usually be reworked in the machine without disturbing the setup if
the reworking is of a minor nature.
QUALITY CONTROL
Control of weld quality is maintained only by !_1recontrol of the factors that
26.52/ Spot, Seam and Projection Welding
tend to produce variations in the final product. These factors include: design;
material thickness; composition; temper and surface conditions; electrode size
and shape; cooling conditions; rate of approach; imposed pressures; secondary
current; squeeze and hold times; fitup of parts; selection of w~lding methods
and schedules having the lowest reactions to known variations.
Control of the flow of materials to the welding machines is an individual
problem, and the means for obtaining control are not directly related to welding.
Welding Variables
For a given uniform material, fed to a suitable machine operating under a
recommended schedule, the matter of producing good welds consistently be-
comes routine. Uniform production welding is achieved if essentially constant
conditions are provided. When the sizes of the electrodes are maintained, and
the force, time and current delivered to the weld zone also are maintained
constant, there is no possibility of single weld quality variations. Since it is
impossible to achieve absolute uniformity in production schedules, they always
should be set up to allow for some variations without causing significant varia-
tions in weld properties.
Electrode force is usually checked from air or hydraulic pressure vs. force
calibration curves, but facilities should be available to check the actual force as
required. In general, only static forces are measured. Proper maintenance and
lubrication of moving parts help to assure uniformity of dynamically applied
forces. Periodic checking of electrode contour and shape, followed by lathe
dressing as required, assures the application of uniform pressures and current
densities. Delivery of constant currents to the weld interfaces can be assured by
the following: the use of current or voltage regulators, maintenance of proper
line voltage, fitup of parts, proper spacing of welds and adjusting for magnetic
materials introduced into the secondary loop of the machine.
Adaptive Control
Controls for resistance welding have progressively improved in terms of life,
reliability, timing accuracy and firing precision. New timing techniques utilize
all semiconductor components for resistance-capacitance timing as well as abso-
lute accuracy cycle counting. However, improving these control functions alone
will not compensate for all external welding variables. Changes in work and
electrode conditions involving metal fit, surface contamination, electrode mush-
rooming, line voltage fluctuations, current shunting owing to insufficient spot
spacing, edge welds, cable wear and electrode force can gradually or suddenly
cause inferior welds. Addition of a current regulator can compensate for some
of these variables. Both improved timing accuracy and current regulation at-
tempt to maintain weld quality indirectly by controlling some of the variables
that affect weld quality. It would be impractical, if not impossible, to provide
functions to compensate for all welding variables that could cause inferior welds.
To successfully compensate for changing conditions, the control must be
made aware of the total effect of varying welding conditions on the workpiece.
This is done by monitoring the formation of the spot weld as it is made. In
addition, the control must be capable of making a correction in weld energy.
Controllers utilizing feedback signals from the welding zone and making simul-
taneous corrections in weld energy are called adaptive controls.
The feedback signal must be indicative of weld quality. Two parameters
Common Applications/ 26.53
indicative of weld quality used in current adaptive controllers are the changing
electrical resistance and thermal expansion patterns that occur during the forma-
tion of the weld. Either current or time or both simultaneously can be varied
to satisfy the weld energy requirements dictated by the feedback signal. Alter-
natively, the feedback signal can be used as a monitor to signal that present limits
have not been met. Adaptive controls for resistance welding might be considered
to correct for many of the welding variables that can degrade weld quality.
Each application should be carefully analyzed to determine if the adaptive
control can be of value. The interest in, and the use of, this type of control is
rapidly increasing for many resistance welding installations.
Sampling Methods
A method of sampling employed under some specifications is to provide test
welds at the beginning of welding each part, at the beginning of each subse-
quent hour of work and for each shift and electrode change. Usually the tension
shear test is the only test made at these intervals. In some instances macroetch-
ing is employed to provide a check on weld diameter, penetration and symmetry.
Details of the accepted methods of testing are described fully in Chapter 6,
Section 1 of the sixth edition of the Handbook.
COMMON APPLICATIONS
METALS
Most metals and their alloys can be welded to themselves, and often to each
other, by spot, seam and projection welding. Electrical and thermal conductivi-
ties generally go together. For high-conductivity metals, such as copper and
silver, little heat is generated, even with high currents, and much of it is rapidly
dissipated into the surrounding metal. Short welding times must, therefore, be
employed for these metals. The heat energy must be applied rapidly, requiring
the use of high currents. The total heat energy required to reach the plastic
range is a function of the product of the specific heat, the melting temperature
and the density of the metal.
For hard metals, such as cold-rolled stainless steels, high pressures may be
employed. Soft metals, such as lead, require the use of low pressures. For the
softer metals, larger radii, domed electrodes or smaller face angles on the
electrodes are required to prevent piercing of the molten pool.
The final weld properties are independently determined by the characteristics
of the metals being welded or by the resultant alloy combination formed.
Iron
Commercially pure or ingot iron results in very ductile welds that have some-
what lesser strengths than steel, because of the lesser strength of the base metal
and a lesser hardening of the weld ingots.
Steel
Low-carbon steels, up to about 0.15% carbon content, are readily and widely
welded. For higher carbon contents the use of special welding techniques, in-
volving in-the-machine heat treatments, are recommended.
Low-alloy steels may be spot welded with or without the use of special heat
treating techniques, depending upon the physical properties desired.
Austenitic steels are nonhardenable, and the severe quench involved is not
detrimental for these compositions. They are, therefore, readily spot, seam and
projection welded.
Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys
All the commercial aluminum alloys, which are produced in the form of
sheet and extrusions, may be welded, provided the thicknesses involved are
not too great. The provision of proper equipment for making the welds, the
preparation of the surface of the material for welding and the use of correct
machine settings are necessary for producing satisfactory welds.
Aluminum and aluminum alloys have comparatively high thermal and elec-
trical conductivity. In order to make spot and seam welds, high values of
welding current and relatively short welding times are necessary. A further
factor influencing the choice of equipment for spot welding aluminum is the
rapid softening of the material at the welding temperature, which necessitates
a slight movement of the welding electrode into the material being welded.
Although the movement is small, it must take place in a very short time, per-
haps 0.002 to 0.005 sec, and as a consequence, considerable acceleration of the
welding electrode assembly is necessary if contact is to be maintained between
the welding electrode and the material welded. For this reason, the moving
electrode system should possess low inertia and should be guided so as to
minimize friction.
Magnesium Alloys
Magnesium alloy sheet and extrusions are commonly spot welded, after the
surfaces have been properly cleaned.
Copper and Copper Alloys

Copper is one of the most difficult of all metals to resistance weld because
the small amount of heat developed is conducted away so rapidly. It is precisely
this characteristic that has resulted in the widespread use of copper as an
electrical current-carrying material. The introduction of alloying elements or
surface plating increases the electrical resistance, decreases the thermal con-
ductivity, reduces the melting point and increases ease of welding.
Zinc
Zinc-alloy die castings have been welded experimentally by the spot, seam
and projection welding processes, using synchronous-precision electronic con-
trols. Spot welds of adequate strength and liquid-tight seam welds have been
produced.
Lead and Lead Alloys

Pure lead and the lead alloys can readily be welded. Large body diameter
electrodes are recommended with about 2 o face tapers. This is necessary to
prevent the electrodes from passing entirely through the almost strengthless
molten weld zone. Welds in lead are highly ductile. Those in some of the lead
alloys are brittle.
Common Applications/ 26.55
Silver
Silver, having the highest electrical and thermal conductivities, is difficult to
weld. It may be brazed readily.
Nickel and Nickel Alloys

Nickel and its alloys are readily spot, seam and projection welded.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum can be welded with great difficulty. Best results are obtained
by roughening the interfaces to form many small projections. The major diffi-
culty is electrode maintenance. Copper alloys do not maintain their shape or
contacting area and tend to deposit metal on the outer work surfaces. To prevent
this tendency the sheets are sometimes welded under water. The final welds
are brittle.
Tantalum and Tungsten

Tantalum and tungsten may be welded in about the same manner as that
described for molybdenum.
Coated Materials
Electroplated steel has a lower total electrode-to-electrode resistance than
ordinary surfaces of the same metal. Correspondingly higher currents are re-
quired in the welding of these materials. Terne plate, tin plate, galvanized
(zinc) coated, aluminized and cadmium-plated steels can be welded. Coatings
are commonly damaged or destroyed in the welding process. Nickel and chro-
mium plated steels, therefore, are not ordinarily welded, since these coatings
are usually applied for appearance only.
Dissimilar Combinations
In general, any combination of metals that alloy together can be welded. The
resultant properties, however, will be determined by the reaction of the resultant
alloy. Each of the many possible combinations must, therefore, be judged on
its merits, while considering the requirements of the specific product.
~
0.
:
.........
~
~
Table 26.1-Recommended practices for spot welding low-carbon steel
Thickness Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum Shear
"T" of Diameter Electrode Time Current Contacting Weld of Strength
Thinnest
Outside
and_Shape (e) Force, (Single
Impulse),
(Approx.) Overlap, Spacing, (f) Fused
Zone, Lb.
r
~
Piece (a), OR
(b), (c), (d) ~
to•CR2J. illtimate Tensile <::>
~ Strength of Metal
f.i!~tt ~D·~ trot ~
Dw Tensile Tensile
a·§'
Strength
D, In., d, In., Cycles
ti In.,
Strength
Below 70,000 psi
Inches Min. Max. Lb (60Hz) Amperes ln. In. Approx. 70,000 psi and Above
0.010 % ~ 200 4 4000 % J4 0.10 130 180

~
~·
0.021 % ;{6 300 6 6500 ~ % 0.13 320 440
0.031 400 8 8000 ~ 0.16 570 800
0.040 ~ 500 10 9500 ~ 0.19 920 1200
0.050 J4 650 12 10,500 ~ ~ 0.22 1350 ....
0.062 H J4 800 14 12.000 1 0.25 1850 ....
0.078 ~ 1100 17 14,000 ~M 1)4 0.29 2700 ....
0.094 ~ 1300 20 15,500 1~ 0.31 3450 ....
0.109 ~ % 1600 23 17,500 ttr. 0.32 4150 ....
0.125 ~ % 1800 26 19,000 Y8 m 0.33 5000 ....
-
(a) Type of Steel-SAE 1010.

(b) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint, grease and oil.
(c) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(d) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T," Maximum ratio between two thickness 3 to 1.
(e) Electrode Material. Class 2
Minimum Conductivity-75% ofCOPPer
Minimum Hardness -75 Rockwell"B"
(f) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds.
For three pieces increase spacing 30 percent.
Table 26.2-Recommended practices for spot welding 1--alloy and medium-carbon steels
Electrode Net Weld Quench Temper Welding Temper Minimum Minimum Diam Minimum Ratio
Diameter Electrode Time Time Time Current Current Contacting Weld of Weld Strength, Tensile
and Shape Weld and (App.) Overlap Spacing (e) Fused Shear
Material Temper Zone, Strength,
(a), (b), (c), (d) 1
-D:-1 I Force,
w~ ~
~ ct'o<t Lbs
~
"T" D d R %of
~ Shear Tensile
Type Condition Thickness In. In. In. Lb Cycles Cycles Cycles Welding Inches Str. Str.
Inches Min. (60Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) Amperes Current Inches Inches (App.) Lbs. Lbs. Percent
--- -- --------- --- ------
1020 Hot Rolled 0.040 % 6 1475 6 17 6 I6000 90 ~ I 0.23 I360 920 68
1035 Hot Rolled 0.040 % 6 I475 6 20 6 I4200 !11 1 0.22 1560 520 33
1045 Hot Rolled 0.040 6 I475 6 24 6 13800 88 1 0.21 2000 680 33
%
ti~ ~
4130 Hot Rolled 0.040 % J.i 6 I475 6 I8 6 I3000 90 I 0.22 2I20 640 30
4340 Normalized 0.03I % '!>{, 6 900 4 I2 4 8250 84 u.~ ~ O.I6 1084 290 27
& Drawn
4340 Normalized 0.062 ~ •,{, 6 2000 10 45 IO I3900 77 % I~ 0.27 3840 I440 37
& Drawn
4340 Normalized O.I25 I % IO 5500 45 240 90 21800 88 ~ 2~ 0.55 13680 4000 29
& Drawn
8630 Normalized 0.03I ~ '!16 6 800 4 12 4 8650 88 u. ~ 0.16 1220 524 43 ::t
& Drawn
8630 Normalized 0.062 % u. 6 I800 10 36 10 12800 83 % 1311 0.27 4240 2200 52
&Drawn 8
8630 Normalized O.I25 1 % IO 4500 45 2IO 90 2I800 84 ~ 2311 0.55 I3200 4500 34 ~
& Drawn ~
8715 Normalized O.OI8 ~ ),i 6 350 3 4 3 3900 85 u. % O.IO 400 200 50 (1>
& Drawn
8715 Normalized 0.062 % '!16 6 1600 IO 28 10 I2250 85 % 1~ 0.27 3300 I800 55
& Drawn ~
8715 Normalized O.I25 1 % IO 4500 45 I80 90 22700 85 ~ 2~ 0.55 12760 4500 as ~
& Drawn
9115 Annealed 0.040 % J.i 6 IOOO 6 14 5 I2000 79 ~ I 0.22 I640 I020 6I ~
9115 311 Hard 0.040 % J.i 6 I240 6 I4 5 12000 79 ~ 1 0.22 2040 1020 50
9115 Annealed 0.070 ~ l>ti 6 2325 8 34 8 22600 67 •u. 1~ 0.32 4250 2800 66 ~
9115 ~Hard 0.070 ~ I';{, 6 2800 8 34 8 22600 71 •u. 1~ 0.32 5050 2520 50
-· --
~·
(a) Material should be pickled or otherwise cleaned to obtain a surface contact resistance not exceeding 200 microhms. ........
(b) Data is for two pieces of equal thickness, each of thickness "T."
...,
(c) Electrode material: RWMA Class 2 minimum electrical conductlvity-75% of copper, minimum hardness 7li Rockwell "B." 0.
(d) Electrode diameter and shape are the same for both upper and lower electrodes. in
(e) Minimum spacing is that spacing for which no special precautions need to be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds. ....
...,
Table 26.3-Recommended practices for spot welding stainless steels ~
--- i.n
00
Thickness Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum I Diameter Minimum Shear
"T" of Diameter Electrode Time Current Contacting
·1 Minimum
Weld of Strength, '---..
Thinnest and Shape (e) Force, I (Single (Approx.), Overlap, Spacing, (f) Fused
Outside I Impulse) Zone, ~
Piece (a), II 0
\b), (c), (d) I Lb
.ir, OR R=J"
?Ol:j;~ -------------
--~
I q_roq;; Ultimate Tensile
~-1:!. g-':[ ).-o:_j Amperes Strength of Metal ~
$::)
I ------------- ~ ------------ ;:s
Tensile Tensile 70,000 90,000 150,000 $:),
------ ------------- I Strength Strength up to up to psi
U, In .. d, In., I Cycles Below 150,000 psi In .. 90,000 150,000 and ~
Inches Min.
------------ ------
Max. Lb
-----~-----
I (60Hz) 150.000 psi
----- ------
and Higher
!! In. In. Approx. psi psi
---- ---- ----
Higher 0
~
---~--- -~~- 0 04~
0 006 '{, '1, 180 I 2 I 2000 2000 60 70 85 o·~
0 008 " (, :y,, 200 3 2000 2000 3 3 /(6 16 0 055 100 130 145 ;:s
0 010 '16 Ys 230 3 2000 2000 ~16 3 w 0 065 150 170 210
0 012 1 4 Ys 26o 1 3 21oo 2000 >i >i 0 076 185 210 250
2200 >i >i 0 082 240 250 320
~
(1>
0 014 '" Ys ~~g I ~888
0.016 >i Ys 2500 >i % 0.088 280 300 380
0.018 1
.4 Vs 380 I
14 35oo 2800 >i ~16 0.093 320 360 470 lS:
0.021 '·:! ,..,., 400 -! 4000 3200 5/1'6 ~16 0. 100 370 470 500 ~·
0.025 if '.12 520 5 5000 4100 Ys % 0.120 500 600 680
0.031 "" 650 5 6000 4800 % Ys 0.1W 680 800 930
0.034 750 ll 7000 5500 '..[, 9 920 1100
rs% '..[, /16 0.150 800
0.040 % % 900 6 7800 6300 '..[, % o.wo 1000 1270 1400
0.044 % % 1000 8 8700 7000 ~(6 1~ 0.180 1200 1450 1700
0.050 Ys >i 1200 . 8 9500 7500 Ys ~ O.illO 1450 1700 2000
0.056 Yz >i 1350 I 10 10.300 8300 % Ys 0.210 1700 2000 2450
0.062 I~ >i 1500 10 11,000 9000 % 1 0.220 1950 2400 2900
0 070 % >i 1700 12 12,300 10,000 % 1Vs 0.250 2400 2800 3550
0.078 % % 1900 I 1.1 14.000 11,000 lUi; 1~ 0.275 2700 3400 4000
0.094 % ',{, 2400 16 15.700 12,700 ~ 1% 0.285 3550 4200 5300
0.109 '}4 % 2800 18 17.700 14,000 I%J 1Ji 0.290 4200 5000 6400
0.125 ~ % 3300 I 20 18. ooo 15.500 Ys 2 0.300 5000 6000 7600
(a) Types of steel-:301. :>02. :303, 304, 308. 309, 310, 316, 317, 321, 347 and 349.
(b) :Niaterial should be free from scale, oxides, paint, grea:-;e and oil.
(c) \Velding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(d) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T," Maximum ratio between two thicknesses 3 to I.
(el Electrode Material, Class 2, Class 3 or Class 11
Minimum Conductivity- 75% 4.5% 30% of Copper
Minimum Hardness 75 95 98 Rockwell "B"
\f'l ~Hnimum weld spacing i~ that spacing for two pieces for \Vhich no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds.
Fl)f three pieces increa~e ;;pacing 30 percent.
Table 26.4-Recommended practices for spot welding aluminum and aluminum alloys with single-phase a-c type machines
Thickness "T'' Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diatneter ~1inimum Average
(a), (b) Diameter Electrode Time Current Contacting .Weld of Shear Strength
and Shape Force (Approx.) (Approx.) Overlap Spacing Fused
(Top & Bottom) (e) (d) Zone
(c)
r-L-J
-------------------
1
~
q_ro~ ~ 1 19,500* to 28,000 to 56,000 psi
~ w 28,000 psi I T>6 .000 psi I and Above
I2?1I I
Lb. ~
--------~---------~-----~-----1 ~-----_:~~=-1 _ :\J~=j_::::_
=-~--- D, In. R, In. ~--~~d__ --~~ Amperes In. --~~--i_:Ap~~~x.~ ---=~--~~----=~--~---=~--
0.016 . % 1"-F. 320 4 15,000 % % I 0.110 95 130 I 145
0.020 % 1"--F. 340 5 18,000 % % 0.125 135 17.5 190
0.025 % 2"-F. 390 6 21 ,800 7,(, % I 0.140 195 I 235 250
0.032 % 2"-F. 500 6 26,000 Y2 Y2 0.160 280 I 315 350
0.040 % 3"-F. 600 8 30,700 % J.-2 0.180 400 41S I 460
0.051 % 3"-F. 660 8 33,000 % % 0.210 550 .590 640
0.064 % 3"-F. 750 10 35,900 % % 0.250 7.55 835 920 ::::,
0.072 % 4-4 800 10 38,000 '% % 0.275 875 980 1130 ~
0.081 Ys 4-4 860 10 41 '800 Ys % 0. 300 1035 1155 1400
0.091 Ys 6-6 950 12 46,000 1% Ys 0.330 1175 1355 1700 8
0.102 Ys 6-6 1050 15 56' 000 1 1 0. 360 1270 1600 2050 ~
0.125 Ys 6-6 1300 15 76,000 1Ys 1)4 0.425 1400 2170 2830 ~
~
;::
•Use 75% of these values for base metal tensile strengths of less than 19,500 psi.
Notes:
~
~
(a) Thickness "T" is the thickness of one sheet of an even two sheet combination.
(b) Types of aluminum alloy-1100-H12, 1100-H18, 3003-H12, 3003-H18, 3004-H32, 3004-H38, 5052-H32, 5052-H38, 5005-H32, 5005-H38, 5154-H32, 5154-II:ls, G061- ~
T4, 6061-TB, 6063-T4, and 6063-T6. ~
(c) A spherical radius to a flat or like spherical radii are recommended unless the contour of the part is such that unlike radii are neces~ary to effect a heat balance. <')
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compen:3ate for shunted current effect of adjacent weld.
(e) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the values specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop condition:-;, or distortion of the lapping ~-
she~ts may occur.
"'
'-
...,
.,.
u.-o
~
0.
s
Table 26.5-Recommende d practices for spot welding aluminum and aluminum alloys on three-phase frequency converter type machines
'g'
'!""-
V:l
Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum ·~
Thickness "T" Electrode Average
(a), (b) Diameter Electrode Time Current Contacting Weld of
and Shape Force (Approx.) (Approx.) Overlap Spacing Fused Shear ~
(Top & Bottom) (e) (d) Zone Strength
(c) j-L-j ~
~ ~
~
R] ct.TO<f ~·
Cycles •
~w -~
I I ~·
~1.,.
Lb. (60Hz) Amperes ;:
......
Post
~
Post ~'
In. D, In. R, In. Weld Forge Weld Heat Weld Heat In. In. In. (Approx.) Lb.
l:i:
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - s·
)Q'
0.020 3 500 None % None 26,000 None % % 0.125 190
0.025 3 500 1500 1 3 34,000 8,500 % % 0.140 250
0.032
~ 4 700 1800 1 4 36,000 9,000 % % 0.160 350
% 4 42,000 12,600 % 0.180 460
0.040 % 4 800 2000 1 %
0.051 4 900 2300 1 5 46,000 13,800 % 0.210 640
% 2 5 54,000 18,900 % 0.250 920
0.064 6 1300 3000 ~ 1130
0.072 6 1600 3600 2 6 61,000 21,350 "-16 ~ 0.275
6 2000 4300 3 6 65,000 22,750 :v. ~ 0.300 1400
0.081 1% 0.330 1700
0.091 6 2400 5300 3 8 75,000 30,000 :v.
0.102
D 8 2800 6800 3 8 85,000 34,000 1 1 0.360 2050
0.125
:v. 8 4000 9000 4 10 100,900 45,000 lYs lU 0.425 2830
:v.
Notes:
(a) Thickness "T" is the thickness of one sheet of an even two sheet combination.
(b) Types of aluminum alloy-2014-T3 Alclad, 2014-T6 Alclad, 2024-T3, 2024-T4, 2014-T4, 2014-T6, and 7075-T6 clad sheet. like thicknesses and material combina-
(c) Where practical a spherical radius is recommended. This radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes for
tions unless the contour of the part Is such that unlike radii are necessary to effect a heat balance. of adjacent weld.
(d) Minimum weld spacing Is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of the lapping
(e) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the values specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions, or distortion
sheets may occur.
Table 26.6--Recommended practices for spot welding aluminum and aluminum alloys on three-phase rectifier type machines
Thickness '"T" Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum
(a), (b) Diameter Electrode Time Current Contacting Weld of Average
and Shape Force (Approx.) (Approx.) Overlap Spacing Fused Shear
(Top & Bottom) (e) (d) Zone Strength
(c)
~L-1
~ ~w
rl -I ctro<t
I I
~ Lb.
Cycles
(60Hz) Amperes •,--•...,.
Post Post
In. D. In. R, In. Weld Forge Weld Heat Weld Heat In. In. 'n. (Approx.) Lb.
--- - - - - - - ---- - - -
0.016 % 3 440 1000 1 None 19,000 None % % 0.110 145
0.020 % 3 520 1150 1 None 22,000 None % % 0.125 190
0.032 % 3 670 1540 2 None 28,000 None J1 J1 0.160 350
0.040 % 3 730 1800 3 None 32,000 None 9,{6 Yz 0.180 460
0.051 % 8 900 2250 4 4 37,000 30,000 % % 0.210 640
0.064 % 8 1100 2900 5 5 43,000 36,000 !)4 % 0.250 920
0.072 % 8 1190 3240 6 7 48,000 38,000 I',{& !)4 0.275 1130 ~
0.081 Ys 8 1460 3800 7 9 52,000 42,000 Ys !)4 0.300 1400
0.091 Ys 8 1700 4300 8 11 56,000 45,000 15,{, Ys 0.330 1700 8
0.102 Ys 8 1900 5000 9 14 61,000 49,000 1 1 0.360 2050
0.125 Ys 8 2500 6500 10 22 69,000 54,000 1Ys 1)4 0.425 2830 §
-- - - - ~
Notes:
5.
(a) Thickness "T" is the thickness of one sheet of an even two sheet combination. ~
(b) Types of aluminum alloy-2014-T3 Alclad, 2014-T6 Alclad. 2024-T3, 2024-T4, 2014-T4, 2014-T6, and 7075-T6 clad sheet.
(c) Where practical a spherical radius is recommended. This radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes for like thicknesses and material combina- ~
tions unless the contour of the part is such that unlike radii are necessary to effect a heat balance.
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent weld. ft
(e) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the values specified. otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions, or distortion of the lapping
sheets may occur. ~·
...
.........
lio)
o-
0.
-
1\)
0.
~
--......
~
0
_.....
~
Table 26.7-Recommended practices for spot welding aluminum and aluminum alloys on electromagnetic stored-energy type machines ~
I :::.
;::
Thickness uT" Electrode Net Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter l Minimum
(a), (b) Diameter Electrode Cmrent Contacting Weld of I Average :::..
and Shape Force (Approx.) Overlap Spacing Fused / Shear ::p
(Top & Bottom) (e) (d) Zone Strength 0
(c) j- L -+j 1 (Approx.) ~
~ ~I ~
c;·
0. ,c?----J q_•oct; I=JDw I! ;::
j..:o=..j I 1 · ~
~
Lb. ~~ I iS:
-----I-n-.- - - - D, I n . - - - - ; - ; : - - - - Weld-----;:::-- Amperes In. In. ~;.pprox.) ~---Lb.--- ;::·
C>Q
------------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - i' - - - - - - -
0.016 % 4 332 1000 21.000 % % 0.110 I 145
o.o2o % 4 35o w5o 23.ooo % % o.125 1 19o
0.025 % 4 383 1150 25,000 ',{, % 0.140 • 250
0.032 % 4 450 1350 28,000 72 72 0.160 i 350
o.o4o % 4 475 1425 31,ooo % 72 o.18o I 46o
0.051 % 4 515 !550 36,000 % % 0.210 640
_ ~~4 __ -~ _ 6 100 21 00__ --~oo~--- _ _ _ _ :u % o .2so I 920 _
Notes:
(a) Thickness uT" is the thickness of one sheet of an even two sheet combination.
(b) Types of aluminum alloy-2014-T3 Alclad, 2014-T6 Alclad, 2024-T3, 2024-T4, 2014-T4, 2014-T6, and 7075-T6 clad sheet.
(c) Where practical a spherical radius is recommended. This radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes for like thicknesses and material combina-
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent weld.
(e) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the values specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions, or distortion of the lapping
sheets may occur.
Table 26.8-Recommended practices for spot welding aluminum and aluminum alloys on electrostatic (condenser discharge) stored-energy type machines
Thickness "T" Electrode Net Capacity Charging Trans- Total Minimum -: Minimum Diameter Minimum
(a), (b) Diameter Electrode Voltage former Energy Contacting Weld of Average
and Shape Force Turns Overlap (e) Spacing Fused Shear
rTuv & Bottom) Ratio 14- L-+1 (d) Zone Strength
•,C) I .I (Approx.)
I I ~ I I ~
! [2] i F?-J 1 roq; Dw
~ -D-j I ~
Lb.
I
-----------.-------;----~- ------------ ----- --------------------
' f
I Micro \Vatt
In. : IJ, ln. : R, ln. Weld Forge farads Kilovolts Seconds ln. In. In. (Approx.) Lb.
- - - - - - - - - - ~-~----~----- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.020 % 3 376 692 240 2.15 300:1 555 % % 0.125 190
0.032 : % :~ 580 1300 240 2.7 300:1 875 Y:i ~2 0.160 350
0.040 ! % 3 680 1580 360 2.55 300:1 1172 % Y:i 0.180 460
0.051 % 3 890 2100 600 2.56 300:1 1952 % % 0.210 640
0.064 % 3 1080 2680 720 2.7 300:1 2622 % % 0.250 920
0.072 li! 3 1230 3150 960 2.75 450:1 3630 1%; % 0.275 1130 ~
0.081 .Ys 3 1550 4000 1440 2.7 450:1 5250 Ys % 0.300 1400
0.091 Ys 3 1830 4660 1920 2.65 450:1 6750 1 5,1, Ys 0.330 1700
0.102 '" 3 2025 5100 2520 2 '7 450:1 9180 1 1 0' 360 2050
8
~
~
t'll
::-.l'otes: ;::.
(a) Thickness "T" is the thickness of one sheet of an even t\\'O sheet combination. ~
(b) Types of aluminum alloy--2014-T3 Alclad, 2014-T6 Alclad, 2024-T3, 2024-1'4, 2014-T4, 2014-T6, and 7075-1'6 clad sheet.
\C) Where practical a spherical radius is recommended, this radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes fm like thicknesses and material
combina-
~
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent weld.
(e) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the values specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions. or distortion of the
sheets may occur.
lapping
i
Q.
~-
......__
~
0.
0.
w
Table 26.9--Recommended practices for spot welding magnesium alloys on single-phase a-c type machines II)
0.
ASTM Material Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum
Alloy Thickness Diameter Electrode Time Current Contacting Weld of Average k
Desig- (a) and Shape Force (Approx.) (Approx.) I Overlap Spacing Fused Shear .........
nation (b) (c) (d) Zone Strength
j--L-+j ~
Cl
~ ctroq;; .!""-
~ ~w ~
Weld Forge ~ Center
to ~
Cycles r:2> Center
In. D, In. R, In. Lb. Lb. (60Hz) Amperes In. In. In. Lb. [
AZ31B 0.016 % 2 300 None 2 16,000 0.10 140
AZ31B 0.020 % 3 350 None 3 18,000 ~ ~ 0.14 175
AZ31B 0.025 % 3 400 None 3 22,000 '-1. ~ 0.16 215 ~
AZ31B 0.032 % 3 450 None 4 24,000 % '-1. 0.18 270 ~·
~
AZ31B 0.040 % 3 500 None 5 26,000 .,. % 0.20 345 c;·
AZ31B 0.050 % 4 550 None 5 29,000 % -1• 0.23 430 ;;:
AZ31B 0.063 % 4 600 None 6 31,000 %
'% 0.27 545
AZ31B 0.071 % 4 650 None 7 32,000 "-1. '!{, 0.29 610
AZ31B 0.080 % 4 700 None 8 33,000 0.31 690
~
% ~
AZ31B 0.090 % 4 750 None 9 34,000 ~ 0.32 770
AZ31B 0.100 % 6 800 None 10 36,000 1 ~ 0.34 865 ~·
AZ31B 0.125 % 6 1000 None 12 42,000 1~ ~. 0.38 1080
M1A 0.016 % 2 300 None 3 17,000 % ~ 0.08 70
M1A 0.020 % 3 300 None 3 20,000 '-1. 0.12 95
M1A 0.025 % 3 350 None 4 24,000 'M ~ 0.14 130
M1A 0.032 % 3 400 None 5 26,000 % % 0.16 175
M1A 0.040 % 3 450 None 6 28,000 '-1. % 0.18 225
M1A 0.050 % 4 500 None 7 30,000 % 'M 0.21 295
M1A 0.060 % 4 550 None 8 32,000 % % 0.24 385
M1A 0.071 % 4 600 None 9 33,000 '% '!{, 0.26 430
M1A 0.080 % 4 650 None 10 35,000 Ys % 0.28 495
M1A 0.090 % 4 700 None 11 36,000 "-1• % 0.29 560
M1A 0.100 % 6 750 None 12 38,000 1 Ys 0.31 630
M1A 0.125 % 6 950 None 14 45,000 1~ '% 0.35 800
- -- ---
Notes:
(a) Thickness of one member of a like-thickness two-member assembly.
(b) Where practical a spherical radiu• is recommended. This radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes for like thicknesses and material combina-
(c) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the value specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions or distortion of the lapping
sheets mav occur.
(d) Minimum weld spacm~ that will require no special precautions to be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of an adjacent weld.
Table 26.10-Recommend ed practices for spot welding magnesium alloys on three-phase dry-disk rectifier-type machines
Electrode Net Forge Weld Post- Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum
ASTM Material Contacting Weld of Average
Alloy Thickness Diameter Electrode Delay Time Heat Current
and Shape Force Time Time (Approx.) Overlap Spacing Fused Shear
Desig- (a) (d) (c) Zone Strength
nation (b)
j-L-+j
C2:J <t_ roq;
~ Weld Forge Weld Postheat
sl -I
I I
~w
------ Cycles Cycles Cycles ~
Lb Lb (60Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) Amperes Amperes In. In. In. Lb
In. D, In. I R, In.
------
3 300 600 0.6 1 1 21,000 14,700 '!11 u 0.14 145
AZ31B 0.020 % 0.18 245
AZ31B 0.032 % 3 400 880 1.0 2 1 24,000 16,900 ~
3 480 1000 1.2 2 2 26,000 18,000 u. ~ 0.20 336
AZ31B 0.040 %
--- -- -
3 580 1270 1.5 3 2 28,500 20,000 % '!11 0.22 435
AZ31B 0.051 % 0.27 560
AZ31B 0.064 4 700 1540 1.8 3 3 29,300 20,500 ~ ~
78 4 860 1890 2.4 4 4 35,750 25,000 ~ % 0.31 740
AZ31B 0.081 ~ ------ 4 38,750 27,100 IU. 0.32 855 ~
AZ31B 0.093 6 970 2150 3.9 6
6 1050 2320 4.5 7 4 41,300 28,800 1 ~ 0.34 985
AZ31B 0.102 ~ l',{o 0.38 1208
AZ31B 0.125 6 1270 2780 7.7 10 6 48,000 33,400 1~ "'
~ ------
3 300 600 0.9 1 1 24,000 16,500 ',{, 0.16 167
AZ31B .02Q--.025 0.19 285
16,500 ',{,
23,700
~~
AZ31B .02Q--.040 ~ 3 300 600 1.4 2 1
600 1.0 1 1 25,600 17,500 '!11 0.17 228
uuu
AZ31B .02Q--.051 % 3 300
- ------ ---- -- - -- - -- ---- "'
--
Notes: t
(a) Thickness of one member of a like-thickness two-member assembly, except where indicated. material combinations
(b) Where practical a spherical radius is recommended. This radius should be the same on both top and bottom electrodes for like thickness and ~
unless the contour of the part is such that unlike radii are necessary to effect a heat balance. of an adjacent weld.
(c) Minimum weld spacing that will require no special precautions to be taken for shunted current effect ~
distortion of the lapping
(d) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the value specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions, or
sheets may occur. ~·
..........
...,
0.
0.
Ul
~
0.
0.
0.
Table 26.11-Recommended practices for spot welding magnesium alloys on three-phase frequency-converter type machines* '-...
-----1
~
ASTM I Material I Electrode Net Forge Post Welding .]Mini- :Mini- Diam- Mini- 0
.\lloy 1 Thick- I Diameter Electrode Delay Weld Heat Cycle Heat Current mum
,:--
I mum eter mum
Desig- 1 nes~ · and Shape Force Time Time (Approx.) Contact- Weld of Average
nation i (aJ I I b) ing Spacing Fused Shear ~
Pulse No. of Total Overlap (c) Zone Strength
Time Pulses Weld (d) ~
Heat
I i Time §
~
....-D-
8 ~ ~
I I -o~ BI c!TO{ Ow
0
~-
<")
I I Weld Forge Weld Postheat
....
1 c;·
;:!
I 1 ---~---·-~·: Cycles Cycles I Cycles Cycles
I Inche- ID. ln. : R, In. Lb Lb I (60Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) Amperes Amperesj In. In. In. Lb
1
----· ·~----!--~--~---- ------------ --~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----·--- - - - ----·--- ~
i\Z31B 0.020 I ':i I 3 800 .... ' .. 1 I 2 2 .. 25,400 '''' 'i'.{, !4 0.19 195 ~
0.025 ' ~ 3 800 .... 1 1 1 2 20,200 4,000 1/(6 !4 0.14 200
1 0.032 !1 ~ :; 1000 .... 1 2 2 26,400 Y:; 5,16 0.20 330
~-
0.040 ' % :; 1200 '''' 1 ' 2 2 28,300 % % 0.21 425
0.050 % -! 1400 3500 2 2 2 4 5 29,000 10,300 % % 0.19 435
0.050 % 4 1600 .... 2 1 2 31,000 % '""• 0.19 440
0.06:1 ~" 4 1750 . '' '' 3 1 3 35,200 %: ).1 0.22 580
0.063 ' % 4 1200 3900 3 3 1 3 43,600 %: ).1 0.25 690
I %o.o63
4 . 1200 1920 3 3 1 3 6 43,600 24.800 %: ).1 o.29 800
0 09~
I ~ ' ~ 2000 4300 I I' 2 3 1 3 5 42,700 15,000 "1' ~ 0.26 910
-~--~-~=~-~-~.--!-~- -~()()_ -~~- __ :_:____ -~5_ _ ~6__ -~- _ __:_:__~ 66 '90()_1~~~_:_- 1 Ys- _ __.,~_ -~ _2095-
IIK31A 0.040 ' 1 o I 3 1000 1 1 1 .. 19,600 ...... 0.17
I .... I .. % % 310
, o o5~ .• :,• . 4 1400 .... 2 2 4 ~1.600 :v. ~,, o.23 530
1 o.o63 1 "• -1 21oo .... 3 1 3 39,4oo %: y,; o.25 66o
0.080 · ,~ -! 3400 . .. . I 4 1 4 50.500 :v. :v. 0.29 890
0.125 % (j 5000 .... 5 6 30 65,900 1Ys 1% 0.33 1300
I 0.125 % 6 2400 3200 I 2 5 6 30 50,900 1Ys 1% 0.37 1380
"' St-e following yagt for notes.

Table 26.11 (continued)
ASTM Material Electrode Net Forge Post Welding Mini- Mini- Diam- Mini-
Alloy Thick- Diameter Electrode Delay Weld Heat Cycle Heat Current mum mum eter mum
Desig- ness and Shape Force Time Time (Approx.) IContact- Weld of I Average
nation (a) (b) mg Spacing Fused , Shear
Pulse No. of Total Overlap (c) Zone Strength
Time Pulses Weld (d)
Heat
Time
i
<l'ocf ~
o.,
WPlil Postheat
i
Wcl'
I----~--- Fo•~ I Cvcles I Cycles I I Cycles I Cycles I-..-··-- - - -
-~~~n~~~~~~H~---~H~~~~~-I_n_._~~~
HM21A 0.040 y. 3 800 ... . 1 2 2 21,600 9/(6 % 0.18 355
0.050 % 4 1200 .... 2 2 4 30,700 % 7/tli 0.21 470
0.063 % 4 1600 .... 3 2 6 40,600 ;!4 y. 0.23 560
0.071 % 4 2200 .. .. 4 2 8 47,400 I 13/Jii 9,{6 0.29 I 770
0.090 ;!4 4 3000 .. .. 4 2 8 .. S3,200 .. .. .. "..{a ;!4 0 26 950 ~
0.125 Ys 6 3800 .. .. 5 2 10 .. 66.700 .. . .. . 1 Ys '% 0 32 1180 ~
0.125 Ys 6 2000 3600 5 5 6 30 .. 56,500 ...... 1Ys '% 0.37 11405
__ , --~- ----------~---~--~~----- 8
ZElDA 0. 040 % 3 _ 1200 .... 1 1 I 1 .. 25. 700 .. .. '..{a % 0 20 390 ::J
0.050 % 4 2000 2 2 4 .. 41,000 . .. .. % U6 0 28 665 ::J
0.063 ;!4 4 2400 .. .. 3 1 3 49,100 .. .. .. ;!4 y. 0 29 805 ~
-,-------~---- -- --
;:::
0.080 4 I 2800 ~--------
.. .. .. 4 2 8 54,000 ---~-
.. .. .. 0. 31
;!4 Ys %- - - - - -1020
ZK60A-I
0.125 Ys 6 I3600 I'
.. .. .. 5 6 I 30 66,700 1Ys '%; 0.34 1265 ~
~
0.105 ;!4 6 3000 .... .. 5 6
I 30 51,200
I·.....
. .. ... 1 '%; 0.32 1265
I
' . ~
::::,
Notes:
(a) Thickness of one member of a like-thickness two-member assembly. ~
(b) Where practical, a spherical radius is recommended. This radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes for like thicknesses and material combina- ~-
(c) Minimum weld spacing that will require no special precautions to be taken for shunted current effect of an adjacent weld. ..._____
(d) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the value specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions or di:::tortion of the lapping
sheets may occur. ..,o-"'
0.
....
Ill»
Table 26.12-Recommended practices for spot welding magnesium alloys on electrostatic (condenser discharge) stored-energy type machines 5"
ASTM Material Electrode Net Capaci- Charging Trans- Minimum t
Contacting Minimum Diameter Minimum
Alloy Thickness Diameter Electrode tance Voltage former Weld of Average .........
Desig- (a) and Shape Force Turns Overlap
(c) Spacing Fused Shear
nation (b) (d) Zone Strength ~
j--L-1
~
~ ~
ctro<&
~ .c-1 -
I
I
I
~w ~
(micro- (kilo- I I • '>'
In. D, In. R, In. Lb farads) volts) Ratio In. In. Lb [
In.
AZ31B 0.016 2 650 240 1.4 480:1
~
1::)
~ 3i 0.10 140
AZ31B 0.020 ~ 3 700 240 1.6 480:1 ~ 3i 0.14 175
AZ31B 0.025 }1 3 750 360 1.8 480:1 ~·
Us 3i 0.16 215 ~
AZ31B 0.032 }1 3 850 480 2.0 480:1 ~ 0.18 270
AZ31B 0.040 3 1000 720 2.2 480:1 • 'AI 0.20 345 s·
AZ31B 0.050 4 1300 840 2.2 480:1 0.23 430 ;:
AZ31B 0.063 4 1650 1080 2.2 480:1
~
}1 0.27 545
AZ31B 0.071 4 1900 1320 2.2 480:1 ~ 0.29 610
AZ31B 0.080 4 2200 1440 2.2 480:1 0.31 690
AZ31B 0.090 4 2550 1560 2.2 480:1 ~ 0.32 770
AZ31B 0.100 6 2950 1800 2.2 480:1 1 0.34 865
s::s·~
AZ31B 0.125 6 4000 2280 2.2 480:1 1~
[ 0.38 1080 Oo
AZ61A 0.040 3 1000 600 1.7 300:1 0.19 470
AZ61A 0.125 6 4000 2640 2.4 450:1 1~ ~ 0.32 2290
M1A 0.016 2 300 360 1.8 480:1 34 0.08 70
M1A
M1A
M1A
M1A
0.020
0.025
0.032
0.040
I~ 3
3
3
3
350
400
500
650
600
720
840
2.0
2.0
2.0
480:1
480:1
480:1
~
Us
~
3i
3i
0.12
0.14
0.16
95
130
175
1160 2.0 480:1 ~ 0.18 225
MlA 0.050 4 850 1200 2.0 480:1 ~ 0.21 295
M1A 0.063 4 1150 1440 2.0 480:1
~
~ 0.24 385
M1A 0.071 4 1400 1680 2.0 480:1 ~ Us 0.26 430
M1A 0.080 4 1650 1800 2.0 480:1 ~ 0.28 495
M1A 0.090 4 1900 2040 2.0 480:1 llAI 0.29 560
M1A 0.100 6 2200 2160 2.0 4.80:1 1 0.31 630
M1A 0.125 " 6 3000 2640 2.4 480:1 1~ 11 0.35 800
- - -···-
Notes:
I"
(a) Thickness of one member of a like-thickness two-member assembly.
(b) Where practical a spherical radius is recommended. This radius should be the same on both the top and bottom electrodes for like thicknesses and material combina·
tions unless the contour of the part Is such that unlike radii are necessary to effect a heat balance.
(c) Avoid using contacting overlaps below the value specified, otherwise weld strengths will be difficult to maintain under shop conditions or distortion of the lapping
sheets may occur.
(d) Minimum weld spacing that will require no special precautions to be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of an adjacent weld.
Recommended Practices/ 26.69
Table 26.13-Recommend ed practices for spot welding annealed nickel on single-phase

equipment
Material Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum

Thickness Diameter Electrode Time Current Contact- Weld Fused Shear
(a) (b), (c) Force, (Approx.), ing Spacing Zone Strength,
Overlap (d)
Q;9
-l q\-- ~L-i
~m ct_•oct ~
Dw
d, D,
In., In., Cycles
Inches Max. Min. Lb (60Hz) Amperes In. In. In. Lb
---
0.005 to:
0.005 % % 100 3 7,100 _!4 % 0.10 30
0.010 % % 100 3 7,400 _!4 '.16 0.10 35
0.015 'A.! 'A.! 110 3 7,500 _!4 0.10 40
0.021 % % 110 3 7,800
8,000
_!4
_!4
~ 0.10
0.10
45
50
0.031 % '.16 110 3 Yo
0.063
0.093
%
%
u.
%;
115
115
3
3
8,100
8,150
_!4
_!4
%
%
0.10
0.10
50
50
0.125 % •,{, 115 3 8,200 _!4 % 0.10 55
0.010 to:
0.010 •,{, '.16 130 3 11,800 _!4
_!4
% 0.12
0.12
135
145
0.015 % %; 130 3 11,900 %
0.021 'A.. '.16 130 3 12,000 _!4 ~. 0.12 150
0.031 % '.16 130 3 12,200 _!4 0.12 160
0.063 % •,{, 140 3 12,300 _!4
_!4
~ 0.12
0.12
185
190
0.094 % '.16 140 3 12,300 %
0.125 % %; 150 3 12,500 _!4 % 0.12 210
0.015 to:
0.015 %; '.16 250 3 12,300 _!4 0.12 180
0.021 '.16 %; 250 3 12,500 _!4 ~ 0.13 250
0.031
0.063
',{• '!{.
_!4
250
260
3
3
12,600
12,800
_!4
_!4
Yo 0.13
0.13
280
300
0.094
%;
'!{. % 260
260
3
3
13,000
13,100
_!4
_!4
~
••% 0.13
0.13
305
310
0.125 %; %
0.021 to:
0.021 % % 370 4 7,800 •,{, '.16 0.12 350
0.031 'A.! % 370 4 8,200 % % 0.12 370
0.063 % % 370 4 8,600 % % 0.12 395
0.094 'A.! % 380 4 8,800 '.16
-'i.:,
' >16 0.12 430
0.125 % % 380 4 9,000 !!-<! 0.13 450
0.031 to:
0.031 %; '!{. 900 4 15,400 7• :v. 0.18 760
0.063 %; '.16 900 4
6
15,200
13,500
%
1
:v. 0.17
0.18
770
840
0.094 '..{,; % 900 %
0.125 % % 980 6 14,200 % 1 0.18 930
0.063 to:
0.063 _!4 _!4 1720 6 21,600 % 1:Y:l 0.25 2400
0.094 _!4 _!4 1800 8 20,000 % 1% 0.25 2550
0.125 _!4 _!4 1800 10 21,000 % 1!!-;1 0.25 2650
0.094 to:
0.094 %; '.16 2300 12 26,400 !!-<! 1:V. 0.31 3600
0.125 % % 2300 20 25,400 !!-<! 2 0.31 3780
0.125to:
0.125 % % 3300 20 31,000 :v. 2_!4 0.37 5600
(a) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint, grease and oil.
(b) Electrode shape may be flat rather than domed, in which case the shear strengths and nugget diam-
eters will be higher and larger than shown in the table.
(c) Electrode materials. Class 1 or Class 2
Minimum conductivity 80% Cu 75% Cu
Minimum hardness 68 Rockwell "B" 75 Rockwell "B"
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken
to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds.
Table 26.14-Recommended proctices for spot welding annealed Ni-Cu* on single-phase

equipment
Material
T hickness
I
I
Electrode
Diameter
Net
Electrode
Weld
Time
Welding
Current
Minimum
Contact-
Minirnnm
Weld
I Diameter
Fused
I Minimum
Shear
Overlap (d) I
-,
~ -tqf.
~ ct•oct ~
o..,
---- t1
In.,
r~~
In.,
Cycles
Inches Max.Lb (60Hz) Amperes
Mtn. In. In. In. Lb
------ ----
.,.,.
------ ----- ------- ---- ------
0 .005 to:
0.005 '5A2
,{, 220 2 5,000 XI XI 0.10 55
.,.
0010 220 2 6,100 XI XI 0.10 60
.,.,.,. .
0.015 % % 220 2 7,000 XI 0.10 75
0.021 XI 220 3 7,200
7,400
XI ~•s 0.11
0.11
85
95
0.031 )4 250 4 XI %
0.063
0.094
% 250 4
4
8,000
8,600
XI ',y,.{, 0.11
0.11
90
90
% 250 XI
.,.,. ',{,
0.125 % % 250 4 8,700 XI y, 0.11 85
0 .010 to:
u
.,. .,..,.
0.010 % 270 2 7,200 XI 0.12 145
0.015 280 2 8,600 XI ',.{. 0.12 155
0.021 % 280 3 8,200 u ',.{. 0.13 170
.,
0.031 300 4 8,800 % 0.13 190
0.063 % ',.{. 300 4 9,200
XI
XI u. 0.13 190
0.094
0.125 ',{z
%
%
325
&25
4
4
9,900
9,900
u)4 y,
y,
0.14
0.14
210
220
0 .015 to:
0.015 % % 300 2 8,600 0.13 250
uXI
3_{6
0.021 300 6 8,200 % 0.13 295
u)4
3,16 3/{6
0.031 3_.{6 % 325 6 9,300 % 0.13 300
0.063 % % 325 6 9,400 1_{6 0.14 350
0.093 % 325 8 9,500 )4 y, 0.14 360
u
3/}'6
0.125 ',.{, % 325 8 9,500 y, 0.14 365
0 .021 to:
0.021 3,16 3/f6 300 12 6,200 ',.{. '..{,; 0.13 450
0.031
0.063
% 3/}6 325
325
12
12
6,800
7,200
'5/iS
,.{, 1_,{s
y,
0.13
0.14
460
500
% %
0.093 ',.{. % 325 12 7,700 % 9/(s 0.14 530
0.125 % % 325 12 8,200 % % 0.14 550
0 .031 to:
0.031 3_{6 ',.{. 700 12 10,500 % % 0.17 845
0.063 % XI 750 12 11,200 y, ll_{G 0.18 910
0.094 ~f6 % 775 12 11,400 y, ~ 0.19 1035
0.125 ',.{. % 77.5 12 11,800 y, ~ 0.19 1075
0 .063 to:
0.063 ',.{, 5_{6 2700 12 15,300 % 1Ys 0.31 2060
0.093 •,.{, % 2700 12 15,900 % 13/(G 0.31 2180
0.125 fi/(6 % 2700 12 16,200 % 1XI 0.32 2360
0 ,093 to:
0.093 % % 2760 20 22,600 ~ 1XI 0.37 3880
0.125 % % 2760 20 25,000 ~ 1XI 0.38 4390
0 .125 to:
0.125 y, y, 5000 30 30,000 Ys 1% 0.47 5850
•Commonly known as Monel.

(c) Electrode materials. Class 1 or Class 2
Minimum conductivity 80% Cu 75% Cu
Minimum hardness 68 Rockwell "B" 75 Rockwell "B"
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken
to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds.
Ta b le 26.15- Recomme nded practices for spot welding annealed Ni-Cu* on three-phase freque ncy-converter machine s
lllaterial Eltn:-ode Diameter 1\"et \\"cld Time Welding )t.Iinimum 1\olinimum Diameter I ) •Jiuim 1111
Thic kne:3$; a nd Shape Electrode (g) Current Conlact \Vdd or Tt> n:-:.h:ll·
(a l . (b ) . (c) (d ) . f f ) Force (Ap prox.) Overlap S pacing Fns(-'rl Shea r
(e) Zone ~ll't~ ll~ lh
./")
.. . a~""" l L r·
I
w ""' ......
~:.-
It- hO. I n -<ooc
r 1 r
~ TI ~ I " 1: 'W
~
-~:"' ctro<t
' - t - ~
~ ~
I C'}•cles (GO 11 7.) Ow - r- I
- ~
J) ln. <I. ln . Ileal Cool
lnchcs
I .\lin 1< . ln. :\lax Lb C}·cles Pulses Amp<: res ln. ln. l n. Lb
- ------ -- -- I Cycles -
0 018 :$ ~ tG 400 6 l 2 ·1.300 :l-s a~ 0 . 17 40ll
0 .0:!0
'·
I~ 5 Ji 800 6 1 2 8,500 % 0.18 !lOC
0 0~3 I~ .-j I '1 lGOO 8 l 2 11,500 ~2 % o.2u 17!)(1
0 .062 I ~r, 2200 10 l 2 H,500 JI8 O . :l~ 20ii(l
v.
7'%
o.ona ~s I u. 3800 9 l 4 22,500 % ll4 0 . 10 i;-10~
0.125 ;g l~
~· )4 5000 10 1 6 3 1 ,000 :v. 1% u. 18 700U
I ~
--- - <'I>
Commoulr known a :. )l o:.i-J
Xotes: 8
(a) .\lat.erial >hould lit frte irom -.calc. oxides. paint. greaoe and oil. ~
(bt \Velding condition -. dtt~nn ined by thickne:--s of thinne~t outside piece. ~
{c) Data for total th icknt- ~ of JJile- UJ) not exccedi n ~ -I''T' '. ~Iaximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to I. <'I>
(d) Electrode :1-la <erial R\\")IA Class 1 ;:::
Minimum Conducti\·ity- SO% l.A.C.S.
1\tl aximu m Hard ne~!."- 6.; Rockwell "B"'-r.tl Roc·kwell "B' ' (ior forgin~~)
\n·lcl~.
(c) l\.l inimum we.ld ~)..Jaci ng is that ~ pacing for t\\"O piece:; for which no :-opccial precautions need bt:: taken to comp~..·n~atc lor :-:ll uutcd dTect of adjacenl
(i) Electrode contact ~urface:; must be clean to prc,·cnt surface pick·up .
R
(g) \Veld titne b&~~d o n 10 t)·cle machine. For 5 cycle machine adjust accorclinglr lO e:-;labli:-.h total equivalent on t ime with minimum of C'Ool ti u\c. ~
$:)
~
@'
......._
..,"'
0.
....
Table 26.16--Recommended practices for spot welding annealed Ni-Cr-Fe* on single-phase

equipment
Material Electrode Net Weld Welding Minimum Minimum Diameter Minimum

Thickness Diameter Electrode Time Current Contact- Weld Fused Shear
Overlap (d)
~--!tit\--
~
~
ct_roq; ~
...
d, D,
In., In., Cycles
Inches Max. Min. Lb (60Hz) Amperes In. In. In. Lb
0.005 to:
0.005 'A. '-' 300 2 7,000
~ ~
0.11 70
0.010
0.015
%.
%,(e) '-'
~
300
300
4
4
5,300
5,500 u u
0.12
0.12
100
105
u
0.021 %,~e) ~ 300 6 4,800 u '-16 0.13 110
0.031
~
325 6 5,400 u 0.13 120
0.062 'A.(e
%ei 325 6 5,600 u 0.15 135
0.094 %~e % 325 6 5,800 u 0.16 145
0.125
0.010 to:
%,e % 325 6 5,600 u % 0.15 130
0.010 ~ 320 4 7,500 u u 0.12 175
0.015 ~~e ~ 320 4 5,500 u u 0.13 215
0.021 %,e ~ 320 6 5,100 u % 0.13 215
u
0.031 %,(e ~ 350 6 5,600 % 0.14 290
0.063
0.094
~(e
%(e ~
400
400
6
6
5,500
5,800
~
u
0.14
0.15
315
350
0.125
0.015 to:
%(e % 400 6 4,600 u 88 0.14 370
0.015 ~ ~ 360 6 7,600 u 0.12 295
0.021 ~ ~ 360 6 5,400 ~ u 0.12 290
0.031 '-'(e) ~ 400 8 4,600 u % 0.13 370
0.063 %,(e)
~
400 8 4,700 u ~. 0.13 440
0.094 ~(e) 400 10 4,700 u ·~ 0.16 535
0.125
0.021 to:
~ % 400 12 4,600 u % 0.16 560
0.021
0.031
%
%
%
~
300
350
12
12
4,000
4,100
~
~
u.
1-M
0.12
0.12
545
535
0.063 ~~e) ~ 400 12 5,300 ~ "A. 0.12 580
0.094 ~ e~ % 500 12 5,900 0.15 670
0.125
0.031 to:
~(e % 550 12 6,300
~
~ ~ 0.15 690
0.031 ~ ~ 700 12 6,700 % 0.18 920
0.063
0.094
~
U(e) ~
700
700
12
12
7,100
8,300
% ~ 0.18
0.20
965
1250
% '\.{,
0.125 U(e) % 750 12 8,500 % ~ 0.20 1210
0.063 to:
0.063 ~ ~ 2070 12 12,000 % 1h! 0.31 2750
0.093 ~ % 2450 16 12,000 % 1~ 0.31 2750
0.125 ~ % 2600 20 12,000 % 0.32 3820
0.093 to: 1 "'
0.093 % % 3870 20 15,000 0.37 4400
0.125
0.125 to:
u. u. 5100 30 20,000
~
~ 11~
~ 0.40 4700
u. u.
0.125 5270 30 20,100 ~
I 1~ 0.44 6400
•Commonly known as Inconel.

(a) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint, grease and"oil.
(c) Electrode materials. Class 1 or Class 2 or molybdenum faced
Minimum conductivity 80o/i Cu 75% Cu 33% Cu
Minimum hardness 68 ockwell "B" 75 Rockwell "B" 83 Rockwell "B"
(d) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special prec;mtions need be taken
to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds,
(e) Indicates molybdenum-tipped electrocle,
Table 26.17-Recommend ed practices for spot welding annealed Ni-Cr-Fe-Ti* on single-phase equipment
Material Electrode Diameter Net IWeld Time Welding Minimum Diameter Minimum Tension- Minimum Cross
Thickness and Shape Electrode Current Contact- Weld of Fused Shear Strength Tension Strength
Overlap Spacing Zone
(Approx.)
IingMinimum
(a), (b), (c) (d) Force
(e)
1L r-
L2= ~
~A
-,--~RAO, ~
---1·1- ~
ct. TO<t
Lb Lb
D, d, I Aged
In. In. R, Cycles In. I As- 4 Hours As- IAged 4 Hours
Inches Min. Max. In. Lb (60Hz) Amperes In. In. (Approx.) Welded At 1300° F I Welded At 1300° F
-- - - -----
',-b 6 300 2 7,300 :l4 0.11 255 370 210 145
0.010 % u 410 560 295 215
0.015 )1 ~ 6 400 4 7,400 :l4 0.11 ~
0.021 )1 •,{, 6 750 6 7,500 ~ ',{, 0.14 530 720 410 290
0.031 6 1750 8 9,900 % %: 0.17 1200 1440 800 545
% '.f. 16,350 1~ 0.29 3450 4500 2700 1900
0.062 I ~ •,{, 10 4400 14 % I I I I
41
•Commonly known as lnconel X"
Notes:
I
(b) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece being welded. ~
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T," Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1.
(d) Electrode Material RWMA Class 2 or Class 3 ~
Minimum Conductivity- 75% I.A.C.S. 45% I.A.C.S.
Minimum Hardness- 75 Rockwell "B" 90 Rockwell "B" ~
of adjacent welds.
(e) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect ~·
-......
lo.)
0.
~
~
0.
~
,j:lo
'-..
~
C)
,....
~
Table 26.18-Recammended practices for spot welding annealed Ni-Cr-Fe-Ti • on three-phase frequency-converter machines ~
1;:)
Material Electrode Diameter Weld Time Welding l\Hnirnu m Minimum Diamel.er Minimu m ~
Thic knes~ and Shape Net
Electrode
l Cf)
I Current
I C'omact. Weld F u>ed Ten sion~
( .ll. ( b). (c) (d ) Force: (A pprox.) o,·erlap Spaciut{ Zone Shear ~
(c) Strength C)
~
a·PVLSCS
I __.rl,Jr/'- I -J Lr
.. -' "! : 1 ~ r~ FOOL c::c::s ~
' · ..., 1-
a·c;·
•J.O. w ... 1 w .. ;:s
!{ ' J: 1: T W
"...:?' ~
r ' • c· -
<t TO<t
I Cycles (60 liz) I ~ ~
I I
lS:
lJ. ln. ' d. l n. Heat Cool s·
Inc he~ M111 k. ln. Nlax Lb Cycles Cycles Pul:;e!i Ami..H:rc..; ln. ln. I ln. Lb l:r:l
- - ---I I
0 . 025 ~ -;!2 2000 8 I 1 6 .000 :v. % 0 .16 900
o.o:H '··
~; .!j I )4' 2200 \1 I 1 6.800 ~If) %' 0 . 18 1150
0 .013 ~ ~ )4' 2700 5 1 -! 8,100 I~ I 0.20 1800
0 . 062 ?t,. l> I :.14; 3500 8 I 4. 11,400 % 1 ).-.0 0 .25 3300
0 .093 .h. 8 ~~Ci 5000 8 1 G 15 ,000 %' I~ o.:n 5700
--
"Commonly khow n a.:- lnconel "X".
>lotes:
(a) Material <hould b., free irom ""ale. oxides. paint. grca:;e and oil.
(b) Welding conditions determined by t hickness of thinnest outside IJiece.
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not excecdin~ 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thickne,,e , :1 to I.
\d ) e lectrode Material RWMA Class 3 or Class 2
Minimum Condllctivit)'- 45% I.A.C.S. 75% I.A.C.S.
Maximum Hardne~- 90 Rockwell "B" 75 Rockwell " ll"
(c) :Vlinimum weld spacing is t hat spacing for two pieces for which na special precautions need be taken to compensate ior • h unted c urrent effect of adjacent weld; .
lil Weld time ba\'ed on 10 cycle machine. For 5 cycle machine adjust accord ingly to establish total equivale nt on-time wit h minimum of cool time.
Table 26.19-Recommended practices for spot welding annealed Ni-Cr-Fe-Ti* on three-phase dry-disk rectifier machines
Material Electrode Net

I
Forge Weld Quench Temper I Welding Minimum Diameter Average
Thickness Diameter Electrode Delay Time Time Time Current Contacting Mwcir i of Fused
(a), (b), (c) and Shape
I Tension
Force Time (Approx.) Overlap Spacing I Zone Shear
(d) (f) (e) I Strength
j-L-f
~
I
--------
0
~ Weld Forge -~-:;:;--~Tern:~ 4' 't
----- - - - - ---------
~ I I
[EWowJ
D, R, ~~
In. In. Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles
Inches Min. Lb. Lb. (60Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) Amperes Amperes In. ln.
------ -~- -- ---- - - - ---- ----- ----- -~~-_!-~_·
0.032 Vs 6 1700 2800 17 13 0 13 6,500 4,400 0.160
0.062 'eli ~ 1,200
Ys 8 2600 4500 43 35 2 46 8,300 5,650 Vs 1)4 0.270 3,600
0.093 Ys 8 3500 6200 69 55 7 73 10,000 7,000 1>1! 0.327
0.125 ~ 6,000
Ys 8 4300 7700 91 73 13 99 11,750 8,350 Ys 2Y, 0.379 8,140
0.143 1)4 8 4650 8400 104 83 17 112 12.700 9,050 1 0.385
0.156 1)4 2% 9,200
8 4950 8800 113 89 21 121 13,600 9. 700 1~{( 2~ 0.423 10,100
0.188 lY, 8 5600 9500 128 100 30 145 14.700 10,450 3 0.456
::t1
lYs 11,300 ~
I
- --·-·--
*Commonly known as Inconel "X"

8;:;:
Notes:
(a) Material free of scale, degreased, and pickled in a solution of 10 parts water, 10 parts concentrated nitric acid and 1.5 part• hydrofluoric acid, for 20 to 30 minutes ;:;:
at 75° F. ~
(b) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece being welded. :::
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1. ~
(d) Electrode material RWMA Class 2 or Class 3 ;::,...
Minimum Conductivity- 75% J.A.C.S. 45% J.A.C.S.
Minimum Hardness- 75 Rockwell "B" 90 Rockwell "B" ~
(e) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces for which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds. 1::>
(f) The time from beginning of weld time to the instant of application of forging force. ~
~·
..........
""
~
0.
Ul
"
II.)
o-
~
...........
~
~
Table 26.20--Recommended practices- for multiple-impulse (pulsation) welding low-carbon steel
Welding Minimum Minimum Minimum

Combination Electrode Diameter Net Electrode Weld Time
r[
of Thicknesses and Shape (c) Force, On Off Current Contacting Diameter Shear
to Be Welded (a), (b) 20 5 (Approx.) Overlap of Fused Strength "'t::
0" Cycles Cycles Zone, (For Steel of ~
(60Hz) Tensile
10 - .. Strength
Less Than l (5•
No. of Pulsations 70,000 psi).
2
·am
~t:~ ~D~ rL., ;::
Adjacent Welds ~ ~
(I>
Min. d =~in. o.,
Single £
Welds s::
1 In. to 2 In. to ~·
T-1 T-2 D, In., d, In., 2 In. 4 In. In.
Min. Max. Lb. Centers Centers Amperes ln. (Approx.) Lb.
~
* ~ 1 \{,; 1800 3 5 4 18,000 ~ % 5,000
~
.,. 1 \{,; 1800 3 5 4 18,000 ~ % 5,000
~ ~ 1 ',{• 1800 3 5 4 18,000 ~ % 5,000
.,. ',{• 1~ ~ 1950 6 20 14 19,500 1~ %. 10,000
1U ~ 1950 6 20 14 19,500 1~ %. 10,000
1U ~ 1950 6 20 14 19,500 1~ %. 10,000
1U ~. 2150 12 24 18 21,500 1% ~ 15,000
.,.u•,{, .,.uu
u .,. 1U ~ 2150 12 24 18 21,500 1% 15,000
•,{, 1~ % 2400 15 30 23 24,000 1~ 20,000
',{•
. ---- - ------ ---- ----
~
(a) Type of steel-SAE 1010.
(b) Material should be free from scale, oxide, paint, grease and oil.
(c) Electrode material, Class 2
Minimum Conductivity-75% of Copper
Minimum Hardness -75 Rockwell "B"
Table 26.21-Recommended practices for multiple-impulse (pulsation) welding stainless steels
Thickness Electrode Diameter Net Weld Time Welding Current Minimum Minimum Minimum Minimum Shear
"T" of and Shape Electrode On Off (Approx.) Contacting Weld Diameter Strength,
Thinnest (e) Force, 15 6 Overlap Spacing (f) of Fused
Outside Cycles Cycles Zone
Piece (60Hz) Lb
(a),(b),(c),(d) OR
~L.~
Ultimate Tensile
_,___
10°0'~ 3. Amperes Strength of Metal
-~g!j- ~0~ Base Metal

t_ TO 4, 90,000 150,000
Tensile Strength
~ ~
Ow Up to psi and
~
150,000 and
psi higher
D. In., d, In., Below 150,000 psi
Inches Min. Max. Lb No. of Pulsations 150,000 psi and higher In. In. In.
0.156 1 7ll 4000 4 20,700 17,500 Hi 1):i 0.440 7,600 10,000

0.187 1 7ll 5000 5 21,500 18,500 17!! 2 0.500 9,750 12,300
0.203 1 % 5500 6 22,000 19,000 1% 2Ys 0.530 10,600 13,000
0.250 1 % 7000 7 22,500 20,000 1~ 2% 0.600 13,500 17,000
::tl
a)
Types of Steel-301, 302, 303, 304, 308, 309, 310, 316, 317, 321, 347 and 349.
~b) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint, grease and oil.
c) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(d) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between two thicknesses 3 to 1.
(e) Electrode material, Class 3 or Class 2
Minimum Conductivlty-45% 30% of Copper
Minimum Hardness -95 98 Rockwell "B" l}
(f) Minimum weld spacing is that spacing for two pieces which no special precautions need be taken to compensate for shunted current effect of adjacent welds. For
three pieces increase spacing 30 percent.
I l:l..
~
~
~-
..........
~
::1
...,
0.
:..CID
........
~
C:l
.!""'
~
Table 26.22-Recommended proctices for seam welding low-carbon steel ~
Electrode §
Thickness Width and Net On Off Time Weld Welds Welding Minimum !::..
"T" of Shape(e) Electrode Time (Pressure- Speed. per Current Contacting
Thinnest Force. Tight) Inch (Approx.) Overlap (f)
Outside ~
Piece
(a), (b),
(c), (d) ~
gu
-f ~.:~
a·c·
;:
Cycles In. per ~
Inches w. E, Lb (60Hz) Cycles Min.
In., Min. In., Max. Amperes In.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - --------
0.010 Vs %1 400 2 1 80 15 8,000 Vs
~s·
0.021 Vs 8/{6 550 2 2 75 12 11,000 0'0
0.031 Y. )4 700 3 2 72 10 13,000
u.
0.040 Y. )4 900 3 3 67
Y.
9 15,000 Y.
0.050 Y. 1050 4 3 65 8 16,500
0.062 ~.
Y. 1200 4 4 63 7 17,500 Vs
0.078 Vs 1500 6 5 55 6
'i~'Vs 19,000
0.094 Vs j/16 1700 7 6 50 5.5 20,000 ·~
0.109 % Y. 1950 9 6 48
:li
5 21,000 '%
0.125 :li Y. 2200 01 7 45 4.5 22,000 711
----- -- - - I
(a) Type of Steei-SAE 1010.
(c) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(d) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknes•es 3 to 1.
(e) Electrode material Class 2
Minimum Conductivity-75% of copper
Minimum Hardness -75 Rockwell "B"
(f) For large assemblies minimum contacting overlap indicated should be increased 30 percent.
Table 26.23-Recommended practices for seam welding stainless steels
I
--
Thickness Electrode i Net On Time Off Time Ma-...:imum Welds Welding Minimum
"T" of Width I Electrode of Ma-ximum Weld per Current Contacting
Thinnest and Sha!Je ! Force, Speed Speed. Inch (Approx.)
I Overlap (f)
Outside Piece <e) I (Pressure-Tight),
(a), (b), (c), (d)
e I Cycles In. per Minute

------- '""W ...... i Cycles ---------- - - - - - - - - -
Inches W. In .. l\Iin. i Lb (60Hz) 2 "T" 4 "T" 2 "T" 4 "T" 2 "T" 4 "T" Amperes In.
------~-- -------
l -------
0.006 :i (t; 300 2 1 1 60 67 20 18 4000 J4
0.008
0.010
0.012
:hii
3/fli
J4
I
I
I
350
400
450
2
3
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
67
45
48
56
51
55
18
16
15
16
14
13
4600
5000
5600
• J4
J4
',{,
0.014 '4 500 3 2 3 51 46 14 13 6200 5/(6
0.016 %, I 600 3 2 3 51 50 14 12 6700
~~
~6
0.018 I 650 3 2 3 55 50 13 12 7300 5,{,
0.021 ~4 700 3 2 3 55 55 13 11 7900
0.025 :t~ 850
%
3 3 4 50 47 12 11 9200 ~(s
0.031 )8
.,, 1000 3 3 4 50 47 12 11 10,600 ~(6
0.040 I 1300 3 4 5 47 45 11 10 13,000 Y2
0.050 ~--:t 1600 4
0.062
..
1-~ 1850 4
4
5
5
7
45
40
44
41
10
10
9
8
14,200
15,100
%
% ~
~,g
0.070 2150 4 5 7 44 41 9 8 15,900 1~{6 ~
0.078 {I~ 2300 4 6 7 40 41 9 8 16,500 ll,f,
0.094 [,b 2550 5 6 7 36 38 9 8 16,600
0.109 2950 5 7 9 37
:l4
% 38 8 7 16,800 ts,u
0.125 % 3300 6 6 8 38 37 8 7 17,000 78 ~
(al Types of "teel-301. 302, 303, 304, 308, 309, 310, 316, 317, 321, 347 and 349.
I:'l
(b) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint. grea!le and oil. ~
(cl Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T." ii:l...
(d) Data for total thicknes' of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1.
(el Electrode material RMWA Class 3
Minimum Conductivity-45% of copper
Minimum Hardnes; -95 Rockwell "B" l
(i) For large a..;semblie-:: minimum contacting overlap indicated should be increased 30 percent.
~-
..........
...,
0.
~
...,
0.
Co
0
'~
<::>
Table 26.24--Recommended practices for seam welding annealed Ni-Cu* on single-phase equipment .!""
Thickness "T"
Electrode Width Net On Time Off Time Weld Speed Welds Welding Minimum
of Thinnest and Shape Electrode (Pressure- Per Current Contacting
(d) Tight) (Approx.) Overlap
Outside Piece Force Inch
(a), (b), (c)
~g .. -1'r [
~~·1--- ==c::::::'=
W, In. E, In. Cycles In. Per Amperes ~ ~
Inches Min. Max. R, In. Lbs (60Hz) Cycles Minute ~ <::>
0.010
Burnishedt
Electrodes
%
I
'A.! I 3 200 1 3 75 12 5,300 u
'
-·ac;·
;::
0.015
Burnished % 'A.! 6 300 1 3 75 12 7,600 u ~
Electrodes ~
0.021 ~-
Unburnished % '!{, 6 500 2 6 38 12 8,700 u.
Electrodes
0.025
Unburnished % Us 6 600 3 12 20 12 9,500 u.
Electrodes
0.031 % % 6 700 4 12 19 12 10,000 %
0.062 72 % 6 2500 8 12 20 9 19,000 %
... ·-- ----··
•Commonly known as Monel.

tBurnishing is a method of surface finishing used mainly to improve the coined finish on the electrode face. It consists of rolling the electrode face to the desired shape
until the surface becomes smooth, somewhat hardened and accurately shaped.
Notes:
(b) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1.
(d) ElectrodeMaterlal RWMA Class 2 (preferred) or Class 1
Minimum Hardness- 75 Rockwell "B" 68 Rockwell "B"-55 Rockwell "B" (for forgings)
Table 26.25-Recommended practices for seam welding annealed Ni-Cu* on three phase frequency-converter machines
"Material Electrode Width Electrode Weld Welds Weld Post Width Mini-
iThlckness and Shape Force Intermittent Drive Speed Per Current Heat Fused mum
(a), (b), (c) (App.) Inch (Approx.) Current Zone Contact·
(d), (e), (f) (App.) ing
Weld Off Weld Quench Post Forge Motor Overlap
Time Time Pulses Time Heat Time On
(g) or Pulses Time
Inter-
~g Pulse
.. Time
~~.~--- (g) ~
... i
W. In. E, In. Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles In. Per
Inches Min Max R, In. Lb (60 Hz) (60 Hz) (60 Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) Min Amperes Amperes In. In.
---- --- - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - ------
0.018 % u 3 800 5 1 1 6 1 5 15 5.7 17 4,500 2,000 0.16 %
0.025 % u 3 1100 5 1 1 6 1 5 15 6.0 16 6,200 3,100 0.18 %
0.031 % 5 1500 5 1 1 6 1 5 15 6.5 15 8,500 4,200 0.21 ~
0.043 ~ ~ 5 1800 6 1 1 6 1 5 15 6.5 14 11,000 5,700 0.24 ~
0.062 ~ % 5 2100 5 2 2 7 2 5 15 5"6 12 14,000 6,800 0"28 %
0.093 %: % 5 2700 6 2 2 8 4 10 15 3"7 12 21,000 10,500 0.30 Ys
0.125 %: ~ 5 3200 6 2 4 8 4 10 15 3.7 10 25,500 12,600 0.32 Ys :::0
-
•Commonly known as Monel ;

Notes: ~
(b) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceed 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1.
(d) Electrode Material RWMA Class 1 l
Minimum Conductivity- 80%T.'"A.C.S.
Minimum Hardness- 65 Rockwell "B"-Rockwell "B" (for forgings)
(e) Burnished electrodes recommended for thicknesses 0.031 in. and under. (Burnishing of electrodes is a method of surface finishing used principally to improve the coined ~
finish on the face of the electrode. It consists of rolling the face of the electrode to the desired shape until the surface becomes smooth, hardened to some extent and ac- (:;•
curately shaped).
~
(f) Electrode contact surfaces must be clean to prevent surface pickup. .........
(g) Weld time based on 20 cycle machine. For machines with limited on time, heat and cool times should be adjusted accordingly. ~
0.
Oo
-
~
0.
~
..........
~<:)
.:-
I
Table 26.26--Recommended practices for seam welding annealed Ni-Cr..fe-Ti* on single-phase equipment
[
Thicknees Electrode Width Net On Time Off Time Weld Speed Welds Welding Minimum
~
(1;·
"T" of and Shape Electrode (Pressure- Per Current Contacting
Thinnest (d) Force Tight) Inch (Approx.) Overlap ~
Outside Piece c;·
\a). (b), (c) -iLr- ;:::
! ~g .. =2=
~~.~-- ~ ~
I ~
j
W. ln. 1 E. In.
~
Cycles
Cycles In. Per
Inche~ i Min I Max R, In. Lb (60Hz)
(60Hz) Minute Amperes In. ~-
--------1----··j----- - - - - - ----- ------- ------- -------
I
0.010 !4 Ys 3 400 1 3 45 20 3,600 %;
0.015 !4 v. 3 700 2 4 36 17 3,900 !4
0.021 % i '-12 3 1400 3 6 30 14 8,000 5,{6
0.031 % I % 3 2300 I 4 8 30 10 8,500 %
0.062 7\i ~{. 6 4000 8 16 12 12 10,300 %
I I I I I
*Commonly known as Inconel "X"
Notes:
\b) Welding conditions determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1.
(d) Electrode Material RWMA Class 2 t or Class 3
Minimum Hardness- 75 Rockwell "B" 90 Rockwell "B"
[Preferred for 0.010, 0.015 and 0.021 thicknesses; for 0.031 and 0.062 Class 2 or 3 is suitable.
Table 26.27-Recomm ended practices for seam welding annealed Ni·Cr-Fe-Ti* on three phase frequency-conve
rter machines
Material Electrode Width

Thickness and Shape
I Electrode Weld Welds Weld Width Minimum
Force Drive I Speed Per Current Fused Contacting
(a), (b), (c) 1
(d) (Approx.) Inch (Approx.) Zone Overlap
I (Approx.)
Intermittent (e) I Contin-
--------~-------
----
uous ---J•r
~g..,. ----
I Weld Cool I Pulses Forge Motor
~-1r!-- Time Time Time On
or Time
IT~
(f) Inter-
Pulse
Time
E, In. W, In. I Cycles Cycles Cycles Cycles In. Per

Inches Max Min R, In. Lb (60Hz) (60 Hz) (60Hz) (60Hz) Minute Amperes In.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - In.
--- -----
0.025 '..{, % 3 1200 10 1 - - - X 17
0.031 20 6,000 0.17 %
J4 % 5 1300 12 2 - - - X 15 18 6,500 0.22
0.043 J4 ~ 5 1700 14 5 - - ~
0.062
- X 13 15 7,000 0.24
..{, ~ 8 2500 20 1 1 15 15 - 6 12 8,500
Y:i
0.27
0.093
'1/{6 %
%' 10 3500 15 1 2 15 15 - 5.5 11 11,000 !::tl
0.125 ~ 10 4500 20 1 0.36 %' ~
%' 2 20 15 - 4.5 11 13,000 0.42
-·-- -- - - ---
Ys 8
*Commonly known as Inconel "X" ~
Notes: ~
~
(a) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint, grease and oil. ;::
(b) Welding condition determined by thickness of thinnest outside piece "T."
(c) Data for total thickness of pile-up not exceeding 4 "T." Maximum ratio between thicknesses 3 to 1. ~
(d) Electrode Material RWMA ~ or ~ ~
$::)
Maximum Hardness- 90 Rockwell "B" 75 Rockwell "B" D.
(e) Intermittent motion recommended for thicknesses greater than 0.050 inch to produce defect-free welds.
(f) Weld time based on 20 cycle machine. For machines limited on time, heat and cool times should be adjusted
accordingly.
a·
--....._
..,
0.
..
w
Table 26.28-Projection welding design data
Su1N.
I_~=T L H 1+=20"1 r=T
~r
r~
T
0
L
*f~~
T L+S T
Thickness Diameter Height of Minimum Shear Strength Diameter Minimum

"T" of of Projection (Single Projections Only), of Fused Contacting
Thinnest Projection "H" Lb Zone Overlap
Outside "D" (g)' (i)' (j) Minimum "L"
"'Piece (g)' (h)' (j) (At Weld (e), (f)
(Nominal) Tensile Tensile Tensile Interface),
(a), (b), Strength Strength Strength
(c), (d) Below 70,000 150.000
70,000 up to psi
psi 150,000 and
Inches In. In. psi above In. In.
0.010 0.055 0.015 130 180 250 0.112 %

0.012 0.055 0.015 170 220 330 0.112 %
0.014 0.055 0.015 200 280 380 0.112 %
0.016 0.067 0.017 240 330 450 0.112 ~
0.021 0.067 0.017 320 440 600 0.140 'A.
0.025 0.081 0.020 450 600 820 0.140 •,{,
0.031 0.094 0.022 635 850 1100 0.169 ~
0.034 0.094 0.022 790 1000 1300 0.169 ~
0.044 0.119 0.028 920 1300 2000 0.169 ~
0.050 0.119 0.028 1350 1700 2400 0.225 ~
0.062 0.156 0.035 1950 2250 3400 0.225 %
0.070 0.156 0.035 2300 2800 4200 0.281
0.078
0.094
0.187
0.218
0.041
0.048
2700
3450
3200
4000
4800
6100
0.281
0.281
~
0.109 0.250 0.054 4150 5000 7000 0.338 ~
0.125 0.281 0.060 4800 5700 8000 0.338 '1.16
0.140
0.156
0.312
0.343
0.066.
0.072
6000
7500
...
...
. ..
. .. ~ :14
''.16
0.171 0.375 0.078 8500 ... ... '.{, ~
0.187 0.406 0.085 10,000 ... . .. '%.
0.203 0.437 0.091 12,000 ... . .. '1% 1
0.250 0.531 0.110 15,000 ... ... ll,{s 1}i
Notes:
(a) Types of steel:
Low-carbon-SAE 1010.
Stainless-Types 309, 310, 316, 317, 32t, 347 and 349.
(Max. carbon content 0.15%.)
(c) Size of projection normally determined by thickness of thinner piece, and projection should be on
thicker piece where possible.
(d) Data based on thickness of thinner sheet, and for two thicknesses only.
(e) Contacting overlap does not include any radii from forming, etc.
(f) Weld should be located In center of overlap.
(g) Projection should be made on piece of higher conductivity when dissimilar metals are welded.
(h) For diameter of projection "D" a tolerance of ±0.003 in. in material up to and including 0.050 in.
In thickness and ±0.007 in. in material over 0.050 in. in thickness may be allowed.
(I) For height of projection "H" a tolerance of ±0.002 in. in material up to and including 0.050 in.
In thickness and ±0.005 in. in material over 0.050 in. In thickness may be allowed.
(j) See Table 26.31 for data on punch and die designs for making projections.
Recommended Practices I 26.85
Table 26.29-Manufacturing process data for projection welding low-carbon steel
Thickness "T' of Electrode Face Net Electrode Weld Time, Hold Time, Welding Current
Thinnest Outside Diameter Force, (at Electrodes)
Piece (Nominal) "d" Min. 60 Cycles a.c.
(a), (b), (c) (d = 2 X Proj. Dia) (d) (Approx.)
2~o
Inches
~ ~di-In. Lb
Cycles
(60Hz)
Cycles
(60Hz) Amperes
0.014 J.i 175 7 15 5000

0.021 ~ 300 10 15 6000
0.031 %. 400 15 15 7000
0.044 u 400 20 15 7000
0.062 %. 700 25 15 9500
0.078 % 1200 30 30 13000
0.094 '.{o 1200 30 30 14500
0.109 :l1 1700 30 45 16000
0.125 % 1700 30 45 17000
Process data for other thicknesses shown in Table 26.28 not yet available.
(a) Types of steei-SAE 1010 (max. carbon content 0.15%).

(c) Data based on thickness of thinner sheet, and for two thicknesses only. Maximum ratio between
two thicknesses 3 to 1.
(d) See Table 26.28 for standard projections.
(e) Electrode material. Class 2
Minimum Conductivity-75% of copper.
Maximum Hardness -75 Rockwell "B"
Table 26.30---Manufacturing process data for projection welding stainless steels
Thickness "T" of Electrode Face Net Electrode Weld Time, Hold Time, Welding Current
Thinnest Outside Diameter Force, (at Electrodes)
20·0
Piece (Nominal) "d" 60 Cycles a.c.
(a), (b), (c) (d = 2 X Proj. Dia) (d) (Approx.)
~ ...!df.
Cycles Cycles
Inches In. Lb (60Hz) (60Hz) Amperes
0.014 J.i 300 7 15 4500

0.021 ~ 500 10 15 4750
0.031 '.{o 700 15 15 5750
0.044
0.062
u
•,{, 700
1200
20
25
15
15
6000
7500
0.078 1900 30 30 10000
0.094 ~
~ 1900 30 30 10000
0.109 :l1 2800 30 45 13000
0.125 % 2800 30 45 14000
Process data for other thicknesses shown in Table 26.28 not yet available
(a) Types of steel-309, 310, 316, 317, 321, 347 and 349 (nonhardenable; max. carbon content-0.15%)
(b) Material should be free from scale, oxides, paint. grease and oil.
(c) Data based on thickness of thinner sheet, and for two thicknesses only. Maximum ratio between
two thicknesses 3 to 1.
(d) See Table 26.28 for standard projections.
(e) Electrode material Class 2 or Class 12
Minimum Conductivity- 75 29% of copper
Maximum Hardness - 75 100 Rockwell "B"
Table 26.31-Projedi:>n welding punch and die design data
I.
·----- -----~-·-- - .. ~-
PLUG FJT OlE NSERT
Material Pt. ±0.002 ±0.001 ±0.001 ±0.001

Thickness No. A B c Dr E F H Jr
- - - - - - - - - - - - - ---- -·--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
%
'U6.{,
0.012 to 0.016 1 0.055 0.033 0.015 0.015 0.035 0.005
0.016 to 0.020 2 % 0.067 0.042 0.017 0.020 0.039 0.005
0.025 3 % %1 0.081 0.050 0.020 0.025 0.044 0.005
0.031 4 % %1 0.094 0.062 0.022 0.030 0.050 0.005
0.035 5 % % 0.094 0.062 0.022 0.030 0.050 0.005
0.044 6 % %1 0.119 0.078 0.028 0.035 0.062 0.005
0.050 7 % % 0.119 0.078 0.028 0.035 0.062 0.005
0.062 8 % % 0.156 0.105 0.035 0.043 0.081 0.005
% 0.156 0.105 0.035 0.043 0.081 0.005
.,.
0.071 9 %
0.078 10 % %; 0.187 0.128 0.041 0.055 0.104 0.010
0.094 11 72 ' :.{, 0.218 0.148 0.048 0.065 0.115 0.010
0.109 12 72 11,{6 0.250 0.172 0.054 0.075 0.137
0.125 13 72 11_.(, 0.281 0.193 0.060 0.085 0.154
0.140 14 ' :.{, 0.312 0.217 0.066 0.096 0.172
""'""',,...
0.156. 15 ~% '%
' l{,
0.343 0.243 0.072 0.107 0.191
0.171
0.187
16
17 % '%
0.375
0.406
0.265
0.285
0.078
0.085
0.118
0.130
0.210
0.229 ""'
0.203
0.250
:
I
18
19
'U.
'% 1
:% 0.437
0.531
0.308
0.375
0.091
0.110
0.143
0.175
0.240
0.285 ""'
0.020
0.025
Material:
Make die and punch inserts from air-hardening chrome-vanadium steel.
Finish all over and harden to 65-68 Rockwell "C" scale.
Note:
Each part number represents one complete die unit which is made up of punch and die insert. All
working surfaces of die unit must be polished.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Evaluation of Resistance Welding In-Process Monitors," W. A. Roden, Welding
Journal, 47 (11), 515s-521s (1968).
"Resistance Welding of Metal Matrix Composite," M. S. Hersh, Ibid., 47 (9),
404s-409s (1968).
"Electrode Indentation Criterion for Resistance Spot Welding," K. C. Wu, Ibid.,
47 (10), 472s-478s (1968).
"Resistance Spot Welding Stainless Steel Foil by the Expendable-Wire Technique,"
C. L. Estes, Ibid., 47 (7), 569-573 (1968).
"The Effect of a Volume Relief on the Strength of Solid Ridge Projection Welds,"
R. E. Bryant and A. D. Thomas, Jr., Ibid., 46 (12), 562s-568s (1967).
"Current Penetration Seam Welding-A New High Speed Process," W. C. Rudd,
Ibid., 46 (9) 762-766 (1967).
"Heat Generation and Residual Stress Development in Resistance Spot Welding,"
D. V. Lindh and J. L. Tocher, Ibid., 46 (8), 351s-360s (1967).
"The BWRA Quality Monitor and Spot Welding Galvanized Steel Sheet-An
Evaluation," J. Kelly and P.M. Knowlson, Ibid., 46 (3), 114s-120s (1967).
"An Analysis of the 'Nugget' Formation in Projection Welding," A. Cunningham,
Jr., M. L. Begeman and B. E. Short, Ibid., 45 (7), 305s-313s (1966).
"Annular Projection Welding of Tubular Sections to Low-Carbon Steel Sheet,"
J. J. Riley and J. F. Harris, Ibid., 45 (7), 289s-304s (1966).
"Effect of Projection Height Upon Weld Quality and Strength," A. Cunningham,
Jr. and M. L. Begeman, Ibid., 45 (1) 26s-30s (1966).
"Effect of Projection Geometry Upon Weld Quality and Strength," J. V. Adams,
G. N. Matthews and M. L. Begeman, Ibid., 44 (10), 466s-470s (1965).
Bibliography/ 26.87
"Projection Welding of Light-Gage Galvanized Steel," W. H. Mitsch, Ibid., 44 (9),

748-749 (1965).
"Projection Weld Quality Determination Based on Dynamic Displacement of the
Electrode," 0. E. Weiss, L. F. Kreisle and M. L. Begeman, Ibid., 44 (9), 417s-423s
(1965).
"A Fundamental Study of Projection Welding Using High Speed Photography," A.
Cunningham and M. L. Begeman, Ibid., 44 (8), 381s-384s (1965).
"A Comprehensive Study of Spot Welding Galvanized Steel," N. A. Freytag, Ibid.,
44 (4), 145s-156s (1965).
"Resistance Spot Welding of Galvanized Steel in Thicknesses of 0.022 to 0.138 In.,"
E. A. Green and J. J. Riley, Ibid., 42 (10), 466s-475s (1963).
"Seam Welding 20 Gage Aluminized Steel," John Finke, Jr. and M. L. Begeman,
Ibid., 42 (8), 371s-377s (1963).
"Resistance Seam Butt Welding as Developed at North American Aviation, Inc.,"
R. Robelotto, Ibid., 42 (7), 320s-324s ( 1963).
"High Speed Seam Welding of Terne Plate," F. Y. Buer and M. L. Begeman, Ibid.,
41 (11), 488s-490s (1962).
"Resistance Welding-The Indirect-Projection Welding of Vinyl-Coated Steel
Sheets," A. W. Schueler, H. J. Nichols and D. 0. Gittings, Ibid., 41 (7), 289s-296s
(1962).
"Strength of Spot and Seam Welded Aluminum Alloy Joints," J. F. Goodwin, Ibid.,
41 (7), 322s-328s (1962).
"Resistance Seam Welding of Aluminized Sheet," C. W. Boecker and M. L. Bege-
man, Ibid., 41 (5), 215s-220s (1962).
"Resistance Spot Welding Beryllium Sheet," H. A. Jahnle, Ibid., 41 (4), 331-336
(1962).
"Resistance Seam Weld Evaluation by a Shear Peel Test," F. Y. Buer and M. L.
Begeman, Ibid., 41 (3), 120s-122s (1962).
"Fatigue Testing Resistance Spot Welds in Shear," D. S. Kalbeleisch and E. E.
Weismantel, Ibid., 41 (1), 23s-27s (1962).
"Projection Welding Low-Carbon Steel Using Embossed Projects," J. F. Harris and
J. J. Riley, Ibid., 40 (4), 363-376 (1961).
"Spot Welding of Wrought HK31A, HM21A and ZElOA Magnesium Alloys," L.
Lockwood, Ibid., 39 (9), 369s-378s (1960).
"Calculations of Temperature Response in Spot Welds," G. R. Archer, Ibid., 39
(8), 327s-330s (1960).
"Effect of Steel Backup Blocks on Series Spot Welding," E. F. Nippes, W. F. Savage
and K. C. Wu, Ibid., 39 (8), 321s-326s (1960).
"Resistance Seam Welding of Terne Plate," H. F. Greer and M. L. Begeman, Ibid.,
39 (6), 247s-254s (1960).
"Resistance Spot and Seam Welding of Zircaloy 3," E. F. Nippes, W. F. Savage and
K. C. Wu, Ibid., 39 (3), 97s-104s (1960).
"Spot Weldingof Carbon Steel," I. W. Johnson, Ibid., 39 (3), 89s-96s (1960).
"Ring-Projection Welding of Low-Carbon Steel Munitions," M. J. Welther and
S.M. Robelotto, Ibid., 39 (2), 118-125 (1960).
"Butt Welding Steel Sheet by the Foil-Seam Process," L. W. Mecklenborg, Ibid., 39
(1), 19-28 (1960).
"Spot Welding of a 12% Cr Martensitic Stainless Steel," E. F. Nippes, W. F.
Savage, L. C. Ianniello and W. A. Owczarski, Ibid., 38 (9), 360s-366s (1959).
"Roll-Spot Welding for Ballistic Missiles," J. K. Dawson, Ibid., 38 (5), 475-479
(1959).
"Fatigue Life as Affected by Internal-Stress Distribution in Single Spot Welds," G.
Welter and A. Choquet, Ibid., 38 (4), 145s-158s (1959).
"Resistance Seam Welding of Zinc Coated Sheet Steel," C. W. Volek and M. L.
Begeman, Ibid., 38 (3), 113s-121s (1959).
"Effect of Backup Variables on Series Spot Welding of Steel," E. F. Nippes, W. F.
Savage and K. E. Dorschu, Ibid., 38 (2), 49s-56s ( 1959).
"Spot Welding 65-35 Brass on Single-Phase Equipment with Slope Control," L. E.
Mills and H. C. Wolfe, Ibid., 36 (9), 423s-428s (1957).
"Metal-Finish Seam Welding," W. L. Allen and M. L. Begeman, Ibid., 35 (12).,
597s-603s (1956).
"High-Frequency Continuous Seam Welding of Ferrous and Nonferrous Tubing,"
H. B. Osborn, Jr., Ibid., 35 (12), 1199-1206 (1956).
"A Systems Analysis Approach to Aircraft Spot Weld Reliability," J. M. Peterson
and E. R. Funk, Ibid., 35 (7), 679-683 (1956).
"Electrical and Metallurgical Characteristics of Mash Seam Welds," E. J. Funk
and M. L. Begeman, Ibid., 35 (6), 265s-274s (1956).
"Optimum Spot and Seam Welding Conditions for lnconel 'W,'" E. F. Nippes,
W. F. Savage and K. L. Moazed, Ibid., 35 (3), 127s-136s (1956).
"The Behavior of Spot Welds Under Stress," J. F. Rudy, R. B. McCauley and R. S.
Green, Ibid., 35 (2), 65s-71s (1956).
"Measurement of Shunting Currents in Series Spot Welding 0.036-in. Steel," E. F.
Nippes, Ibid., 34 (12), 618s-624s (1955).
"Lower Part Cost by Projection Welding," C. H. Burgston, Ibid., 34 (11), 1070-
1080 (1955).
"Seam Welding Dissimilar Thicknesses of Low-Carbon Steel," M. L. Begeman and
E. J. Funk, Ibid., 34 ( 11), 529s-534s (1955).
"Design and Application of Edge-Ring Projection Welding," C. A. Czohara, Ibid.,
34 (6), 551-558 (1955).
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 27
FLASH, UPSET AND

PERCUSSION WELDING
Flash Welding 27.2

Design-Flash Welding 27.7
Inspection and Testing-Flash Welding 27.12
Recommended Practices for Flash Welding 27.13
Common Applications-Flash Welding 27.23
Upset Welding 27.24
Upset Butt Welding 27.24
Upset Tube Welding 27.31
Percussion Welding 27.38
Design-Percussion Welding 27.40
Inspection and Testing-Percussion Welding 27.42
Applications-Percussion Welding 27.46
Recommended Practices for Percussion Welding 27.48
Bibliography 27.49
PREPARED BY A COMMITIEE CONSISTING OF:

ROBERT P. MEISTER E. J. LIMPEL
Battelle Memorial Institute P. J. RIEPPEL
Chairman Battelle Memorial institute
J. F. DEFFENBAUGH J. J. VAGI
McKay Machine Co. Battelle Memorial Institute
J. D. EYESTONE, P.E. F. J. WALLACE
Western Electric Co. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 27
FLASH, UPSET AND

PERCUSSION WELDING
FLASH WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS
Definition and General Description
FLASH WELDING IS A RESISTANCE welding process wherein coalescence is
produced, simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces, by the heat
obtained from resistance to electric current between the two surfaces and by the
application of pressure after heating is substantially completed. Flashing and
upsetting are accompanied by expulsion of metal from the joint.
Flash welding consists basically of the following: two pieces of metal are
placed adjacent to each other in very light contact in an electric circuit. An elec-
tric potential is applied, causing a current to flow through the circuit. The cur-
rent is of sufficient magnitude to produce a flashing action between the adjacent
pieces of metal. The metal is thereby heated to the fusion point, and the weld
is consummated by the application of sufficient upset force. Figure 27.1 illus-
trates the relationship of parts for this application.
LIGHT CONTACT
Fig. 27.1.-Relationship of parts for flash welding

Flash Welding/ 27.3
Sequence
In many applications there are additional steps involved in the cycle. The
following list indicates the sequence of operations that may be required:
* 1. Load machine *9. Flash at normal voltage
*2. Clamp work * 10. Upset
3. Apply preheating force * 11. Cut off welding current
4. Preheat 12. Reclamp and postheat
5. Release preheat force to 13. Pinch-off and shear die operation
separate workpieces * 14. Unclamp work
6. Contact parts lightly for flashing * 15. Return platen and unload
*7. Apply welding voltage 16. Trim flash
8. Flash at high voltage
By using only the operations indicated with an asterisk ( * ) , the basic or most
generally used cycle is obtained. The additional operations illustrate a flaih weld-
ing cycle in one of its more complicated forms. All the steps are necessary for
certain applications. The additional operations are used only when the nature of
the material or the design of the parts makes them necessary. The basic cycle
is followed in all cases. The trimming of the flash may or may not be necessary,
depending upon the requirements of the particular assembly.
When tubes are welded it is often impossible to remove the flash from the
inside. In certain designs, wherein neither interference nor physical requirements
demand that the flash be removed, the parts are left as welded.
It is often difficult to establish a flashing action when heavy or unequal sec-
tions or nonferrous metals are flash welded as rather large amounts of cold metal
may be present at the flashing surfaces. Preheating of the parts prior to flashing
is sometimes done to improve this condition. Preheating reduces the required
secondary voltage and, therefore, the power demand. Another method is to bevel
the surfaces to be welded.
The flashing action may be established manually by shorting the pieces inter-
mittently until the temperature has risen to a point where flashing may take place
as a part of the automatic cycle of the machine. Item 8 in the sequence of opera-
tions indicates another method of establishing a flashing action wherein a higher
open-circuit voltage is used at the start of flashing than is used later in the cycle.
All the foregoing methods have proved satisfactory in production, and in many
instances combinations of them are employed.
Flashing
A brief description has been given of the flashing action that takes place
between two parts prior to upset. It is necessary that the platen be accelerated
at the proper rate to maintain a continuous flashing action. This rate is deter-
mined by the size of the parts to be welded, as well as by the amount of elec-
trical current used. Both the instantaneous and the average rates of flashing must
be considered.
The average rate of flashing is equal to the total distance the platen travels
during the flashing period divided by the time required for this travel. If the rate
is too low, flashing is obtained only intermittently, and it is difficult to obtain
sufficient heat in the parts to provide for an adequate upset. If the rate is too
high, the pieces may fteeze together without welding.
27.41 Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding
The over-all flashing time is the total
i~~~~
time during which the flashing action
takes place. When flashing time is too
short, insufficient heat is generated in the
parts and proper upset is not obtained.
CORRECT When flashing time is too long, the weld-
ing surfaces are overheated and again
it is impossible to obtain a proper upset.
This is because there is a rather large
amount of molten or plastic material to
be forced out of the weld area, making
it difficult to utilize the correct force
during the upset cycle.
INCORRECT
The flashing rate and the flashing time
Fig. 27.2.-Ef}ect of correct rate of
energy input (top} compared with too on automatic machines may usually be
high a rate of input (bottom) considered as a single variable once the
cam is designed. This is because any
change in cam speed affects both variables.
Flashing current and voltage are usually determined by the transformer setting
and, .therefore, cannot be changed individually. A setting on a high tap on the
transformer tends to increase both the current and voltage, whereas a low tap
setting decreases them. The effect of having too low an energy input is similar
to that of having too high a rate of flashing. It is difficult to obtain sufficient
heat, and there is a possibility of freezing the pieces together as the platen is
accelerated. Too high a rate of energy input tends to increase the gap between
the workpieces. Large craters are created on flashing and it is difficult to upset
to sound material. Figure 27.2 indicates the effect of flashing with too high a
rate of energy input.
When initial contact is established there is a series of very light localized
contacts between the two surfaces, as indicated in Fig. 27.3, which results in a
high concentration of current at those points. This localization of current heats
the minute areas to incandescence and causes the molten metal to be blown out
in the form of small particles. These localized short circuits or bridges occur
successively over the entire surface at an accelerating rate until the entire surface
reaches a fusing temperature.
As soon as heat sufficient to obtain a fusing temperature has been generated,
an upset force is applied suddenly and the welding current is cut off. To obtain
sufficient plasticity for upsetting some large pieces, it is necessary to prolong
the flashing cycle after the surfaces have reached a fusing temperature. Some
authorities have maintained that the flashing action assists in providing a protec-
tive atmosphere by combustion of the particles expelled. It is also believed that
combustion of these particles furnishes heat in addition to that obtained from
the electrical energy. Investigations,
however, indicate that the importance
of these effects is negligible.
There have been numerous in-
stances of shielding atmospheres
such as city gas, hydrogen, other
hydrocarbon gases and the inert gases
Fig. 27.3.-Localized bridging at initial being used to improve the quality of
contact the weld joint by reducing the possi-
Flash Welding I 27.5
bility of oxidation of the flashing edges. Production runs of flash welded assem-
blies have been made with the aid of a shielding gas.
Upsetting
After the flashing action has progressed for a time sufficient to establish a
plastic zone of metal, the upset force is applied suddenly to complete the weld.
The purpose of this force is twofold: ( 1) to provide forging action of sufficient
intensity to unite the plastic weld metal and (2) to squeeze out slag or oxidized
materials that may be on the abutting surfaces just prior to upset.
The current flowing through the pieces during upset must be sufficient to
prevent the material from chilling too rapidly. If the upset current is too low,
it is impossible to squeeze out the oxides and slag inclusions, causing an improper
upset similar to one made with insufficient heat in the material prior to upset.
On the other hand, too high an upset current may blow out molten material
adjacent to the weld, causing a defect. It is necessary, therefore, to have sufficient
current to provide a proper upsetting action with no blowing-out or loss of
pressure owing to plastic material in back of the weld region. Excessive upset
current may also result in overheating to the extent of burning the weld apart.
Overheating can be prevented by reducing the amount of current flowing during
this period.
The upset force should extrude the molten metal so that the weld is made in
the plastic metal immediately adjacent. This force is greatest at the center of
the section and decreases toward the outer edges. Since slag trapped in the center
of the section must travel the farthest, it is reasonable to expect that the center
section must be freed first of any unwanted slag particles during the upset. If
these foreign particles become trapped on their way out, they will produce de-
fects in the completed weld.
In order to ensure that slag and inclusions will be removed when the upset
material is removed, the upset force should be sufficient to extrude the molten
metal completely at the weld line beyond the original cross section of the work-
piece. There should be no external evidence of the weld after the flash and upset
have been removed by machining. If the weld is sectioned and etched, there
should be no evidence of porosity or slag. Porosity or defects indicate incom-
plete upset, owing either to insufficient upset force or insufficient plasticity of the
metal in the weld region.
The upset velocity is closely related to the upset force and must be sufficiently
rapid to avoid oxidation or cooling of the material. The upset force required on
any material depends primarily on the physical properties of the materials being
welded.
Values of upset force normally used with various materials are indicated in
the section of this chapter discussing recommended practices. Figure 27.4 illus-
trates the appearance of two round shafts before flash welding, after welding,
after the flash has been removed and after both the flash and the upset have
been removed.
EFFECT OF PROCESS ON MATERIALS WELDED
As previously described, flash welding heats the abutting surfaces to a plastic
temperature. Some of this plastic material is removed during the upset. The
metal immediately adjacent to the weld zone reaches a temperature high enough
to provide for plastic flow. This factor should be taken into consideration. The
welding procedure employed has considerable effect upon the temperature gradi-
27.6/ Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding
Fig. 27.4.-Flash welding two solid rods. From top to bottom: before weld-
ing, after welding, after flash removal and after upset metal removal
ents from the weld line to the cool material. Knowledge of the temperature gradi-
ents at the time of upset assists in determining the problem. Residual stresses may
be developed, however, when tubular sections are welded to heavy forgings, and
it may be necessary to stress relieve or heat treat completely after welding.
Weld Quality
Welds made on manually operated machines may show large variations in
quality, depending upon the skill of the operator. The quality of flash welds can
be determined easily by a simple bend test. Other mechanical tests, such as a
tensile test, can also be made to determine the weld quality. Another method of
determining whether any defects are present is the use of a cut and etched cross
section.
Figure 27.5A illustrates the outward appearance of a properly made weld.
Figure 27 .5B shows a weld that cracked longitudinally because of insufficient
heat in the material at the time of upset, and Fig. 27.5C illustrates a weld upset"
with insufficient heat and/ or force. It should be noted that the slope of the upset
material in Fig. 27.5C is much flatter than the slope of the upset material on the
properly made weld.
The effect of flashing and upsetting under improper conditions was discussed
earlier in this chapter. Table 27.1 summarizes the effects of the more important
variables involved. Each variable is considered individually, although in certain
instances more than one might cause the same effect.
Design-Flash Welding j 27.7
STEEP
SLOPE FLAT
SLOPE
CRACKS
(B) (C)
Fig. 27.5.-Surface indications of flash weld quality: A-satisfactory heat and upset;
B-cracks due to insufficient heat; C-insufficient heat, insufficient upset force, or both
In order to maintain consistent quality, it is necessary that both the parts to

be welded and the dies used in the welding machines be designed properly. The
pieces should be clamped to prevent them from slipping during the upset cycle.
These clamps and dies must be designed so that they will carry sufficient current
to the parts and distribute this current properly.
DESIGN
General
Flash welding is a satisfactory welding process, provided that the parts are
properly designed for its use. It is necessary to recognize the importance of
obtaining adequate die contact for current flow into the workpieces. This involves
provisions for a sufficient area of electrode contact. These areas must also be
clean in order to conduct the high currents while preventing flashing or contact
burns of the welding dies at the electrodes.
When close tolerances are required in the welded assembly, it is essential that
the locating points that are used in the dies be held to the same, or closer, toler-
ances than those desired on the completed assembly. Closer tolerances are ob-
tainable with flash welding than are obtained consistently by any other welding
Table 27.1-Effect of variables on flash weld quality

----,--------------------------------
Weld Variables
When 1---------------------------,------------------ ----
Variable
Factors Flashing Variables Upsetting Variables
Are: --------,----------c------ ------------------
------1---E--n_e_rg_Y___ I__=:_e~~~-e_I _ _T_i_m~-- ____c_u_r_r_en_t_ _ 1_T_r_a__ve__l_o_r__F_o_r_c_e_
Excessive Deep era ters that Tendency to Material too Burning or oxi- Tendency to
are formed freeze plastic to dation of the squeeze out
cau::;e pockets upset material even too much
and inclusions properly to the extent vla::~tic rna·
in weld; cast of blowing out terial and to
metal in wdd metal. Ex- make poor
ces::;;i ve defor- weld; flow
mation lines bent J)ar-
allel to weld
ln:-;ufficient Tenclencv to lnlermittent N rJt pla:;tic Longitudinal Failure to
freeze; lna- flashing, ·which enough cracking squeeze de-
terial not makes it diffi- proper up- through weld fects out of
plastic enough cult to de- set area. Inclu. weld; ca:;t
for proper up- velop suffi- sions and n1etal re-
set cient heat in voids not tained in
the material properly weld· oxides
for proper up- forced out of inclu~io.ns a~d
set weld voids in weld
27.8 I Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding
LOW CONDUCTIVITY HIGH CONDUCTIVITY

METAL METAL
Fig. 27.6.-Method of heat balance by unequal extension of workpieces from dies
process. The accuracy in production is influenced by the following factors: (1)

tolerances of the parts before welding, ( 2) the rigidity and precision of the
welding machine and fixtures, (3) the dressing and maintenance given to weld-
ing electrodes to control normal electrode wear and ( 4) the care used in loading
the work in the welding machine.
Heat Balance
In order to make a good flash weld, the same plasticity must be obtained in
the two parts to be welded. This may be difficult under certain conditions, either
because of a difference in the cross-sectional area of the two parts, or because of
differences in their heat conductivity and melting temperatures. Several tech-
niques may be used to obtain proper heat balance. One method is to extend the
LOW CONDUCTIVITY HIGH CONDUCTIVITY

METAL METAL
Fig. 27.7.-Method of heat balance by unequal beveling of workpieces
Design-Flash Welding I 27.9
Fig. 27.8.-Method of heat balance by use of copper

bridge
part that does not heat up as fast farther out of the dies, as illustrated in Fig.
27 .6. Other methods involve the unequal beveling of the two parts, as indicated
in Fig. 27.7, and the use of appropriate electrode design. In extreme cases it is
possible to preheat one piece, either before it is put into the welding machine or
while it is already in the machine, by the use of a bridge (Fig. 27.8). Such a
bridge is usually made of copper and is designed to short circuit one workpiece
in the machine in order to preheat the other piece. After the preheating is ac-
complished, the bridge is removed and the pieces are welded in the usual manner.
In the designing of flash welded assemblies the heat balance should be de-
signed into the parts rather than obtained by special procedures during the
welding operation.
When heavy sections are welded, it is often advisable to bevel the end of
at least one part in order to facilitate the starting of flashing. By means of such
beveling, it may be possible to eliminate the necessity for preheating or flashing
at a voltage higher than normal for the first part of the flashing period. This
type of beveling, with suggested dimensions, is shown in Fig. 27.9.
It is of prime importance that the surfaces to be welded should line up properly
in the welding machine so that the heat generated by flashing is the same over
the entire contact area. Should the parts be out of alignment, flashing will occur
only in the sections where contact is obtained, and at the time of upset the parts
Fig. 27.9.-End preparation for heavy pieces to facilitate flashing

27.10 j Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding
will tend to slip past each other on the cold metal, as illustrated in Fig. 27.10.
This factor should be given careful consideration in the design of the machine,
the parts to be welded and the tooling for welding them, especially when the
ratio of the length to the width of the sections is high.
i lj I POOR
BEFORE AFTER
I II I GOOD
Fig. 27.10.-Efject of alignment
In the design of a flash welded assembly it is necessary to allow extra stock

for flashing, and in most cases the sections to be joined should be approximately
the same. It is also essential that the provisions made for clamping the pieces
enable the welding dies to hold the parts in proper alignment.
When shafts are flash welded, provision should be made for the removal of
any deep centers on the welding surfaces that have been used for machining
purposes. If deep centers are left in the parts, poor fusion or voids will be en-
countered in the finished weld.
Clamping
When certain types of assemblies are welded, it is necessary to maintain the
upset force with clamps and without the aid of a backup. When possible, how-
ever, the pieces of work should be backed up by means of fixed stops on the
platens, and the upset force should be transmitted through these stops. The
clamping force on the electrodes, when backups are used, need only be sufficient
to provide good electrical contact for the welding current and to maintain align-
ment of the work. Under these conditions it is usually unnecessary to have more
than 3000 to 4500 pounds of clamping pressure per square inch of welded area.
In applications such as the welding of rings, where it is impossible to use back-
ups, the clamps must grip the work with force sufficient to prevent slippage when
the upset force is applied. It is necessary to consider the upset force in relation
to the coefficient of friction between the workpiece and the electrode or jaws. It
has been common practice to assume a ratio of 2 1/2 to 3 times the upset force
for determining the clamping force. When one of the clamp jaws is made of
steel, and slight markings on the work are not objectionable, serrations or teeth
may be placed on the face of the clamping jaws. The necessary clamping force
is thus reduced. Stainless steels that require high upset forces need still higher
clamping forces because of their smooth surfaces.
Before welding rings of any design, such as wheels and ring gears, the applica-
tion must be analyzed carefully to determine whether or not it can be flash
welded satisfactorily. Consideration must be given to the fact that welding
current will shunt around the solid section of the ring, thus cutting down the
effective welding current. The amount of this shunting action, of course, de-
pends upon the ratio of the length of the ring to the area being welded and the
electrical conductivity of the material. It is also necessary to recognize that the
Design-Flash Welding I 27.11
Table 27.2--llecommended maximum joint Table 27.3-Recommended maximum

lengths for flash welding flat sheet* diameters for flash welding tubing*
Sheet Ma.x. Sheet Max. Wall Max. Wall Max.

Thick- Joint Thick- Joint Thick- Tubing Thick- Tubing
ness, Length, ness, Length, nesses, Diameter, nesses, Diameter,
In. ln. In. In. In. In. In. In.
---- ----- ----
O.OIO 1.00 0.060 25.00 0.020 0.50 0.125 4.00
0.020 5.00 0.080 35.00 0.030 0.75 0.187 6.00
0.030 10.00 0.100 45.00 0.050 1.25 0.250 9.00
0.040 15.00 0.125 57.00 0.062 1.50 0.375 15.00
0.050 20.00 0.187 88.00 0.080 2.00 0.500 20.00
0.100 3.00
* Based upon results obtained in mild stee I

operations. * Based upon results obtained in mild steel
operations.
ring must be deformed to a smaller diameter during the welding operation. This
naturally requires additional force. It is particularly difficult to use adequate
clamping jaws on small rings because of space limitations.
Certain recommendations are made in Table 27.2 regarding the maximum
length of joint for flash welding flat sheets of various thicknesses. Similar recom-
mendations are made in Table 27.3 for the maximum diameters to be used when
tubing of various wall thicknesses is flash welded. These recommendations or
limitations do not indicate that it is impossible to increase the weld lengths or
tube diameters specified.
Flash Removal
It is frequently necessary to remove both the flash and the upset material
after the weld is made. This is necessary in some cases only for .the sake of
appearance. The joint is somewhat stronger in tension before the flash is re-
moved because of the added rigidity of the upset material. The notch effect at
the weld line, however, may cause a reduction of fatigue strength. When the
design of parts indicates that reinforcement is beneficial, a portion of the upset
material may be retained. This material may be removed by the following means:
air chisels, machine tools and cutting tools, grinding wheels, high-speed burring
wheels, die trimming, oxygen machining or oxy-fuel cutting, high-speed sander
and flash trimmer.
The use of any of the above methods of flash removal is dependent upon the
type of operation. When alloy steels are welded, the removal of flash by means
of cutting tools is often difficult because of the hardness of the flash. Either
grinding or oxy-fuel cutting is usually employed. It is generally easier to remove
the flash immediately after welding while the material is still hot.
Tooling
The welding electrodes used in the flash welding usually carry current to the
workpieces and clamp them. It is necessary, therefore, to use an electrode ma-
terial of the right physical and electrical properties to accomplish the clamping
properly and to carry current to the workpieces. Many materials have been
developed for this use. A description of them will be found in Chapter 28. In
the design of these welding electrodes, it is important that adequate water cool-
ing be provided to avoid changes in electrical and mechanical properties caused
by elevated temperatures.
27.12 /Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding
INSPECTION AND TESTING

Visual inspection is the most widely used method of inspecting flash welds.
It is usually necessary to inspect the appearance after removing the flash and
upset material, because this material often tends to hide defects. Several other
nondestructive inspection methods have been used with varying degrees of suc-
cess; none of them, however, actually locates all types of defects. Magnetic
particle inspection indicates cracks and small inclusions and discontinuities, pro-
vided that they are of sufficient size and so located that an indication may be
obtained. Naturally, magnetic inspection is not applicable on nonmagnetic ma-
terials, and its use has been rather limited for the inspection of flash welds.
Other methods of inspection suitable for certain applications are those using
eddy currents as well as ultrasonic and dye penetrant methods.
Radiographic inspection of flash welds has not been wholly satisfactory, be-
cause small defects that are known to be detrimental cannot be brought out on
the radiograph.
In some cases good inspection is automatically obtained by stressing the ma-
terial well above the yield point in sizing operations. Where uniform high
strength is imperative, the assembly may be proof loaded to design specification.
Destructive testing of a percentage of the assemblies welded has also been em-
ployed with good results.
Macrographic examination is satisfactory for determining whether or not the
machine is properly set up to weld a particular assembly. Usually, however, it
is not employed as a regular inspection procedure.
When automatic welding machines are used, it is most important to make
sure that the setup remains constant after production starts, because there is
little that the operator can do to influence welding conditions or weld quality.
Flash welds may be tested by most of the means available for testing the base
properties of the metal. These flash weld properties may be investigated, in addi-
tion to those previously mentioned: hardness, strength, tension, impact, fatigue,
bending, cupping, corrosion resistance and metallographic structure.
With the proper application of the flash welding process it is possible to ob-
tain high joint efficiency, provided that the joint has been designed properly
and that the proper steps have been taken to obtain a metallurgically sound
weld area.
The process is reliable and rapid, and it is not difficult to train operators to
use the automatic types of machines. These factors have done much toward
making flash welding practical on high-production applications. Development
of applications for the process has been accelerated, and indications are that its
importance in production will continue to grow. Chapter 6, "Inspection of Weld-
ing," of Section 1 of the 6th edition of the Handbook provides further details,
EQUIPMENT
Machines
Flash welding machines may be manual, semiautomatic or fully automatic in
their operation. Most of the equipment being manufactured today is either semi-
automatic or fully automatic. It is designed to handle only the basic cycle referred
to early in this chapter. Many of the small-capacity flash welding machines are
provided with platen motion by means of a variable-speed cam driven by an
electric motor through a speed reducer. Usually the large-capacity machines are
Recommended Practices for Flash Welding / 27.13
hydraulically operated and are equipped so that the speed of the platen motion
may be changed.
In fully manual operation, the operator controls the speed of the platen from
the time that flashing is initiated until the upset is completed. In semiautomatic
operation, the operator usually initiates flashing manually, after which the rest
of the cycle is completed automatically. In fully automatic operation, the work-
pieces are loaded into the machine, after which the cycle is completed auto-
matically. Chapter 28 discusses flash welding machines further.
Controls and Auxiliary Equipment
Electrical controls on flash welding machines are primarily designed to start
and stop the current supply to the welding transformer and to sequence the
motion of the movable platen. The contactor for making and breaking the power
supply may be either magnetic or electronic in operation. The use of electronic
contactors is becoming more general, although some installations still utilize
magnetic equipment. The controls for automatic flash welding machines in some
instances are capable of sequencing all the steps listed earlier in this chapter.
Most of the control equipment in service, however, is designed to use the basic
cycle without preheat, postheat or any other special operations.
Further information concerning controls and auxiliary equipment for flash
welding machines is included in Chapter 28.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES FOR FLASH WELDING
In correlating the material for this section, it is necessary to define the process
variables and then specify the method of measurement of some of these variables.
Such definitions are given in this section. Reference should be made to Fig. 27.11,
the definitions chart (pp. 27.14 and 27.15).
When these practices are employed and the definitions considered, it should
be realized that neither all flash welding equipment nor all flash welding sched-
ules make use of all the listed variables.
The most common applications use no preheating, dual flashing currents or
postheating. They consist of flashing at a fixed voltage tap of the welding trans-
former, followed by upsetting. Most equipment now in production performs
only these two functions.
The use of these data is intended to aid in establishing successful welding
procedures. No implication that variations from these data cannot be made is
intended, but the exact degree of variation that may be made, with resultant
welds of optimum quality, is not known.
Definitions
See the flash welding definitions chart, Fig. 27 .11.
( 1) Weld Line is the plane of fusion of the welded workpieces.
(2) Flash is the material that is thrown and extruded from weld line during
the flashing and upsetting actions.
(3) Initial Electrode Opening (A, in.) is the distance between the electrodes
when the workpieces first contact.
( 4) Material Lost ( B, in.) is the total length of material used in making the
weld.
(5) Final Electrode Opening (C, in.) is the distance between the electrodes
at the completion of the weld.
(6) Total Flash-Off (D, in.) is the total length of material lost in flashing.
TIME ...,
:"'
.........
-""'
~
PREHEATING PSETTING
FORCE FORCE
(34) (32) -~
~
0
~ ~
0 ~
m ~-------+--------------------------------------------------------~----~------------
[
UP-
FLASHING CURRENT I, FLASHING CURRENT Ia SETTING
(36) (36) CURRENT i
(;l7) 1:;
(5•
;:
~
IS:
~-
0
c UPSETTING CURRENT TIME I 01 • I
~
~
(25)
m ~101 TIME AT I1
z TIME AT Iz .. li"~.~~::'~IOI~
-i (23) (24) -i
:!! MANUAL FLASH- i:
ING TIME-+1*----4--AUTOMATIC FLASHING TIME Ill
1!0"
..., ~) ~2)
:"'
.... ....- - - - - - 1 - - - - + - - - - - F L A S H I N G T I M E - - - - - - - - - - . . a
(45)
1+------t---+-- --- WELDING TIME-----------1---~

(27)
~
b
::t ~----+-------+---+-----WELDING PERIOD----------+---~~----T-~
~ (30)
Recommended Practices for Flash Welding j 27.15
SPRING-BACK(ASSUMED ZERO)
I
(19) ..........J
u>
p - - - F I N A L DIE OPENING (C) MATERIAL LOST ( B ) - a:<
(5) (4)·- oa:
U.t-
NAL EXTENSION (N)•f+FINAL EXTENSION (P)-+ zo
(15) (16) UJZ
~<
MATERIAL X MATERIAL Y
_,c-
a..!:!.
(13) (14) ._j
_..MATERIA!; X - -MATERIAL Y -
~ LOST(.J LOST(K~) MANUAL )-+
(II) (12 F-LASH·OFF(E} 1--
(7) .
f4--.FLASH·OFF(F)
""-""'o" o•/ r ~""''"'
("'
~TOTAL AUTOMATIC.,-
UPSETTING FORC& LOST(B) UPSET(H
(8) +
(32) (4) ~
~FL_J~!~~F(D)- I-
(6}
WELD LINE/
(I) _,
0
....
'V ...0
~
~ 0
z
.,I'"
~
0
-n "'<
....z
I-
r
1\
z !.
~ ~
"'~_, ~
"'z
.J
Q.
~
..4
>-
"~
CL
a:
z<
0
"c
1/1
11
_,UJ
Gl
~
-n ~
~
.,
I-
~
~
0
:IE
z z
_,
1/1
0 0 0
w "'iS UJ
0
u. ...0 ~
....
...a:
0 0
w "'8
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0
; .,~
} ~
TRAVEL AT lz(R)._ z
"'~
TRAVE~17)AT ~118/Q) I~ ..J
CL
_,
UJ
\
Gl
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z
0
'
INITIAL DIE OP,ENING (A) UJ
0
(3)
...0
UJ
MATERIAL X MATERIAL Y "

0
~13)
----INITIAL EXTENSION (L)
~
(14)
INITIAL EXTENSION (M) iJ
DIMENSIONS
flash welding definition5

(7) Manual Flash-Of} (E, in.) is the length of material lost in flashing while
the flashing is controlled manually.
(8) Automatic Flash-Of} (F, in.) is the length of material lost in flashing
while the flashing is controlled automatically.
( 9) Preheating Loss ( G, in.) is the length of material lost as a result of the
preheating action.
(10) Total Upset (H, in.) is the length of material lost as the result of the
forging action.
(11) Material X Lost (J, in.) is the length of material X used in making the
weld.
(12) Material Y Lost (K, in.) is the length of material Yused in making the
weld.
(13) Initial Extension, Material X (L, in.) is the dimension from the elec-
trode that clamps material X to the point on material X that first con-
tacts material Y.
(14) Initial Extension, Material Y (M, in.) is the dimension from the elec-
trode that clamps material Y to the point on material Y that first con-
tacts material X.
(15) Final Extension, Material X (N, in.) is the dimension from the elec-
trode that clamps material X to the weld line at the completion of the
weld.
(16) Final Extension, Material Y (P, in.) is the dimension from the die that
clamps material Y to the weld line at the completion of the weld.
(17) Travel at I 1 (Q, in.) is the dimension the movable platen (material Y)
travels during the time flashing current 11 flows.
(18) Travel at I 2 (R, in.) is the dimension the movable platen (material Y)
travels during the time flashing current 12 flows.
(19) Spring-Back (in.) is the deflection of the welding machine when making
the weld.
(20) Preheating Time (sec) is the time during which preheating is taking
place.
(21) Manual Flashing Time (sec) is the time during which flashing by
manual control is taking place.
(22) Automatic Flashing Time (sec) is the time during which flashing by
automatic control is taking place.
(23) Time at Flashing Current I 1 (sec) is the time during which flashing
with current 11 is taking place.
(24) Time at Flashing Current I 2 (sec) is the time during which flashing
with current 12 is taking place.
(25) Upsetting Current Time (sec) is the time during which upsetting cur-
rent flow is taking place.
(26) Upsetting Time (sec) is the time during which upsetting is taking place.
(27) Welding Time (sec) is the time during which flashing and upsetting are
taking place.
(28) Postheating Time (sec) is the time during which postheating is taking
place.
(29) Clamp Holding Time (sec) is the time measured from the end of the
postheating time (or end of upsetting time when no postheat is used)
to the time at which the clamping force is released from the workpieces.
(30) Welding Period (sec) is the time that elapses from the start of the
preheating time to the end of the clamp-holding time.
(31) Platen Force (lb) is the force available at the movable platen to cause
upsetting. This force may be dynamic, theoretical or static.
(32) Upsetting Force (lb) is the force exerted at the welding surfaces during
upsetting.
(33) Clamping Force (lb) is the force exerted on the jaws by the clamping
system.
(34) Preheating Force (lb) is the force exerted on the welding surfaces dur-
ing preheating.
(35) Preheating Current (rms amperes) is the current that flows through the
workpieces during preheating.
(36) Flashing Current (rms amperes) is the current that flows through the
workpieces during flashing.
(37) Upsetting Current (rms amperes) is the current that flows through the
workpieces during upsetting.
(38) Postheating Current (rms amperes) is the current that flows through the
workpieces during postheating.
(39) Secondary Voltage (Eh rms volts) is the open-circuit voltage of the
welding transformer measured on the secondary side.
(40) Load Voltage (E 2 , volts) is the voltage across the workpiece during
welding and postheating.
(41) Instantaneous Rate of Flash-Off (in. per sec) is the instantaneous veloc-
ity of one workpiece relative to the other during the flashing action and
is the first derivative of such motion at a specified position.
( 42) Average Rate of Flash-Off (in. per sec) is the average velocity of one
workpiece relative to the other during the entire flashing action.
(43) Instantaneous Velocity of Upset (in. per sec) is the instantaneous veloc-
ity of one workpiece relative to the other during upsetting action, and
is the first derivative of such motion at a specified position.
(44) Average Velocity of Upset (in. per sec) is the average velocity of one
workpiece relative to the other during the entire upsetting action.
(45) Flashing Time (sec) is the time during which the flashing action is
taking place.
For additional definitions, see Appendix.
Dimensional Measurements
The dimensions of the following are usually obtained by scale measurement
of the workpieces before and after welding: material lost, material X lost;
material Y lost; initial extension, material X; initial extension, material Y; final
extension, material X; final extension, material Y.
The dimensions of the following are usually obtained by scale measurement
of such items on the welding machine: initial electrode opening, final electrode
opening, total flash-off, manual flash-off, automatic flash-off, preheating loss,
travel at 11 and travel at 12 •
The total upset is most accurately measured by subtracting the sum of the
measurements of total flash-off and preheating loss from the measurement of
material lost. The high speed of upsetting, together with the error introduced
by spring-back of the machine, make it difficult to measure the total upset directly
and accurately.
The dimension of spring-back is difficult to measure directly and, fortunately,
is not important as a weld variable. It assumes more importance as an equip-
ment variable.
Time Measurements
The time intervals of the following can usually be measured with sufficient
accuracy by a stop watch: preheating time, manual flashing time, automatic
flashing time, time at flashing current II> time at flashing current 12 , welding time,
postheating time and welding period.
The upsetting current time can be taken from the records of an oscillograph
or recording ammeter, depending upon the length of time and accuracy desired.
The upsetting time can be taken most conveniently from the record of a
platen movement recorder.
The clamp-holding time can be obtained by the use of a dial or chart-type
cycle counter.
Force Measurements
The platen force and the upsetting force are of a transient nature and are
influenced by friction, inertia, the method of applying the forces and the oppos-
ing reaction of the material being upset. It is difficult, therefore, to obtain precise
measurements of such forces without elaborate measuring equipment. No well-
recognized, simple, approximate methods of measurement are in use.
The clamping force is usually calculated, and the effect of friction is neglected
when such calculations are made.
Current Measurements
Preheating current and postheating current can be measured by indicating or
recording ammeters or oscillographs.
The flashing current is very irregular because of the flashing action while a
weld is made. Although an oscillograph record is an accurate indication of this
current, such records are difficult to analyze readily. Records taken with record-
ing ammeters are usually sufficiently accurate, and permit easier analysis; con-
sequently, such records are commonly used. The transfer of data from one
welding schedule to another by means of recording ammeters requires that such
ammeters have equivalent damping characteristics.
Upsetting current can be measured precisely by an oscillograph or by pointer-
stop ammeters for a slightly lesser, but generally satisfactory, degree of accuracy.
Voltage Measurements
Secondary voltage can be measured by the use of an indicating voltmeter,
whereas the load voltage is as irregular as the flashing current, and can be meas-
ured by a recording voltmeter.
Rates and Velocities of Flash-Off and Upset
The average rate of flash-off can be calculated from the flashing time and the
total flash-off.
The instantaneous rate of flash-off, the instantaneous velocity of upset and
the average velocity of upset can be measured by the use of any device that will
satisfactorily record mechanical motion and time.
Classification of Steels for Flash Welding
The values of the upsetting forces required for various sections of various
steels are related to the temperature gradient of the workpieces in the plastic
zone and to the compressive strengths of the steels at these elevated tempera-
tures. The steels are classified below and typical steels of the various classes
are given.
Low Forging Strength Steels.-This class is typified by SAE 1020, SAE
1112, etc.
Medium Forging Strength Steels.-This class is typified by SAE 1045, SAE
1065, SAE 3135, SAE 4130, SAE 4140, etc.
High Forging Strength Steels.-This class is typified by SAE 4640, stainless
steel (chromium type), stainless steel (chromium-nickel type), stainless steel
(cutlery type), high-speed steel, special tool, die and austenitic valve-stem
steels, etc.
Extra-High Forging Strength Steels.-This class is typified by all steels ex-
hibiting extra-high compressive strengths at elevated temperatures.
The selection of flash welding equipment depends, to a great extent, upon
the forging strength of the steels to be flash welded. Steels with low forging
strength require a relatively low pressure, but high forging strength steels require
equipment capable of exerting extremely high pressures.
Flash Welding Schedules

Flash welding schedules for welding tubing and fiat sheets having thicknesses
ranging from 0.010 to 1 in. are given in Fig. 27.12 and Table 27.4, and cover
steels of low and medium forging strength.
r~f~b5° TO 20°
TUBING FLAT SHEET
NOTE: WHEN "T'' IS ;i-N OR THICKER, BEVEL ONE WORK PIECE

RECOMMENDED END PREPARATION
T •TUBE WALL OR SHEET D=TOTAL FLASH-OFF O.D.= OUTSIDE DIA. OF TUBING

THICKNESS H= TOTAL UPSET S = MINIMUM NECESSARY
A=INITIAL DIE OPENING J= K"'MATERIAL LOST PER PIECE LENGTH OF ELEC-
8 =MATERIAL LOST TRODE CONTACT
L= M= INITIAL EXTENSION PER PIECE
C =FINAL DIE OPENING
Fig. 27.12.-Flash welding of tubing and flat steel sheets

27.20/ Plash, Upset and Percussion Welding
Table 27.4-Data for flash welding steel tubing and flat sheets*
Flash- s s
T, \ A, B, c, D, H, L=M, ing O.D., With With-
J=K, out
In. In. In. In. ln. In. In. In. Time, ln. Loca- Lo-
Sec. tor cator
- - --- --- --· --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.010 O.llO 0.060 0.050 0.040" 0.020 0.030 0.055 0.40 0.250 0.375 1.00
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.020 0.215 O.ll5 0.100 0.080 0.035 0.058 0.108 0.80 0.312 0.375 1.00
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.030 0.325 0.175 0.150 0.125 0.050 0.088 0.163 1.25 0.375 0.375 1.50
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.040 0.430 0.230 0.200 0.165 0.065 O.ll5 0.215 1. 75 0.500 0.375 1. 75
- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - - - -0.205
0.050 0.530 0.280 0.250 0.075 0.140 0.265 2.25 0.750 0.500 2.00
-- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
- - - - - - - - - - - - -0.240
0.060 0.620 0.330 0.290 0.090 0.165 0.310 2.75 1.000 0.750 2.50
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.070 0.715 0.385 0.330 0.280 0.105 0.193 0.358 3.50 1.50 1.000 3.00
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - - --
0.080 0.805 0.435 0.370 0.315 0.120 0.218 0.403 4.00 2.00 1.250
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.090 0.885 0.475 0.410 0.345 0.130 0.238 0.443 4.50 2.50 1. 750
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - - ·--- - -
0.100 0.970 0.520 0.450 0.375 0.145 0.260 0.485 5.00 3.00 2.000
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
--~
O.llO 1.060 0.570 0.490 0.410 0.160 0.285 0.530 5.75 3.50 2.25
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.120 1.140 0.610 0.530 0.440 0.170 0.305 0.570 6.25 4.00 2.50
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.130 1.225 0.650 0.575 0.470 0.180 0.325 0.613 7.00 4.50 2. 75
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --
.
--~
0.140 1.320 0.700 0.620 0.510 0.190 0.350 0.660 7. 75 5.00 2. 75

- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.150 1.390 0.730 0.660 0.530 0.200 0.365 0.695 8.50 5.50 3.00 _,_ E
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
-
0.160 1.470 0.770 0.700 0.560 0.210 0.385 0.735
--- --- ---
9.00 6.00 3.25 "0
--- --- --- --- --- -....:1-
0.170 1.540 0.800 0.740 0.580 0.220 0.400 0. 770 9.75 6.50 3.50
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -7.00
0
-- --- - -
0.180 1.620 0.840 0.780 0.610 0.230 0.420 0.810 10.50 3.75 _;:5_ "
-~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - ..,
0.820 0.630 0.240 0.435 0.845 11.25 4.00
- - - - - - --- - - - - 0
0.190 1.690 7.50
- - - - - 0.870 - - - ---· - - -
0.200 1.760 0.860 0.650 0.250 0.450 0.880 .;;"
12.00
-
8.00 4.25
0.900
-~-
0.250 2.010 1.010 1.000 0.730 0.280 0.505 1.005 16.00 8.50 4.50
-~-
0.300 2.245
1.120 1.125 0.810 0.310 0.560
9.00 1.123
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - · -"-"".:
21.00 4.75
0.350 2.460 1.210 1.250 0.880 0.330 0.605 1.230 27.00 9.50 5.00 e
--- - - - --- --- - - - --- --- - - - -e-
0.400 2.640 1.290 1.350 0.930 0.360 0.645 1.320 33.00 10.00 0
- - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - 0~"> -

0.450 2.780 1.350 1.430 0.970 0.380 0.675 1.390 38.00
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - 0 -
..,
0.500 2.910 1.410 1.500 1.020 0.390 0.705 1.455 45.00 z
--- --- ------ --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.550 3.040 1.465 1.575 1.055 0.410 0.733 1.520 50.00
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - -
0.600 3.135 1.630 1.085 0.420 0.753 1.568 56.00
- - - - - - 1.505 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.650 3.245 1.555 1.690 1.125 0.430 0.778 1.623 63.00
- - --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.700 3.360 1.610 1. 750 1.160 0.450 0.805 1.680 70.00
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.800 3.525 1.675 1.850 1.210 0.465 0.838 1. 763 83.00
- - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.900 3.660 1.730 1.930 1.250 0.480 0.865 1.830 97.00
--- --- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.000 3.800 1.800 2.000 1.300 0.500 0.900 1.900 llO.OO
• Data based on welding, without preheat, two pieces of the same welding characteristics. See
Fig. 27.12 for assembly of parts.
Recommended Practices for Flash Welding 127.21
Table 27.5-Data for flash welding solid, round, hexagonal, square and rectangular steel bars*
Flash- s s
O.D., A, B, c, D, H, J=K, L=M, ing O.D., With With-
In. In. In. In. In. Time, In. Loca- out
In. In. In. Loca-
Sec. to.r tor
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - -
0.050 0.100 0.050 0.050 0.040 0.010 0.025 0.050 0.40 0.250 0.375 1.00
--- --- --- --- --- - - - - - - --- -0.-75- -0.312
0.100 0.182 0.082 0.100 0.062 0.020 0.041 0.091
- - --- --
0.375 1.00
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.150 0.270 0.120 0.150 0.090 0.030 0.060 0.135 1.15 0.375 0.375 1.50
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - --- - -
0.200 0.350 0.150 0.200 O.llO 0.040 0.075 0.175 1.50 0.500 0.375 1. 75
- - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
0.250 0.430 0.180 0.250 0.130 0.050 0.090 0.215 1.90 0.750 0.500 2.00
--- --- --- ------ --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.300 0.510 0.210 0.300 0.150 0.060 0.105 0.255
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0.350 0.600 0.250 0.350 0.180 0.070 0.125 0.300
2.25
2. 75
1.000 0.750 2.50
1.50 1.000 3.00
--
--- --- ------ --- --- --- ------ --- --- - -
0.400 0.685 0.285 0.400 0.205 0.080 0.143 0.343 3.25 2.00 1. 25
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.450 0.770 0.320 0.450 0.230 0.090 0.160 0.385 3. 75 2.50 1. 75
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.500 0.850 0.350 0.500 0.250 0.100 0.175 0.425 4.25 3.00 2.00
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
0.550 0.940 0.390 0.550 0.280 0.110 0.195 0.470 5.00 3.50 2.25
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - '
0.600 1.025 0.425 0.600 0.305 0.120 0.213 0.513 5.50 4.00 2.50
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - - - -So-
0.650 1.100 0.450 0.650 0.325 0.125 0.225 0.550 6. 75 4.50 2. 75 :;
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - .... -
""
0.700 1.180 0.480 0. 700 0.350 0.130 0.240 0.590 7.50 5.00 2. 75
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -&tl-
0.750 1.260 0.510 0.750 0.375 0.135 0.255 0.630 8.25 5.50 3.00 _0_
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---- ---
0.800 1.340 0.540 0.800 0.400 0.140 0.270 0.670 9.00 6.00 3.25 _::;:_"
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
0.8.10 1.420 0.570 0.850 0.425 0.145 0.285 0.710 9.75 6.50 3.50 ...
·--- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - o "-
0.900 1.500 0.600 0.900 0.450 0.150 0.300 0.750 10.50 7.00 3.75
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - --- -~-
...
.c
0.950 1.580 0.630 0.950 0.475 0.155 0.315 0.790 11.75 7.50
- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - -
4.00 _.,_
1.000 1.660 0.660 1.000 0.500 0.160 0.330 0.830 13.00 8.00 4.25 " .,
- - - -"-
1.050 1. 740 0.690 1.050 0.525 0.165 0.345 0.870 14.75 8:50 4.50 "8
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - -e-
1.100 1.820 0.720 1.100 0.550 0.170 0.360 0.910 16.50 9.00 4.75
- - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -.,-
0
<J
1.150 1.900 0.750 1.150 0.575 0.175 0.375 0.950 18.25 9.50 5.00 _..,_
- - - --- - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0
~
---
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - z-
1.200 1.980 0.780 1.200 0.600 0.180 0.390 0.990 20.00 10.00
--- ---
1.250 2.060 0.810 1.250 0.625 0.185 0.405 1.030 22.50
- - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.300 2.140 0.840 1.300 0.650 0.190 0.420 1.070 25.00
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
1.400 2.300 0.900 1.400 0.700 0.200 0.450 1.150 30.00
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- ------ ------ - -
1.500 2.460 0.960 1.500 0.750 0.210 0.480 1.230 38.00
--- --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1.600 2.620 1.020 1.600 0.800 0.220 0.510 1.310 45.00
- - - --- - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1. 700 2.780 1.080 1. 700 0.850 0.230 0.540 1.390 54.00
1.800 2.940 1.140 1.800 0.900 0.240 0.570 1.470 63.00
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - - - - -
1.900 3.100 1.200 1.900 0.950 0.250 0·.600 1.550 75.00
--
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- - -
2.000 3.260 1.260 2.000 1.000 0.260 0.630 1.630 90.00
• Data based on welding, without preheat; two pieces of the same welding characteristics. Values
apply only where the ratio of maximum to minimum cross·sectional dimension does not exceed 1.5
to 1.0. See Fig. 27.13 for assembly of parts.
Flash welding schedules for welding solid, round, hexagonal, square and
rectangular bars, having an outside diameter of rounds or minimum dimensions
of other sections ranging from 0.050 to 2 in., are given in Fig. 27.13 and Table
27.5 and cover steels of low and medium forging strength. These schedules give
the recommended dimensions for setting up a flash welding machine to weld
such sections and the total flashing time based on welding without preheating.
No data are available concerning the necessary flashing currents, rates and
velocities of flash-off and upset.
fo.D.OR LARGER-BEVEL ONE WORK PIECE
RECOMMENDED END PREPARATION
O.D.= DIAMETER OF ROUNDS OR MINIMUM DIMENSION OF OTHER SECTIONS

A= INITIAL DIE OPENING 0= TOTAL FLASH-OFF L=M=INITIAL EXTENSION PER PIECE
6= MATERIAL LOST H= TOTAL UPSET S= MINIMUM NECESSARY LENGTH
C = FINAL DIE OPENING J = K= MATERIAL LOST PER PIECE OF ELECTRODE CONTACT
Fig. 27.13.-Flash welding of solid, round, hexagonal, square and rectangular steel bars
When a schedule is set up, the dimensionable variables and flashing time are
selected from the tabulations, and the welding machine voltage regulator is
adjusted to give the lowest secondary voltage, Et. at which steady and consistent
flashing can be obtained. The flashing current resulting from such a voltage
setting will then be at a satisfactory value.
The secondary voltage, Eh is dependent on the electrical characteristics of the
welding machine being used. The upsetting forces used for the schedules are
dependent upon the class of steel and the section to be welded.
Experience indicates that the selection of equipment should be based on the
following values of recommended platen force. Such values are based on the
welding heat attained solely by flashing, i.e., no preheating:
Low Forging Strength Steels-10,000 psi of weld sectional area
Medium Forging Strength Steels-15,000 psi of weld sectional area
High Forging Strength Steels-25,000 psi of weld sectional area
Extra High Forging Strength Steels-35,000 psi of weld sectional area
Common Applications-Flash Welding /27.23
COMMON APPLICATIONS
Flash welding, wherein the heat is generated during the flashing action, is
much more widely used than upset welding. The process makes possible the
end-to-end welding of sheets and other extended sections, and affords the follow-
ing advantages:
1. Higher weld strength.
2. No need, generally, for special preparation of weld surfaces.
3. Higher production rate.
4. Smaller upset.
5. Better heat concentration.
6. Dissimilar metals may be welded, since flashing may be continued until
both metals reach their widely varying, individual fusing temperatures.
(Refer to the discussion of heat balance earlier in this chapter.)
Flash welding, with these main features, has replaced upset welding in many
operations. Certain advantages in upset welding, however, make it preferable
for some types of work: (1) the spatter of flash welding is not present. (2)
there is very little ragged extrusion of material and ( 3) the upset is usually
smooth and symmetrical, although more pronounced.
Materials Used in Flash Welding
Flash welds are most commonly employed in joining two pieces of metal end
to end, or in welding one piece of material to a projecting part of another piece.
Typical applications include the welding together of two shafts, tubes or strips
of steel; the welding of a forging or casting either to another forging or to some
standard section, and the welding of strips or bars to form rings, such as wheel
rims. If any of these applications is to be practical, the cross sections of the
workpieces must be nearly identical. In most instances either upset or flash
welding can be utilized, but for the reasons listed previously the use of flash
welding is usually preferable, especially on larger or extended sections, and
where dissimilar metals are involved.
In the following discussion, the weldability of various metals by the flash
welding process is considered from the standpoint of the number of steps neces-
sary to ensure good welds. Steels of low hardenability may be welded without
preheat or postheat with consistently good results. As the hardenability of the
steel increases, it is necessary to resort to combinations of preheat and postheat
or to other methods of immediate heat treatment to make the welded joint as
good as those obtained in steels of lower hardenability. Flash welding is gen-
erally considered satisfactory on almost all types of steel, provided that the
proper steps are taken to obtain a sound joint. Combinations of steels, such as
high-speed tool steel and low-carbon steel, are welded satisfactorily, although it
is usually necessary to employ special procedures to equalize the differences in
hardness, fusion temperature, electrical and thermal conductivity, geometry and
crack sensitivity. Most of the nonferrous metals are welded satisfactorily. The
procedures and techniques required are varied, and each case must be considered
individually.
The flash welding of cast iron has been successful only to a limited extent.
Lead, tin, zinc, antimony, bismuth and alloys in which they are the principal
constituents, as well as copper alloys in which any of the above metals is
present in large percentages, are not generally recommended for flash welding
application. These are the exceptions. The process usually can be considered
applicable to almost any combination of metals, regardless of their dissimilarity,

although the necessity for special procedures and techniques might make certain
applications impractical.
Industrial Applications
The flash welding process is being used generally by almost all the fabricating
industries in the United States. It is probably most important in industries with
high production schedules. Its use in job shop fabrication, or industries with low
production, is limited, because of the expense of tooling and establishing welding
procedures.
Flash welding is used to a considerable extent in conjunction with the manu-
facture of automotive and aircraft products. The process is also used widely in
the manufacture of household appliances, refrigerators and farm implements.
UPSET WELDING
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Upset welding is a resistance welding process wherein coalescence is produced
simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces or progressively along a
joint by the heat obtained from the resistance to electric current through the
area of contact of those surfaces. For butt welding workpieces end to end, and
for low-frequency welding of tubing and pipe, welding current flows through
the area of contact of the abutting surfaces. Welding force is applied before
heating is started and is maintained throughout the heating period. For high-
frequency welding of tubing, pipe and structural sections, welding current flows
along the surfaces to be welded. These surfaces are separated so as to form a
Vee-shaped configuration. The materials flow continuously through the Vee
configuration and are welded at the apex of the Vee, where welding force is
applied to forge the materials into intimate contact and complete the weld.
Upset welding was the earliest form of resistance welding. The process is in
use for many applications ranging from welding of small ferrous and nonferrous
strips and wires to the welding of longitudinal butt joints in tubing and pipe and
transverse-butt joints in heavy steel rings. The greatest use of the process is in
drawing operations in the wire industries throughout the world. It has been
stated that continuous wire drawing would be impossible without the upset
welding process. The process for butt welding wires, bars and strip utilizes
equipment somewhat similar to that used for flash welding. A major difference
from flash welding is that generally there is no violent expulsion of molten metal
during upset welding.
Upset welding processes include the following:
1. Upset butt welding of parts end-to-end (wire, bars, strip, etc.)
2. Continuous butt-seam welding, low-frequency current
3. Continuous butt-seam welding, high-frequency current
UPSET BUTT WELDING

APPLICATIONS
The greatest use of upset butt welding is in wire mills and in the welding of
products made from wire. In wire mill applications, the process is used for join-
ing wire coils end to end in order to facilitate continuous processing. Joining of
Upset Butt Welding I 27.25
broken wire ends is another important wire mill application. The process also is
used for fabricating a rather wide variety of products from wire, bar, strip and
tubing. Typical examples of the mill forms and products that have been upset
butt welded are shown in Fig. 27.14.
E'ig. 27.14.-Typical mill forms and products joined by upset butt weldinz
27.26 J Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding
MATERIALS WELDED
A wide variety of materials in wire, bar, strip and tubing forms can be joined
by upset butt welding. These include:
aluminum alloys nickel alloys
brass resistance alloys
copper stainless, low-carbon and high-carbon steels
gold
Copper alloys, low-carbon and high-carbon steels, stainless steels and EC alumi-
num are readily welded. Aluminum alloys also are weldable, but a specially
designed welding machine is generally required for the proper control of upset-
ting pressure during completion of the weld. Although the materials listed above
are the ones that are generally welded with the process, it is likely that the proc-
ess can be used to butt weld many other metallic materials.
Sizes of wire and rod that can be butt welded range from 0.005 to 1.25 in. in
diameter.
JOINT PREPARATION
Several joint geometries are in use for upset welding. For some applications,
the surfaces to be welded are machined to provide clean, parallel and com-
paratively smooth abutting surfaces. To facilitate welding, thG area of contact
between the two workpieces is sometimes restricted by beveling the abutting
ends. Stampings are usually trimmed in the die but also are sometimes machined.
Ends of aluminum wire coils that are to be welded for redrawing are prepared
by one wire producer as shown in Fig. 27.15.
EQUIPMENT
Design of equipment for upset butt welding is generally based on the nature
of the materials to be welded-ferrous or nonferrous. Each classification is
further subdivided on the basis of the size range within the mechanical capacity
and electrical characteristics of the machine. Special designs may be required
for certain aluminum alloys to provide adequate control of upsetting force.
Electric current for heating is provided from internally mounted step-down
transformers. These convert power supply voltages to low-voltage, high-current
values. The no-load secondary voltages range from about 0.40 to 8.0 volts, and
the power supply frequencies include 25, 50 and 60 cycles. Control of secondary
current is achieved by transformer tap switches or electronic phase-shift devices.
Schematic wiring diagrams for .two types of commercially available upset butt
welding machines are shown in Fig. 27 .16. In the diagram on the left, 20 different
current settings may be obtained by means of 10 taps on the transformer primary
and a high/low switch. The right-hand schematic shows a similar machine but
with only 12 taps on the primary winding of the transformer; in this setup a
magnetic contactor has been added to control the welding machine. In both
arrangements, a limit switch is used to control the timing of the current :flow.
The control of the current timing may also be accomplished by electronic pro-
gramming devices.
Equipment manufacturers should be consulted for information on transformer
kva requirements for butt welding specific wire sizes.
Basically a butt welding machine has two platens, one stationary and one
movable, which provide a base for the operating clamps and welding jaws. The
Improper Cuts on Rod Proper Cut on Rod
'
must be pinch
straight across
rod in both
'6)__horizontal and
~Rod not held '-ii'i(r- vertical
('~orizontal angles
~'$hi le cutting Pinch Cuts at 90°
'
0::
Rod not cut

'~traight across
' r-- Pinch Cuts at 90°

'
0 --3 F-- --l
~Pipe l
I
i, '
'
~ t __ ---t;,~--end~-~u: be butted
'
against each other and
halfway in between the
~Overfill jaws before welding
Fig. 27.15.-Preparation of aluminum-alloy coil ends for upset butt welding
prior to redrawing
To d1es
Fig. 27.16.-Typical schematics for upset butt welding machines: left-machine with
10 taps on primary winding of transformer and a high/ low switch; right-machine
employing heat control shunt transformer with 12 taps
clamps operate either in straight line motion or in an arc movement, depending

on the machine design. Each welding machine has an activating device to start
the welding process, such as a foot pedal or platen release lever. Pressure for
upset butt welding generally is obtained by mechanical spring, pneumatic or
hydraulic upset systems. Welding pressure is necessary to force the ends of
the material into intimate contact and
to maintain constant pressure during
the welding cycle. The pressure is ad-
justable for various sizes of materials.
Typical upset butt welding machines
fo r joining wire, rod, bar and tube
ends are shown in Figs. 27.17, 27.18
and 27.19.
Fig. 27.17.-Typical upset butt welding Fig. 27.18.-Typical upset butt welding
machine for welding wire machine for welding rods
WELDING PROCEDURES
In the application of the upset welding process for butt welding wires, bars or
strips end to end, the parts are brought into solid contact, as shown schematically
in Fig. 27 .20. Current is passed through the contact area until the temperature
generated is high enough to allow the forging of a weld between the two work-
pieces. The heat is generated mainly at the interface between the two workpieces
by the flow of current and the contact resistance, in accordance with Jollie's law,
H = J2Rt. * The contact resistance is a function of the nature of the metals to
be joined, their surface condition and the unit pressure between them. This
resistance is approximately in inverse proportion to the unit contact pressure,
• H=heat generated, joules (watt-sees), L=current, amperes, R=resistance, ohms, t=time, seconds.
Fig. 27.19.- Typica/ upset butt welding machine for welding tubes or pipe
provided that other factors remain

constant. As heat is generated in the
parts, however, the contact resistance
changes until, when the weld is
formed, the contact resistance be-
comes zero and the entire resistance
is the resistivity of the parts. Upset
welding differs from flash welding in UPS ElTING
PIESSUIE
that no flashing from the abutting
surfaces occurs at any time.
Generally, the force and current .SIATIONAIY END
are maintained throughout the entire
welding cycle, although the force may
be started at a low value in order to
t :::
f iN ISHED UPSET WELD
increase the initial contact resistance Fig. 27.20.- Elem ents of upset butt
between the two workpieces. This welding of bars, rods and pipes
force is increased to whatever value is necessary to give a forging squeeze when

the welding temperature has been reached. When sufficient upset has been pro-
duced, the welding current is cut off and the force is removed.
The following are the essential steps in the sequence of operations to produce
an upset weld:
1. Load machine.
2. Clamp workpieces.
3. Apply welding force.
4. Apply welding current.
5. Apply upset force.
6. Cut off current.
7. Release force.
8. U nclamp workpieces.
9. Return platen and unload.
The best results are usually obtained with workpieces that are equal in sec-
tional area and resistance. If the metals to be welded are similar in composition
but of unequal areas, the workpiece having the larger area should project out of
the clamping jaw somewhat farther than the other piece. If the metals are of
dissimilar compositions, the metal of higher electrical conductivity should project
farther out of the jaw than the lower-conductivity metal. When upset welding
workpieces of large area that do not make good contact with each other, it is
sometimes the practice to interrupt the welding current periodically, allowing
heat to flow into the colder pprtions of the workpieces in order to prevent
localized overheating and melting.
When welding carbon steels having more than about 0.30% carbon or hard-
drawn stock, postheat treatment of the welded area may be necessary to normal-
ize the welded section. Postheat treatments are used to provide ductility for
subsequent handling of welded wire or bars to permit the weld zone to withstand
severe twists and bending encountered in straightening operations or bending
around positioning sheaves. Annealing reduces tensile strength in the annealed
section, but strength is regained during subsequent drawing operations. The
normal method of annealing involves reclamping the welded section in annealing
clamps and resistance heating to the annealing temperature for a time deter-
mined by the material. The annealing clamps often are located adjacent to the
welding dies. Annealing is normally a manual operation performed by operating
an annealing current switch and observing the color of annealing heat on the
section being annealed. When uniform control of the annealing cycle is required,
an automatic timer control is used.
WELD QUALITY
Upset butt welds can be made to have about the same properties as the parent
metal. Welds made in wires are difficult to locate once they have passed through
the drawing process; in many instances, such welds are considered part of the
continuous wire, and identical to the parent metal.
Many companies evaluate upset butt welds by using tension tests, comparing
weldment properties to parent rod properties. Metallographic and dye penetrant
examinations are also used. Probably the most common method for testing a
butt weld in wire is to clamp a welded sample in a vise at a distance of one
stock diameter above the vise jaws, and bend the sample back and forth until a
fracture occurs. Some of the problems encountered in upset butt welding, and
remedial actions that may be taken, are given in Table 27.6.
Upset Tube Welding/ 27.31
Table 27.6--Trouble shooting chart for upset butt welding
Welding Action Causes Remedies
Weld action normal but weld 1. Shear cutting point on wire too 1. Increase initial die opening
flash does not extend beyond long. until desired flash is obtained.
wire.
Molten material is blown out 1. Excessive welding heat for 1. Reduce weld heat or increase
and ends are not joined. upset pressure used. upset pressure.
2. Incorrect weld limit switch set. 2. Reset weld limit switch to
switch current off sooner.
3. Stock too small for welding 3. Check size rating of
machine. equipment.
4. Weak upset spring. 4. Replace upset spring or springs.
Weld area heats up but is not 1. Insufficient weld heat. 1. Increase welding heat.
hot enough to allow upset. 2. Dirty or loose secondary 2. Clean and tighten secondary
connections to welding machine connections.
head.
3. Dirty or loose welding die 3. Clean and tighten welding dies.
connections.
4. Excessive initial die opening. 4. Decrease initial die opening.
Weld burr breaks off easily 1. Excessive upset pressure. 1. Lower upset pressure.
below surface of wire. 2. Excessive time. 1 2. Reset limit switch to reduce
time.
3. High-carbon steel. 3. Normal anneal.
Weld is good but ends not in 1. Worn welding dies or clamp 1. Check and replace dies and die
alignment. shoes. shoes.
2. Excessive initial die opening for 2. Decrease starting space.
size stock being welded.
Ends of wire buckle and may 1. Insufficient weld heat. 1. Increase heat.
or may not weld. 2. Loose secondary connection. 2. Check and tighten.
3. Excessive upset pressure. 3. Decrease upset pressure.
4. Worn welding dies and die 4. Rework or replace.
shoes.
Variation in weld results. 1. Stock slipping in dies. 1. Clamp stock in proper groove.
Replace worn dies and shoes.
Replace weak clamp springs.
2. Variation in power supply to 2. Check power input line-no
welding machine. more than 5% voltage drop.
3. Dirty or loose secondary 3. Clean and tighten.
connection to welding head.
4. Dirty or loose welding die 4. Clean or replace.
connections.
5. Loose flash binding movable 5. Clean all flashings and wire
head. particles from around movable
headpiece.
6. Variation in rod condition. 6. Clean scale. rust, drawing
compound and all insulation
material from section clamped
in dies.
7. Variation in cut ends. 7. Use uniform end preparation.
8. Weld contactor dirty and:not. 8. De-energize power supply to
opening consistently. welding machine and clean
magnetic contactor.
UPSET TUBE WELDING

LOW-FREQUENCY WELDING
In the progressive low-frequency current upset welding of butt joints, such
as the longitudinal joint in tubing or pipe, the formed tube passes under the
electrodes, which transfer the welding current into the material being welded
and through a set of rolls, which provides the welding force. The amount of
upset is regulated by the relative position of the welding electrodes and the rolls
applying the upset force. The required welding heat is governed by the current
passing through the work and the speed at which the tube goes through the rolls.
Figure 27.21 (top left) shows the steel strip entering the strip guide assembly
and the first stages of the forming section. The heat regulator, located behind the
forming section, can be adjusted either manually or by phase-shift control.
Figure 27.21 (top right) shows the rotary-type, oil-cooled welding transformer
with the control cabinet visible behind it. This welding equipment includes ( 1)
a dressing tool assembly for dressing the welding electrodes without removing
them from the welding machine and (2) a scarfing tool assembly that removes
the upset metal after welding. As the third step, the welded tube enters the
straightening and sizing section, shown in Fig. 27.21 (lower left), after which
it is cut to the desired length.
The low-frequency current upset method is used on many electric resistance
tube-welding machines. The majority of these machines use alternating cur-
rent, either at 60 cycles, or from single-phase alternators, which ordinarily
have frequencies from 60 cycles to 360 cycles. Installations are operating
with frequencies as high as 920 cycles, and higher frequencies are contem-
plated, but for ferrous materials these applications are relatively rare.
Fig. 27.21.-Equipment used in upset

welding of the longitudinal joint during
manufacture of tube or pipe: top left-
strip guide assembly and first stages of
the forming section of a tube mill,· top
right-rotary-type, oil-cooled welding
transformer; lower left-straightening
and sizing section of tube mill
II In modern continuous low-fre-

ELECTRODES
quency current welding processes
using alternating current, the same
principles valid for spot welding
hold true, but because of the dynamic
nature of these processes (as com-
SQUEEZE pared to the relatively static methods
ROLLS of spot welding), the problem must
be viewed in an entirely different
manner. The welding throat, Fig.
27.22, has a smaller circumference
than the metal strip (skelp) to be
Fig. 27.22.-Diagram of welding throat welded. Referring to Fig. 27.23
showing the geometry of the stock
entering the welding throat, it may be
seen that there is a variation in edge-
to-edge pressure as the tube enters the welding throat. If no heat were applied
to the edges, this pressure would become maximum at the center of the squeeze
rolls. However, since heat is applied in the region prior to the squeeze roll center-
line, the metal gradually becomes plastic between the point of initial contact of
the edges and the center of the squeeze rolls, so that the point of maximum
pressure is somewhat ahead (toward the open seam) of the squeeze roll center-
line.
The current across the seam is distributed in inverse proportion to the
resistance between the two electrodes, this resistance being, for the most part,
the resistance between the faces to be welded. Pressure is effective in reducjng
this resistance, whereas temperature will increase the resistance in addition
to reducing the pressure. A very sharp heat gradient at the peaks of the cyCle
is caused by the J2R heating, resulting in a "stitch effect." The stitch is nor-
mally of circular cross section, lying centrally in the weld area, parallel to the
line of initial closure of the seam edges. It is the hottest portion of the weld,
the adjacent area between the interfaces being heated partially by the current
across the seam and to a lesser extent by the thermal transfer from the stitch.
As a rough comparison between this and roll seam welding, it might be said
that the stitches are the centers of weld nuggets that overlap one another in
APPROXIMATEfOF
ELECTRODES
_JI .
L
~-
{oF SQUEEZE
ROLLS
- --
\ I
INITIAL CLOSURE ~1
DIRECTION OF TRAVEL
Fig. 27.23.-Geometry of strip (skelp) edges in vicinity of welding throat

forming a welded joint. Only the stitch element is molten, and the interface
between stitches is at a lower temperature. In a good weld, however, the tem-
perature at the interface is above that necessary to cause rapid grain growth
across the boundary. Consequently, this method of tube fabrication is best
applicable only to materials having a fairly large temperature range between
the weldable point (under pressure) and the melting point.
The stitches, being molten, are relatively free to flow under the influence
of the motor forces (current and flux) acting on them. Particles of hot metal
are ejected from the stitch area. If the weld heat is excessive, too much
metal is ejected, which results in pinhole leaks. Too little heat can cause
failure of the individual nuggets to overlap sufficiently, resulting in an inter-
rupted weld.
The longitudinal spacing of the stitches must have some limit, since the
heat of welding is applied mainly at the stitch points, and there is a limit to
the amount of heat that can be applied to these points. The spacing is a
function of the frequency of the current and the travel speed of the tube
being welded. For 60 cycle welding requiring 100% grain growth across the
boundary, it is generally recognized that the speed of welding must be limited
to approximately 90 feet per minute. In terms of spacing between stitches this
is 60 ~ ~ ~2 2 or 0.150 inches. To weld at higher speeds, it is necessary to
6
utilize higher frequencies as shown in Table 27.7.
Table 27.7-Typical welding speeds in steel tubing for mills using 180 cycle power
Gage Speed, ft/min.
125 kva 200 kva 300 kva 500 kva
0.050 150 200

0.065 llO 100 200
0.083 72 105 145
0.095 85 115
0.109 66 90
0.125 50 70 140
0.134 60 125
0.156 85
EDGE GEOMETRY
Referring to the geometry of Figure 27.23, it may be observed that if the
edges of the stock are brought together so that the top and bottom edges of the
interfaces make initial contact at the same longitudinal location, the resulting
stitch will be vertical. If the top edges close first (in the progression of stock
through the machine) the stitch will be inclined forward going from the
top down. This latter condition is known as an inverted Vee, and for general
purposes is considered the most desirable setup (Figs. 27.24A and 27.24B).
Reasons for the inverted Vee are twofold: ( 1) the angle deviation from the
vertical reduces the effect of the "motor action" to expel the fluid metal in the
stitch; (2) the major portion of the upset metal is extruded to the outside,
were it is most easily removed. Under good conditions the included angle
between the edges is usually about 5 to 7 degrees.
~
(A)
I
(8)
Fig. 27.24.-A-Section taken through tube at point where upper edges make initial
contact when welding with inverted Vee (angle between edges is greatly exaggerated);
B-section taken through a welded tube made under same conditions
ELECTRODE PRESSURE
As in spot welding and seam welding, the current that provides the welding
heat must enter the stock through electrode contacts. The resistance of these
contacts must be kept to a minimum to avoid I 2 R losses sufficient to result in
bums. Bums are actually surface portions of the tube, heated to their fusion or
melting point, that tend to stick to or imbed themselves in the corresponding
surface of the electrode. If large steel particles become imbedded in an electrode,
on the next revolution of the electrode the contact resistance will increase, there-
by causing a more severe burn; this action continues to build up with each
revolution of the electrode until the operation is stopped and the electrode is
cleaned or remachined.
To eliminate bums it is necessary to have sufficient area of contact and
pressure between the containing surfaces. As a rule of thumb, the area of con-
tact of each electrode should be such as to maintain an apparent current
density of less than 50,000 amperes per square inch. The relative shape of the
formed tube and the electrode should be such that the maximum pressure
occurs near the inside faces of the electrode. (See darker areas of Fig. 27.25.)
Without the aid of some backup support, pressure must be obtained from
the resistance of the shape entering the welding throat to the forces being
applied in the welding throat. In simpler terms it means that the welding pass
must also act as the last forming pass. The ability of the tube to provide elec-
trode pressure in the welding throat
is a function of the yield strength of
the material and the ratio of diameter
over wall thickness (D jt ratio). With
high ratios the collapse strength is
lower; in extreme cases, a backup
mandrel must be provided to obtain
the necessary pressure contact be-
tween tube and electrodes. Fig. 27.25.-Electrode contact on tube
It may also be observed in cases
of high D/t ratios that the edges have a definite tendency to "cave" or offset
when being welded. This condition may be alleviated by reducing the pressure
in the welding throat, but as previously indicated, there is a minimum pressure
below which burning will occur at the electrode contacts.
HIGH-FREQUENCY WELDING
The use of welding current of a higher frequency generally reduces
the amount of burning under a given set of conditions, since the individual
increments of PR for every half-cycle are smaller. The same J2R is used to
weld a given gage at a given speed, but with the higher frequency, the "pips"
are smaller and more numerous.
However, in terms of welding speed per kva, the higher frequency is at a
distinct disadvantage. If a welding circuit has a power factor of 95% when
operating on 60 cycles, the impedance may be represented as:
Z2 =R+jX
X
and - = Tan Cos-1 0.95
R
X= 0.328 R
Z2 = R + j 0.328R
If the frequency is tripled, the "j" term increases three times and "R" term
(neglecting skin effect) remains constant.
Thus: Z 2 = R + j 0.984 R
and the power factor is Cos Tan- 1 0.984 = 0. 71, or 71%.
Hence, the power factor has decreased and, to obtain the same speed of weld-
ing at 60 cycles, the kva input to the machine must be increased by 32%
when the machine operates at 180 cycles.
Following the same process of calculation, but making an initial assumption
of a power factor of 90% when using 60 cycles, the new power factor at 180
cycles becomes 57%, and the increase in kva for 180 cycle welding becomes
58% higher than that required for the same speed using 60 cycles.
The skin effect factor cannot be
neglected since the welding trans-
former conductors and the secondary
connections are usually large enough
to make skin effect an appreciable
item even at 60 cycles. This and other
factors affect the above problem, but
the general result in terms of kva in-
crease required remains about the
same.
The application of high-frequency
current for butt-seam welding of tub-
Fig. 27.26.-High-frequency resistance ing and pipe is illustrated in Fig.
welding of tube and piping 27.26.
WELDING SPEED
Speed of welding a particular tube or pipe is usually a function of the gage
of the material and the current available in the welding throat. Diameter is a
factor only on very small tubes (5/8 in. O.D. and less) or where the diameter
is small compared to the gage of the tube.
Voltage applied on the surface of the tube on either side of the seam is
afforded a shunting path in the metal around the opposite side of the tube.
This shunt path has very little resistance, there being no seam in the circuit
and theoretically no limit to the width of the path. Authorities differ regarding
the relative amount of current that travels the shunt path, the highest estimate
being about 90% of the total.
Because of the complexity of the mathematics involved, it is considered more
practical to use empirical formulas for estimating speed. Neglecting the
diameter factor, such a formula would have the form of:
12 = Kt"yS
where 12 = secondary transformer current
t = gage of the stock in inches
S = speed in feet per minute
K =constant
n =exponent
For light wall tube (1/8 in. or less) the exponent "n" may be considered to
be 1.0, and the constant K is approximately 40,000. For heavier walled pipe
or tubing the above formula is not normally adequate, since the current require-
ment varies as some power of the gage. Conservatively, the formula may
be arranged as:
12 = 82,5oo t1·25-vs
This equation and the one above are identical for a value of t = 0.060.
Factors affecting the above formulas include such items as characteristics
of steel being welded, pressure employed at the welding throat, physical
conditions of the edges and quality required of the weld produced. On com-
parable diameters and gages running at the same speed, it is possible to find
variations in welding current as great as ± 15 percent.
In order to relate welding speed to kva, it is necessary to know the voltage
required to obtain a given value of current across the load. Since a large
portion of the impedance is in the machine (transformer, conductors, slip
rings), the voltage required may differ widely on different machines.
Measurements are most practical on the primary side, since any readings
taken on the secondary are subject to argument on the basis of method.
A relatively simple method is to resort again to empirical data, using a
formula of the type:
Z2 = K1 [ K2 + ~3 ]
where Z2 equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side

K1 constant associated with frequency of current
K2 constant portion of machine impedance
K3 constant in load circuit
t gage being welded
K 1 may be arbitrarily established at 1.0 for 60 cycles, and values above
that may be estimated for higher frequencies dependent on the relative re-
actance and resistance in the machine. (See prior discussion of frequency.)
A well-designed transformer is normally made with a turns ratio that will
develop maximum power in the circuit for the heaviest material that will run
on the particular machine. That is to say that both voltage and current will
reach rated values simultaneously for the designed gage.
For gages other than the selected design, the impedance of the circuit will
change according to the empirical formula for the machine, becoming higher
for lighter gages, and lower for heavier gages. It follows then that for gages light-
er than the optimum, the full rated voltage will not be capable of driving full
rated current through the machine; accordingly, something less than full
kva will be available for the job. Likewise, for gages heavier than the optimum,
full kva will not be available, the voltage in this case being less than full rating
to drive full load current through the machine.
PERCUSSION WELDING
FUNDAMENTALS OF PROCESS
Definition
Percussion welding is a resistance welding process wherein coalescence is
produced simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces by heat
obtained from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of electrical energy, with
pressure percussively applied during or immediately following the electrical
discharge.
General Description
In application of the process, the parts to be joined are either held apart by
a small projection or are moved toward each other, one part being fixed. After
some form of initiation, current flow through an arc heats both parts at the
areas where they are to be joined. An impact forces the parts together to
complete the weld.
Sequence
Although the steps may differ in certain applications because of process
variations, the following stages are generally essential in making a percussion
weld:
1. Load and clamp parts into machine or fixture.
2. Apply light force or release driving springs.
3. Current flow is started by timer initiation, by jumping the gap between
the parts or by contact between parts.
4. The arc heats the parts.
5. Final force extinguishes the arc and holds parts together while weld
freezes.
6. Release force.
7. Unclamp welded assembly.
8. Unload machine or fixture.
PROCESS REQUIREMENTS
The percussion welding process was invented by L. W. Chubb, who used a
low-voltage electrostatic power supply in conjunction with an arc-starting
system of the type in which the workpieces contact and then retract. Pneu-
matic cylinders were used to develop weld force. Later an electromagnetic or
inductive stored-energy power supply was used.
Subsequent systems have used the following combinations:
1. A high-voltage, capacitive, stored-energy power supply, used also for
arc starting, and pneumatic cylinders for weld force.
Percussion Welding f 27.39
2. A low-voltage, capacitive, stored-energy power supply, a high-frequency

arc starter, and pneumatic cylinders for weld force.
3. A low-voltage, capacitive, stored-energy· power supply, a starting nib,
and pneumatic cylinders for weld force.
4. A low-voltage, a-c power supply, a starting nib, and an electromagnet
to furnish the weld force.
Present day applications of the percussion welding process vary in type of
power supply, method of starting the arc and method of producing the welding
force.
Types of Power Supplies
Four types of power supplies have been used for percussion welding:
1. Low-voltage, capacitive storage, in which the weld energy is stored at
low voltage ( 10 to 150 volts, de) in a capacitor with high capacitance.
2. High-voltage, capacitive storage, in which the weld energy is stored at
high voltage ( 1000 to 6000 volts, de) in a capacitor with low capac-
itance. The energy is usually discharged through a transformer.
3. Electromagnetic or inductive storage, in which energy is stored in the
magnetic field created by a direct current flowing in the primary wind-
ing of an iron-core transformer. On the cessation of the primary
excitation current, the magnetic field collapses and induces a voltage
in the secondary winding, which causes the welding current to flow.
Inductive storage is also possible using an inductor without a transformer.
4. Low-voltage alternating current that uses a transformer to supply a
welding voltage of 10 to 35 volts. Since the weld is made during the
first half-cycle of current flow, this method is essentially a low-voltage,
d-e system with no auxiliary energy-storage device.
Methods of Arc Starting
Four methods of starting the arc have been used for percussion welding.
The drawn-arc method involves bringing the workpieces into light contact to
establish a flow of current. The workpieces are then retracted so that an arc is
drawn and maintained.
Alternatively, an arc may be started by applying a d-e weld voltage high
enough to jump the gap between the workpieces as they are moved toward
each other. This causes ionization within the gap and starts the flow of current.
An arc may also be started by applying an auxiliary high-frequency, high-
voltage, alternating current superimposed on a low-voltage direct current,
which appears across the gap between the workpieces. The high frequency
ionizes the gap, and the current from the d-e supply maintains the arc.
In the fourth method, a nib of small cross-sectional area is formed on one
part and forms the gap between the workpieces. Current flowing through the
nib, from either a low-voltage, d-e supply or from an a-c transformer, creates
enough heat to explode the nib and establish an ionized path for the welding
current to follow.
Welding Force
Welding force has been developed from four basic sources: pneumatic
cylinders, electromagnets, springs and gravity (that is, by the energy of falling
weights) . The electromagnets are arranged so that the welding current flowing
through them creates a force that varies as the magnitude of the current.
These forces may be used separately or in combination, such as a pneumatic

cylinder for clamping parts with nib-type arc starter and an electromagnet
for welding force. The force may be simple or compound: simple if one
magnitude of force is used throughout the weld, and compound if a heavier
forging force is used at the end of the weld.
EFFECT OF PROCESS ON MATERIALS WELDED

Heat Effect
The percussion weld is of short duration, up to 1 millisecond for capacitor
discharge welds and 8 to 16 milliseconds for magnetic force welds. Because
of this short time, the heat-affected zone of percussion welds is shallow, usually
less than 0.010 inch. There is little oxidation of mating parts and a minimum
of alloying between dissimilar metals. Since the depth of the heat-affected
zone is so small, heat treated metals may be welded without annealing or de-
stroying the heat treatment. The heat input is so concentrated and of such
short duration that heat-sensitive components near the weld area are not
affected by the weld cycle.
Burn-off
The burn-off of parts that occurs during a percussion weld is not so great
as that during an electric arc stud weld. Burn-off can generally be ignored
for parts to be joined by capacitor discharge percussion welding; it should
be considered, however, in magnetic force percussion welding. The burn-off
varies with the area of the weld and with the type of machine used to make the
weld.
Flash
Weld flash is the metal that is expelled from the weld zone during a per-
cussion weld. The flash is expelled at high velocity and will attack the tooling,
which could affect accuracy. If any flash remains attached to the weld joint,
it must be removed.
DESIGN
Workparts
Parts to be joined by percussion welding must be designed in accordance
with process requirements. The process is usually restricted to butt or Tee
joints or to small area parts in faying position. Since control of the path
of any arc is difficult, the total area that can be joined at one time is about
0.5 sq. inch. On larger surfaces, the arc fails to distribute itself uniformly
over the entire area, and cold or unwelded spots result in parts of the joint.
Two arc starters may be used on elongated areas.
In low-voltage percussion welding, some form of arc starting device is
required. In magnetic force welds, this takes the shape of a resistance welding
projection with diameter and height developed for each application (Fig.
27.27). These dimensions are critical because they affect required voltage,
current flow and arc formation. Figure 27.28 shows the end preparation on
a wire to be capacitor discharge welded to a flat terminal. Electrical means
may be used to start the arc, such as superimposed high-frequency alternating
current, or the drawn-arc method. No arc starter is needed in high-voltage
Design-Percussion Welding / 27.41
Silver cadmium
contact
0.065 d"
0 •070 1amet er
0,035 h . ht
---- 0.040 elg
After
welding
Fig. 27.27.-Arc starter details for typical magnetic force percussion welded assembly
welding because the voltage is high enough to jump the gap and start the arc
as the moving part nears the fixed part.
Heat balance between parts is usually not a factor of concern. Since per-
cussion welding is essentially a d-e process, polarity of the two parts involved
may be important. Polarity can have a definite effect on weld quality when
dissimilar metals are joined.
f
Drive
spriny
~~~ ~~~
~
Weld Component
'""" ~
re
0.006 supply rcmlool
i ~ i ,
~.~,-----Y--'--'-,
T
0.050
Terminal
/Printed circuit or
molded board
(A) (B)
Fig. 27.28.-A-Typical wire end for capacitor discharge percussion welding; B-
percussion welded assembly
Tooling
Tooling for percussion welding must be designed to suit the process as
well as to hold the parts to be joined. The part-clamping jaws carry current
to the parts and, because of their proximity to the weld, the jaws are subject
to erosion and build-up by the weld flash. Choice of material for the jaws,
therefore, is very important. Quite often, inserts are provided for easy re-
placement of worn parts.
In low-voltage capacitor discharge welding, the welding tool is often hand
held, so that insulation and operator protection are factors to consider in the
design.
Equipment
Equipment design must provide the proper combination of power supply,
arc starter and welding force for the percussion welding process to be used.
Power supplies are usually transformers or capacitors. In magnetic force
welding, design and capacity of the welding transformer and impedance of
connections to the weld zone determine the magnitude of voltage and current
for the required weld area.
The transformer should be of low impedance with higher secondary volt-
ages than those used in conventional resistance welding. Since the weld is made
within a half-cycle of alternating current, it may be considered to be direct
current. To prevent the transformer from becoming saturated, which would
affect weld quality, a second half-cycle pulse is put through the transformer in
the opposite direction.
Capacitors used in stored-energy, capacitor discharge welding equipment are
either low or high voltage. Low-voltage types are usually of high capacitance,
and high-voltage types are of low capacitance. High-voltage capacitors are usu-
ally discharged through a transformer to make the weld. The main concern
with equipment using capacitors is operator protection. Stability and charging
time are important, especially for automatic equipment.
The force system in any piece of percussion welding equipment has a direct
effect on weld quality. Force is used for clamping parts and for forging at the
end of the weld. It may be provided by springs, by air cylinders, by electro-
magnets or by gravity. Compound force systems, often used in magnetic per-
cussion welding equipment, use a light initial air cylinder force on the parts
and a heavy final forging force from electromagnets.
Force is the accelerating agent to provide follow-up as the part faying surfaces
melt. Acceleration is proportional to the force and inversely proportional to the
mass of the moving force member. The force member may tend to rebound, and
provision should be made so that this motion does not put a tensile load on the
parts while the weld is freezing.
INSPECTION AND TESTING
Weld Quality
High-quality percussion welded joints are readily obtainable and usually re-
Fig. 27.29.-Photomicrograph showing weld area and grain size of a silver

contact welded to a brass terminal
Equipment-Percussion Welding/ 27.43
quire full area welds. Metallographic examination is the best way to confirm
that full area welds exist. It also shows grain size, to determine heat effect on
the materials welded. Figure 27.29 is a photomicrograph of a silver contact
welded to a brass terminal; the weld area and grain size can be seen.
Testing
Destructive tests are the positive way to verify strength of joints made by any
welding process. Peel tests or shear tests can be used on joints like those shown
in Fig. 27.27. On butt joints between wires or on joints such as those shown in
Fig. 27 .28, the most common test is a tensile test made with an indicating pull
gage. This test does not verify all the parameters involved, but it is the best
indication of mechanical reliability and strength, and can be the basis for statis-
tical methods of process quality control. Often on wire joints, because of a
slight reinforcement at the weld, the wire breaks before the weld.
Flexure or bend tests are also significant and appropriate if the joints will be
subject to flexing in service. Usual bend tests are 180° normal bend and 180°
lateral bend.
Vibration tests at appropriate frequency and "G" level are also often used.
Electrical resistance tests should be made before the vibration test, and the
results compared with a similar resistance reading made after the vibration test.
Tensile strength tests should be made on a sample in the as-welded condition,
and on another sample after the vibration test.
EQUIPMENT
Various combinations of power
supply, arc starter and force mecha-
nism have been used in modern per-
cussion welding machines. Several
common types are discussed below.
Magnetic Force Percussion Welding
Machines
This application of percussion
welding uses: (1) low voltage (20 to
35 volts) from an a-c transformer as
the power supply; (2) a nib-type arc
starter; ( 3) an electromagnetic sys-
tem to develop weld force.
The apparatus generally consists
of a press-type resistance welding ma-
chine with modifications of a-c trans-
former, controls and tooling (Fig.
27.30; typical parts were shown in
Fig. 27.27). An air cylinder is used
to provide an initial force to hold the
workparts together and to establish
a current path through the arc starter.
The arc starter is usually in the form
of a resistance welding projection, Fig. 27.30.-Magnetic force percussion
with diameter and height designed welding machine
for each application. The diameter of the arc starter must be such that it will
not collapse under the initial pressure and will not be large enough to carry the
weld current. The height is critical, since it determines the gap between parts
and the voltage necessary to explode the arc starter.
Magnetic force percussion welds are made in less than a half-cycle of 60
cycle per second alternating current; consequently, the timing between the ini-
tiation of the arc and the magnetic force is critical. At the instant of current
flow, the arc starter is heated so rapidly that it explodes and sends molten
particles of the projection out from between the parts at high velocity. These
particles assist in the formation of the electric arc that progresses over the
surface of the parts. When the magnetic force brings the parts into contact, the
weld is complete.
The latest magnetic force percussion welding machines have an independent
force current so that the magnitude can be varied without affecting the weld
current. This is accomplished by using two separate transformers, one for weld
current and one for force current. The acceleration of the force member with
the two-transformer system can be controlled by adjusting the magnitude of the
force current, thereby providing a duration control for arc time. This type of
machine is more versatile and can be adjusted for a wider range of full-area
welds than was available in earlier single-transformer machines. Another control
feature is phase-shift heat control for both the positive and negative current
peaks. The second half-cycle in this type of percussion weld is usually set lower
than the first and is used to neutralize the flux in the magnet and transformer.
Capacitor Discharge Percussion Welding Machines
This application of percussion welding uses: ( 1) power supplied from a capac-
itor bank at low voltage (about 50 volts d-e); (2) an arc starter that is an
integral part of one of the workpieces; (3) spring members to provide weld
force.
The low-voltage machine consists of a hand-held gun weighing about one
pound, and a portable power supply. The gun is designed to hold a small flat or
~quare terminal stationary in one set of jaws and the wire to be welded in a set
of movable jaws. When the gun is triggered, springs move the wire toward the
terminal at a high velocity. With low voltage, establishment of the arc is greatly
facilitated by a feather edge formed on the end of the wire when it is cut (Fig.
27.28A).
The arc is started at approximately the point of contact of the wire and ter-
minal. The heat of the arc melts back the tip of the wire faster than it is being
projected toward the terminal. The arc is thus able to spread over the whole
mating area and melt a layer about 0.002 to 0.003 in. in each part. The arc is
extinguished after 150 to 600 microseconds. Momentum of the moving part
and remaining force of the driving spring forge the parts together.
The low-voltage percussion welding principle has been adapted to semiauto-
matic and automatic machines (Fig. 27.31) to weld assemblies such as that
shown in Fig. 27.28B. Component leads are usually tinned annealed copper.
Terminals may be brass, tinned brass, or nickel-silver alloys. Other materials
are also easily welded. Wires and leads of 0.006 to 0.102 in. have been welded
to terminals and plates of various thicknesses above 0.006 inch.
Another version of the portable capacitor discharge percussion welding tool
employs a high-frequency alternating current pulse to initiate the arc. This fea-
Equipment-Percussion Welding / 27.45
Fig. 27.31.-Semiautomatic low-voltage, capacitor discharge percussion welding

machine
ture eliminates the need for a special shape on the wire. The tool also has an
electromechanical force member to accelerate the wire and to provide the neces-
sary forging force. A portable welding tool is shown in Fig. 27.32. The high-
frequency energy used in this type of welding machine is a potential source of
radio interference. Its use, therefore, is regulated by the Federal Communications
Commission under Part 18 of its Rules and Regulations.
High-voltage percussion welding uses the same principle of operation as low-
voltage, but a point-type arc starter is not required. This process is not used in
a hand-held gun, however, because the voltage is in the range of 1000 to 3000
volts, direct current. It is capable of producing much larger welded assemblies.
Fig. 27.32.- Portable capacitor discharge percussion welding machine: left-

power supply; right-hand-held gun
c::;-- Capacitor Bonk
/ 1000-3000 volts d-e
Rods fo
1/2 sq. in. area
Fig. 27.33.- High-voltage percussion welding machine
Figure 27.33 shows a method of using this process to join rods with areas up
to 0.5 sq. inch. In some versions of this process, the capacitors are discharged
through a transformer to make the weld.
Controls for equipment using the capacitor discharge process are usually
rather simple and include voltage, capacitance, some control for the force device
and, of course, control for the high frequency if it is used.
APPLICATIONS
Weldable Materials
The magnetic force percussion welding process is used in joining silver-
cadmium oxide contacts to brass or cadmium-plated brass, copper to copper,
copper to silver-tungsten, and copper to silver oxide (Figs. 27.27 and 27.34).
Fig. 27.34.-Typical contacts joined by magnetic force percussion welding
Joints show a good full-area weld. The alloy layer and visible heat-affected zone
are very thin, usually less than 0.010 inch. The temperature of the parts is not
raised above the annealing temperature, therefore the metallurgical properties
are the same after welding as before. Sometimes, on large-area welds, it is
Applications-Percussion Welding/ 27.47
necessary to use two arc starters. Weld areas from 0.040 to 0.56 sq. in. are
being welded in production. Some burn-off occurs at the weld area, and in most
instances it is necessary to remove some flash (Fig. 27.29).
The capacitor discharge percussion welding process is usually employed to
weld wire to wire or rod and wire to fiat parts. The wire is usually copper and
may be solid or stranded, bare or tinned. The rods or flat parts are usually
copper, brass, or nickel-silver. Other materials such as steel, alumel, chromel,
molybdenum, aluminum and tantalum may be welded to themselves or to other
materials. Reactive, refractory and dissimilar metal welds have been made suc-
cessfully, because the short weld pulse does not contaminate the reactive metals
or permit formation of low-strength intermetallic areas in the joints.
Industrial Uses
Equipment using the percussion welding process is found in several industries,
mainly those in the electrical contact or component field. Large contact assem-
blies for relays and contactors are usually made on magnetic force percussion
welding machines. Such machines have been automated for higher output on
repetitive jobs.
Industries connecting wires to pins use the hand-tool version of the capacitor
discharge percussion welding process. It is particularly applicable to aerospace
equipment that is subject to shock and vibration. The process can be used in
electron tube work where welds must not disturb glass seals or parts imbedded
in plastic. It is used extensively in the telephone industry for connecting leaded
components to terminals.
The percussion welding process is also extensively employed in capacitor dis-
charge stud welding, which is discussed in Chapter 30.
Advantages
The extreme brevity of the arc in percussion welding confines fusion to the
surface of the parts welded and results in almost complete absence of upset or
flash. Heat treated or cold-worked metals can be welded without annealing or
destroying the heat treatment.
Bonds made by percussion welding are about 99% solid and thus possess
higher strength and conductivity than those produced by brazing, for instance.
The latter are only 75 to 85% solid. Also, unlike brazing, no special fluxes or
atmosphere are required.
Another advantage of the capacitor discharge process is that the charging
rate is readily controllable and is low compared to the discharge rate. The
power factor is improved over an a-c type machine. Both these factors improve
operating efficiency and reduce the demand on the power line.
Capacitor discharge percussion welding probably has the best tolerance to
surface contamination of any nonvacuum type, because it burns off any con-
tamination before the metals come together.
Limitations
The percussion welding process is confined to butt welded joints-rod to rod,
or rod to fiat, and by means of special design, fiat to fiat. In addition, since
control of the path of any arc is difficult, the total area that can be joined at
any one time is limited to about 0.5 sq. inch.
Since all joints of the above type except fiat to fiat can be accomplished more
economically by the flash welding process, percussion welding is usually con-
fined to joining pieces of completely dissimilar metals not normally considered
weldable by flash welding, or to making joints in which complete lack of upset
is imperative. Another limitation of this process is that the pieces to be joined
must be separate. This process cannot be used to form a ring from one piece.
Hazards
In the type of percussion welding that employs a nib-type arc starter, certain
potential hazards exist during the welding operation:
1. The noise level produced is high, similar to the firing of a 12-gage shotgun.
2. Weld flash or expulsion of material can be dangerous to persons in the
near vicinity of the welding operation.
3. Highly toxic vapors are released when some materials, such as silver-
cadmium oxide, are welded.
All these hazards can be minimized by enclosing the welding machine in an
adequately ventilated compartment. In the high-voltage process, the worst hazard
is the voltage itself. However, protection must also be provided to guard the
operator from the arc flash and the metal expulsion.
Hazards from hand tools using the capacitor discharge process are much
lower-usually only a small amount of weld flash is produced. The arc is still
bright, however, and should not be watched without dark glasses.
RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
The extensive compilation of recommended practices for resistance welding
does not include many for percussion welding, although more data are being
gathered as the use of the process is expanded. The information that does exist
is usually in the possession of the manufacturer of the welding equipment. Some
data published in technical magazines may be found by referring to the bibliog-
raphy at the end of this chapter.
Arc Variables
Major variables involved in the process are those that affect the performance
of the electric arc, such as size of projection used as an arc starter, voltage and
current magnitude, and arc time. These variables must be considered in any
equipment design, and adjustments should be provided to handle various ma-
terials and to give the required weld area.
Force Variables
Additional variables that affect the process through their effect on the move-
ment and forging action of the electrodes are the mass of the force member
and the tooling, and the magnitude of the force and timing of its application.
Usually interrelations exist among the variables. For example, in magnetic
force percussion welding, the arc time is a function of:
1. Magnitude of magnetic force.
2. Timing of the magnetic force with relation to flow of weld current.
3. Inertia or mass of the moving parts in the force system.
4. Height of the arc starter.
5. Magnitude of weld current and diameter of arc starter.
Other factors, such as clamp force and magnet gap, may also be considered as
variables in this process.
Bibliography I 27.49
Almost any process or equipment feature susceptible to change should be

considered a variable, and must be set by design to an acceptable fixed point or
to an adjustable range that will suit the process involved and the application
of the equipment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"You, High Frequency, The Public and the FCC," D. J. Corrigall, Welding Engi-
neer, 53 ( 6), 55-58 ( 1968).
"Arc-Percussive Butt Welding of Fine Wire Conductors," P. P. King and J. E.
Schnepf, Welding Journal, 44 (2), 100-105 (1965).
"Techniques, Equipment and Procedures for Production Welding of Electronics,"
Samuel A. Francis, IEEE Transactions on Product Engineering and Production, 13-17
(January 1963).
"Contribution to the Study of Flash Welding, Particularly For Assemblies of
Sintered Aluminum and Magnesium," R. Thome and J. Charleux, Soudage et
Techniques Connexes, 16, 405-414 (November-December 1962).
"A Review of Sheet Metal Welding Methods with Particular Reference to Re-
sistance Welding," D. Ewan, Sheet Metal Industries, 39, 609-623 (September 1962).
"Flash Butt Welding of Some Copper Alloys," G. P. Sakhatsky, Avtomaticheskaya
Svarka, 9, 67-72 (1962).
"Joining Dissimilar Metals? Try Percussion Welding," John Kleis, Welding Design
and Fabrication, 34-35 (August 1962).
"RW: Factors that Favor Flash-Butt Over Upset," L. F. Spencer, Welding Engineer,
47, 47-48 (July 1962).
"There's a Best Way to Join Metals," Canadian Metalworking, 25, 29-31 (July
1962).
"Resistance Welding of Copper Alloys," C. L. Bulow, Machine Design, 34, 191-194
(June 21, 1962).
"Induction Flash Butt Welding of Copper and Nickel," G. P. Sakhatsky, Avtomati-
cheskaya Svarka, 6, 48-53 (1962).
"Automatic Production of Rear Axle Casings," Welding & Metal Fabrication, 30,
172-183 (May 1962).
"Body Assembly Procedures on the Zephyr-Zodiac MK.111," Sheet Metal Indus-
tries, 39, 317-332 (May 1962).
"Attaching Electrical Contacts," J. W. Kehoe, Materials Research & Standards, 2,
288-291 (April 1962).
"European--Welding Research," G. E. Claussen, Welding Journal, 41 (4), 153s
(April1962).
"Fansteel Welds Refractory Metals to Steel," Steel, 150, 84-85 (April 9, 1962).
"Percussion Welding Simplifies Watchmaking," E. C. Fechter, Welding Design &
Fabrication, 35, 66-67 (April 1962).
"Thin-Metals Percussive Welded Without Marring or Distortion," C. A. Gunn,
Welding Engineer, 46, 48-49 (April 1962).
"Flash Welding; Process Variables and Weld Properties," W. F. Savage, Welding
Journal, 41 (3), 109s-119s (March 1962).
"Flash Welding; The Process and Applications," W. F. Savage, Ibid., 41 (3), 227-
237 (March 1962).
"Resistance Welding," R. L. Thompson, New Zealand Engineering 17, 105-106
(March 15, 1962).
"Aluminum and its Alloys in 1961," E, Elliott, Metallurgia, 65, 122-123 (March
1264).
"Flash Welding Aluminum to Copper," Australasian Manufacturer, 46, 50-52
(February 10, 1962).
"Percussion Welding Electrical Contacts," Assembly & Fastening Engineering, 5,
48 (February 1962).
"Strength of Two Flash Welded APM Alloys at Elevated Temperatures," F. G.
Nelson & R. J. Towner, Welding Journal, 41 (2), 89s-93s (February 1962).
"New Resistance Welder Joins Shafts to Gear Blanks," R. R. Irving, Iron Age, 189,
80-81 (January 18, 1962).
"Metallurgy of Flash Welding of Railway Tracks with Higher Carbon Content,"
V. Miclosi and C. Boarna, Zvaracsky Sbornik II, 1, 45-54 (1962).
"Welding Technology in the Soviet Union," R. Week, Metal Progress, 81, 77-81,
122, 124 (January 1962).
"Butt Welding in the Tool Industry," R. H. Hind, Production Engineer, 40, 785-793
(December 1961).
"Long Welded Rails," Engineer, 212,738-739 (November 31, 1961).
"Flash Welding Beats Shipyard Problem," Welding Journal, 40, (11), 1163
(November 1961).
"Flash Welding Copper to Steel," H. W. Stieglitz, Metal Progress, 80, 112 (No-
vember 1961).
"Flashing-Welding Aluminum to Copper," C. D. Moore, Machinery, 99, 790-792
(October 4, 1961).
"Flash-Butt Welding Wheel Rims," Welding and Metal Fabrication, 29, 406-408
(October 1961).
"Flash Welding Aluminum Curtain Walls," Modern Metals, 17, 56, 58 (October
1961).
"Percussive Welding Joins Fine Wire," W. A. Owczarski and A. J. Palmer, Metal-
working Production, 105, 57-59 (August 9, 1961).
"Percussive Welding Does the Finest Work," W. A. Owczarski and A. I. Palmer,
American Machinist, 105, 114-116 (June 12, 1961).
"Review of Recent Developments in Metals Joining," J. J. Vagi, et al., Defense
Metals Information Center, Battelle Memorial Institute, DMIC Memo 109 (May
25, 1961).
"Automatic Flash Welding," V. Miclosi, Zvaracsky Sbornick, 10, 51-64 (January
1961).
"Welding Processes for the Longitudinal Seam of Line Pipe," R. S. Ryan and
P. J. Rieppel, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Paper 61-PET-19 (1961).
"Allowable Stresses in Flash-Welded Joints," H. L. Kee, Production Engineering,
31, 39-42 (October 31, 1960).
"Percussion Welding Using Magnetic Force--A Production Process," R. F. Man-
ning and J. B. Welch, Welding Journal, 39 (9), 903-907 (September 1960).
"The Flash-Butt Welding of Wheel Rims for the Motor Industry," D. D. Williams,
Current Engineering Practice, 3, 25-28 (September 1960).
"The Structure and Properties of Flash-Butt Welds in Nimonic 75, SOA and 90,"
F. A. Ball and D. R. Thomeycroft, Welding and Metal Fabrication, 28, 362-367 (Sep-
tember 1960).
"Special Flash Butt Welding Joins Alloy Tool Steel to Mild Steel," Welding Design
and Fabrication, 33, 65 (June 1960).
"Flash Butt Welding Wide Aluminum Strip," Machinery, 96, 1193-1194 (May 25,
1960).
"Flash Welded Aluminum Strip For New Mill," Welding & Metal Fabrication, 28,
206-208 (May 1960).
----CHAPTER 28
RESISTANCE WELDING EQUIPMENT
Introduction 28.2
Single-Spot Welding Machines 28.3
Multiple Spot Welding Machines 28.11
Roller Spot and Seam Welding Machines 28.18
Special Seam Welding Machines 28.22
Resistance Welding Electrodes and Holders 28.26
Flash and Upset Butt Welding Machines 28.40
Resistance Welding Controls 28.50
Electrical Characteristics 28.65
Power Supply 28.80
Bibliography 28.88

F. E. WILCHER, JR. R.GORDON
Resistance Welder Manufacturers' Landis Machine Co., Peer Div.
Assoc.-Chairman B. HECKER
J. H. COOPER Ampco Metal, Inc.
The Taylor-Winfield Corp.
E. CRAIG H. J. LANGE
McKay Machine Co. National Electric Welding Machines Co.
J. F. DEFFENBAUGH J. F. NICHOLS
McKay Machine Co. Resistance Welder Corp.
----CHAPTER 28
RESISTANCE WELDING EQUIPMENT
INTRODUCTION
The selection of resistance welding equipment is usually determined by the
type and quality of the joint, production schedules and economic considerations.
Complex resistance welding equipment may be necessary to produce a given
quantity of units per hour with a minimum of labor. Similar units could be pro-
duced with simple resistance welding equipment, but the rate of production
would be reduced and the unit cost would be greater.
This chapter describes the equipment used in resistance welding. Information
on the processes may be obtained from Chapters 26 and 27.
A standard piece of equipment has three principal elements:
1. The electrical circuit, consisting of the welding transformer (usually with
a tap switch in the primary) and a secondary circuit, including electrodes,
which conducts the welding current through the workpieces.
2. The mechanical system, consisting of the frame, fixtures and other appa-
ratus, which holds the work and applies the necessary welding force or
pressure.
Single-Spot Welding Machines/ 28.3
3. The control equipment, which initiates and times the duration of current
flow. It also may control current magnitude, and may sequence other
operations.
Resistance welding machines are classified according to their electrical opera-
tion into two basic groups:
Direct-Energy
1. Single-phase
2. Three-phase
Stored-Energy
1. Single-phase
2. Three-phase
Most resistance welding machines belong to the single-phase, direct-energy
group. Unless otherwise indicated, all data, information and references in this
chapter apply specifically to single-phase, direct-energy machines. Actually, the
mechanical system and the secondary circuit may be essentially the same for all
types, but the control systems will differ considerably.
it is the simplest and least expensive in first cost, installation and maintenance.
With the latest controls it will usually deliver performance quality comparable to
The single-phase, direct-energy machine is the most commonly used because
that of the other types of machines.
A resistance weld requires a heavy kva demand for a very short time. The
single-phase, direct-energy machine is the least desirable of the two types with
respect to its demand on the power lines. Not only does it draw from only one
phase of the (usually) three-phase supply, but this demand is generally at a
relatively low power factor caused by the inherent machine reactance. This
drawback is less important if the welding machine is a relatively small part of the
total load, or if there are a number of single-phase welding machines that can be
distributed equally among the three phases of the power supply.
The three-phase, direct-energy machine draws power from all three phases of
the power supply and it does so at an improved power factor, since the inherent
machine reactance is minimized by using a lower frequency or d-e welding
current and thereby reducing the kva demand. This is a definite advantage where
a large-capacity machine is needed in a plant having limited power supply.
The principle of the stored-energy machine is to accumulate and store energy
and to discharge it from storage when making the weld. The energy may be
stored electrostatically (capacitors), electromagnetically (reactor), electrome-
chanically (rotating motor-generator sets) and electrochemically (batteries).
Single-phase power is generally used to supply the stored energy for small
(bench-type) machines, and three-phase power for larger ones. In all cases the
power demand is reduced because the energy is stored at lower power demand
levels for longer times than used in making the weld.
SINGLE-SPO T WELDING MACHINES

ROCKER-ARM SPOT WELDING MACHINES
The simplest and most commonly used spot welding machine is the rocker-arm
type, so called because of the rocker-arm or walking-beam movement of the
upper arm. This machine is readily adaptable for ordinary spot welding on most
weldable metals and is generally available in three types of operation: ( 1) foot,
28.4 j Resistance Welding Equipment
c
t------ X
..
I
~
I
I
'
0~0 K
o~o
0 0
:~--.:= -_:::: ~-
1 o I ----
l-----
----1
1
A, Throat depth; B, Horn Spacing; C, Centerline of horn lever trunnion; D,

lower arm vertical adjustment; E, foot lever; F, Foot lever adjustable stop
which regulates amount of electrode opening; G, Welding pressure spring; H,
Welding pressure spring adjustment which regulates amount of welding
pressure; k, Initiating s'"'itch can1 or trigger; L, Initiating switch; M, Horn cap
screws; N, Secondary flexible bands; R, Current regulator; S, Transformer
secondary; T, Water-cooled electrode holders; W:o Welding points or electrodes
Fig. 28.1 .-Standard foot-operated, rocker-arm spot welding machine
(2) air and (3) mechanical, or motor and cam. Later in this chapter it will be
shown that it is desirable to keep the throat depth of a welding machine as short
as possible in order to make a given weld with the least power demand. Figure
28.1 illustrates .a simple, foot-operated, rocker-arm machine. This machine,
however operated, suffers a reduction of available welding force and welding
current as the throat depth is increased. On the other hand, the throat depth can
readily be changed by the substitution of different horns (or arms) . Some ma-
chines have adjustable upper horns and, in some cases, adjustable lower horns.
The rocker-arm machine is well suited for a wide range of work and has a
capacity of two pieces of approximately 13 gage (0.089 in.) mild steel. By virtue
of the long horizontal horns, the machines can reach into and weld in areas inac-
cessible to other machines. Foot-operated machines are best suited for miscel-
laneous sheet metal fabrication, particularly where the runs are not long. Motor-
operated machines are ideal for long production runs where compressed air is at
a premium or not readily available. Air-operated machines are the most popular
type of rocker-arm machine and are not limited in operation by operator fatigue.
They can operate very rapidly and are easily set up for various jobs.
Standard rocker-arm m,achines generally range in throat depth from 12 to 36
in. and in transformer capacity from 5 to 50 kva. *
*Special-purpose rocker-arm machines are also available in capacities up to 250 kva and even higher.
Single-Spot Welding Machines f 28.5
---X ---·+------- y ----j_
'.. _____ ;
0
.. .,
0
o~o
0~0
A, Double-acting a!r cylinder; B, Four-way valve. This valve may be foot

operated, or solenoid operated and controiJed by foot switch. Air accessories
not shown but, as usually furnished, include a lubricator, strainer pressure
regulating or reducing valve and pressure gage '
Fig. 28.2.-Standard air-operated rocker-arm spot welding machine
As may be seen from a comparison of Figs. 28.1-2-3, the general construction

of the machine is the same regardless of the type of operation.
Electrode Settings
Since the motion of the upper electrode is in the form of an arc with radius X,
the electrodes should be set so that the upper electrode is exactly perpendicular
to the work when it contacts the work. In this position the two arms, or horns,
will be parallel. Any other setting will leave the horns out of parallel. Even with
the horns parallel, electrode skidding can occur if the horns have different
springing characteristics. Skidding can be minimized by moving both electrode
holders the same amount and in the direction of the electrode that skids away
from the throat of the machine. Because of the radial motion of the upper
electrode, projection welding (except for single projections) is seldom practical
on rocker-arm machines.
Mechanical Principles-Foot-Operated Machines
The frame of the machine acts as a housing for the transformer and regulator
as well as the pedestal upon which the mechanical elements are mounted. On the
foot-operated machine these elements consist of two simple levers connected by
a spring. Force exerted on the foot lever E (Fig. 28.1) is transmitted through
spring G to the rocker-arm lever and then to the welding electrode.
Calculation of Welding Force or Pressure.-A compression spring exerts its
maximum force when its coils are closed tight. This force is determined by the
wire size, coil diameter and pitch. The force exerted when the coils are partially
closed will be in proportion to the amount of closure. Thus, if a spring has a
free length of 9 in. and a closed length of 8 in., and exerts a force of 1000 lb
28.6 / Resistance Welding Equipment
~ ,-._ I ',
' . - --- -~
I ',\
r r~
I! I
I I ; ~ -- - - -. ,:
'J \
1 ''
D
,,
,,,,
II
,,
II
I,
___/J,
;if--- ~(~;,:!J
''
e=======::::t~-_ :~ ------= !.!;
A, Welding cam; B, Cam follower; C, Timing cams; D, Initiating switch; E, Weld-

ing spring; F, Gear reducer; G, Clutch; H, Foot-operated clutch trip; I, Variable
speed drive; ], motor
Fig. 28.3.-Motor-operated, rocker-arm spot welding machine
at the closed position, it will exert 750 lb at 8 1I 4 in. and at 9 in. no force at all.
Forces of closed springs may be found in handbooks or spring manufacturers'
catalogs. If the force exerted by the spring is 200 lb, then the electrode force is
(200) ( Y I X) (Fig. 28.1). In actual practice the spring is often operated fully
closed, in which case the electrode force is proportional to the force exerted on
the foot pedal [electrode force = (foot force) (U/V) (YjX)]. This ratio
seldom exceeds 3 to 1. Thus an electrode force of 300 lb requires a foot force
of 100 lb, regardless of whether or not a spring is used. This ratio is not greatly
affected by the throat depth because as X is increased, U is also increased. From
the foregoing it may be seen that the limiting factors on a foot-operated machine
are the available welding force and the element of operator fatigue.
Mechanical Principles-Air-Operated Machines
The major difference between foot-operated and air-operated machines is the
substitution of an air cylinder for the foot lever and connecting rod (Fig. 28.2).
The air cylinder may be mounted as shown in the sketch or it may be trunnion
mounted. The stroke of the cylinder must be proportioned to the required
electrode opening, and its diameter must be proportioned to the required elec-
trode force and throat depth. For any given cylinder diameter and stroke, the
welding force decreases and the electrode opening increases as the throat depth
becomes deeper. It is usually sufficient to regulate this opening by adjusting the
position of the electrodes in the horns. In some cases, however, it is desirable to
use adjustable-stroke or adjustable-retractable stroke cylinders.
Calculation of Welding Force.-The force exerted on a piston is equal to the
product of its area (sq. in.) and the air pressure (psi). Most industrial air sys-
tems are operated at 80 psi pressure, and cylinder diameters are determined on
this basis. As illustrated in Fig. 28.2, electrode force = (piston force) ( Y j X).
Single-Spot Welding Machines j 28.7
The welding force is in direct proportion to the air pressure and is controlled
by the pressure regulator. These calculations do not take packing friction into
account, but this is negligible if the cylinder is well lubricated. Air pressures
below 20 psi should not be used because of the likelihood of erratic and incon-
sistent results.
Mechanical Principles-Motor-Operated Machines
Motor-operated machines are similar in principle to foot-operated machines,
except that a power-driven cam to operate the rocker arm is substituted for the
foot lever and connecting rod (Fig. 28.3). There are, however, a few important
considerations: the machine can never be operated with the spring completely
closed; the electrode opening is determined by the throw of the welding cam and
throat depth; and no adjustment should be made by positioning the electrodes.
If the machine is set up properly, little actual power is required. It is necessary
for the cam to compress the spring only slightly for each weld.
The cam shaft usually carries fan-type timing cams that, through a limit
switch, can operate the welding contactor directly with an accuracy comparable
to a nonsynchronous precision timer. Every time the speed is changed, however,
the timing is changed. It is therefore often more desirable to interpose a simple
timer and use the limit switch to initiate the timer.
Calculation of Welding Force.-Welding force can be calculated from spring
compression and from the ratios of leverage involved, in the same manner as that
outlined for foot-operated machines.
PRESS-TYPE SPOT AND PROJECTION WELDING MACHINES

Press-type machines are recommended for all projection welding and many
spot welding applications. A press-type machine is one in which the movable
electrode and welding head are moved in a straight line and guided in bearings
or ways. These bearings must be of sufficient length and proportions to with-
stand the offset loads put upon them.
Standard press welding machines are furnished in capacities of 5 to 600 kva
and greater, and in throat depths up to 36 inches. They are also furnished in
smaller ratings, such as bench types, which are widely used for radio, instrument
and jewelry work.
Press welding machines are classified in various ways:
1. Type of operation: air, hydraulic; hand or foot operation is also used on
small bench-type models.
2. Function: spot, projection, combination spot and projection.
3. Type of welding head: slide, quill, antifriction.
4. Manner of pressure application: direct, toggle, lever.
Some of these construction variations represent various manufacturers' ideas
on the best construction principles. Others are variations that almost all manu-
facturers furnish to meet various job requirements. It is impossible to set down
any rules governing the selection of machine type, but a few general principles
may be stated:
1. Hydraulic operation is seldom justified below about 200 kva, chiefly be-
cause of the additional cost. Some users, however, prefer hydraulic opera-
tion in smaller sizes also, in order to obtain the advantages of fluid opera-
tion without the use of air.
2. There is no upper limit in size for air operation. When high pressures are
utilized, however, air cylinders and valves get quite bulky, operation is
slower and air consumption is high and expensive.
All factors taken into consideration, the average installation will be air op-
erated up to about 300 kva. Between 300 and 500 kva it will be about equally
divided between air and hydraulic operation. Above 500 kva it will be operated
hydraulically.
The much faster follow-up of air as compared to oil should also be taken into
consideration. Because of the compressibility of air, its response on the piston
is almost instantaneous, whereas the response of oil is somewhat slower because
of its incompressibility and because this motion must be transmitted throughout
the hydraulic system. Fast follow-up is particularly vital on short-time welds,
such as those used to join stainless steel, aluminum and other nonferrous metals.
Where high electrode forces (over 10,000 lb) are required, fast follow-up be-
comes less important.
Toggle operation has almost disappeared. It is used occasionally to reduce
cylinder size while obtaining high pressures. It should be noted, however, that
this results in no air saving because the reduction in cylinder bore is offset by
the increased stroke.
General Press-Type Welding Machine Construction
Press-type welding machines are designed and built on the unit principle
because of manufacturing economics. The same frame (with some variations
in drilling, etc.) is used for two or three different kva ratings and for all types,
regardless of throat depth, method of operation, etc. Some of these variations
will be considered further with respect to their effect on over-all design.
Operating Head.-Since most manufacturers employ only one type of head
construction on any given model, this need not be considered a variable. The
various types are shown in Fig. 28.4.
SIDE BEARINGS
BACK
BEARING
.
A B c D
A, Rectangular slide; B, Vee slide; C, Quill; D, Antifriction, or roller bearing
Fig. 28.4.-Typical press-type welding machine heads
Horns and Platens.-Projection welding machines employ tables or platens
on which are mounted dies, fixtures and other tooling. These usually have
standard T-slots for mounting die sets or other equipment. The horns, platens
and lower knee determine the difference between spot and projection welding
machines. The throat depth on any welding machine is the distance from the
centerline of the welding electrode to the frame of the machine. Thus the same
machine may have one throat depth as a projection welding machine and a
greater throat depth as a spot welding machine. This can be seen by reference
to Fig. 28.5. The centerline of the platens, the ram and air cylinder are all the
same. Therefore, the distance from this centerline to the faced ways or frame
Single-Spot Welding Machines /28.9
A
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4 5
3 ~06
20 • 0 7
0 0
1 0 . 8
Air or hydraulically operated. A, Air or hydraulic cylinder; B, Welding head (see Fig.
28.4 for variations in construction); C, Spot welding and electrodes; D, Upper table
or platen; El' Lower table or platen; F, Lower knee; G, Flexible bands; H, Upper and lower
terminals or connecting blocks; I, Transformer secondary; ], Knee support and jack screw.
Fig. 28.5.-Typical press-type combination spot and projection welding
machine
of the machine is the projection welding throat depth. On standard machines

the spot welding electrodes extend 6 in. in front of this center line. This is true
whether or not platens are used. The 6 in. should not be exceeded because the
head is not designed to take any greater offset load.
Projection and combination machines have a knee supporting the lower platen
and are provided with a vertical knee adjustment. The knee may be of cast iron,
steel, copper or bronze, depending upon the design.
To obtain maximum clearance for the work, spot welding machines usually
substitute for the lower knee a hom comparable to that used on rocker-arm
machines. It may be column mounted or square mounted, but it is always ver-
tically adjustable.
Mechanical Principles-Air-Operated Machines
Air-operated press welding machines are usually of the direct-acting type in
which the pressure exerted by the piston becomes the welding force. One excep-
28.10 1 Resistance Welding Equipment
K
A
R R
Q
p
8 8
T
s
A B c
Fig. 28.6.-Typical air cylinders for air-operated press-type welding machines
tion to this is the situation where an air lock is used. As illustrated in Fig. 28.6,
the following three general types of air cylinders are employed. (In all these, air
is admitted at port A for the pressure stroke and exhausted at port B) :
A. Fixed-stroke cylinder with stroke adjuster added. The stroke adjuster K
limits the return stroke and, consequently, the point opening.
B. Adjustable-stroke cylinder with dummy piston R.
C. Adjustable-retractable stroke cylinder. On this type a third port Cis added.
If air is admitted through this port to chamber L at a pressure slightly
higher than operating pressure (in chamber N), piston R will remain in a
position determined by the stop X. This determines the operating-point
opening. By exhausting the air from chamber L through a separate three-
way valve, piston P, when it is returned, will carry piston R with it to the
full available stroke of the cylinder. Readmission of air at port C will again
return piston R to its preset position, since the pressure in chamber L is
slightly higher than in either chamber M or N. Speed control valves or
cushions are usually used to check shock and control the operating speed.
Air Locks.-An air lock is a device inserted in the head of the machine to
regulate the welding force. It may be used with any type of operation. Its major
advantages lie in the ease with which its pressure may be regulated and, with
some models, in the elimination of static packing friction, thus allowing it to
provide the fast follow-up necessary to avoid cracking in some alloys.
Mechanical Principles-Hydraulic Machines
The operation of a hydraulic machine is much the same as that of an air-
operated one. The air cylinder, with a maximum operating pressure of 80 psi,
is replaced by a hydraulic cylinder with a maximum pressure of 1000 psi. Any
type outlined in Fig. 28.6 may be used for hydraulic operation.
In the simplest type of hydraulic system a constant-speed motor drives a
constant-pressure, constant-delivery pump, the output pressure of which is ad-
justed by means of an adjustable relief valve. The oil delivery is controlled with
a four-way valve of the same type as that employed in an air system. Auxiliaries
include a sump, a filter, heat exchanger, a gage and sometimes an accumulator.
Multiple Spot Welding Machines/ 28.11
PORTABLE SPOT WELDING MACHINES

A typical portable welding machine consists of four basic units: ( 1) portable
welding tool or gun, (2) welding transformer, (3) electrical contactor and
sequence timer, and ( 4) cable and hose unit to carry power between transformer
and welding gun.
A typical portable gun consists of water-cooled electrode holders, an air or
hydraulic actuating cylinder, hand grips and an initiating switch, all suspended
from an adjustable balancing unit. Air, hydraulic or hand pressure may be used
to provide electrode operating force. The majority of portable welding guns use
air or hydraulic oil as the pressure medium.
Portable welding machines are used when it is impractical to bring the work to
the welding machine. When large structures are involved, a portable welding
machine may provide the only means of welding. Thus, the physical design of
the tool may be influenced by the design of the part to be welded. A certain
degree of standardization of size and shape has been accomplished by manu-
facturers specializing in this type of equipment.
The choice of pressure medium is influenced by the welding force required.
In order to keep size and weight to a minimum, hydraulic pressure is usually
adopted where forces greater than 750 lb are required; however, air cylinders
up to and including 5 in. diameter bore are used, due to simplicity of assembly.
Transformers used with portable guns should have from two to four times
as much secondary voltage as those used for stationary applications. This re-
quirement is due to the relatively high-impedance secondary connection between
the transformer and the gun. The transformer is usually mounted above the
work to give more freedom and flexibility to the cable. A current-controlling tap
switch, an air valve and, if used, a hydraulic booster (sometimes referred to as a
pump) are mounted on the transformer. A hydraulic booster is a device for
transforming air pressures up to 80 psi into hydraulic pressures of 600 to 1200
psi. A three-way or four-way valve actuates the booster which, in turn, provides
hydraulic pressure to the gun-operating cylinder.
An electrical control is required. This consists of a primary contactor and
sequence timer and is often mounted beside the welding transformer to simplify
electrical connection.
The cable and hose unit between the transformer and welding gun consists
of secondary electrical cables, air or hydraulic pressure hoses, water-cooling
hoses and cable to the initiating switch, usually operated at low voltage for
reasons of safety. The secondary cable used in modern installations is almost
exclusively of the concentric or kickless type. The two conductors are inter-
twined in such a manner that reactance is almost eliminated. They are, however,
operated at extremely high current densities in order to reduce bulk. As a result
water cooling is necessary.
MULTIPLE SPOT WELDING MACHINES

Multiple spot welding machines are considered special purpose machines,
designed and built to weld a specific part or assembly. When the quantity of parts
and the number of welds per part are large enough to make single-spot welding
impractical, a multiple spot welding machine is considered. The advantages of
these special purpose machines are many, the main ones being:
DUAL SECONDARY ... - /-~---- ...... ,

PACKAGE TRANSFORME
I
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I
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I
I I
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II
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CABLE CLAMP
ELECTRODE HOLDER
LECTRODE
Fig. 28.7.-Basic components of a multiple spot weld system
1. Many welds made rapidly and simultaneously at lower cost per weld;
2. Consistent physical dimensions, spot locations and weld quality from part
to part;
3. Reliability and ease of maintenance.
These machines were previously grouped into three general classes or types:
(1) pressure-controlled (hydromatic), (2) commutator-controlled (ultraspeed)
and (3) multiple transformer. The first two types are now obsolete and are no
longer included in this chapter.
Multiple Spot Welding Machines I 28.13
WELDING GUNS
TRANSFORMER
CABLES
Fig. 28.8.-Basic components for series multiple spot welding
MULTIPLE TRANSFORMER MACHINES

· Figure 28.7 shows basic standardized components that have been developed
for use in designing a wide range of multiple spot welding machines of the
multiple transformer type. The weld force is applied directly by an air (or
hydraulic) cylinder through an electrode holder. In order to increase the weld
force and to make welds on close centers, yet keeping the cylinder diameter
small, tandem pistons can be used to double the effective weld force area. The
minimum 2 in. diameter air cylinder develops 350 lb weld force at normal shop
air line pressures--enough to spot weld 0.025 in. cold-rolled steel on 2 in.
centers. A full range of air cylinder sizes is available up to about 2000 lb weld
force for gages of 0.125 in. with cylinder diameter of 4 inches. Closer spot weld
centers may be obtained by using hydraulic cylinders at higher pressures, mount-
ing the cylinders on slides to index and recycle them, or by using both proced-
ures. The cylinder and electrode holder assemblies are commonly called welding
guns.
The "package" type welding transformer has two secondaries, insulated from
each other and providing two separate welding circuits. They are noted for their
compact design, and have built-in tap switches to change the secondary voltage
and output. Their 7 1I 4 in. width makes it possible to mount several of them in
a row and connect each to four welding guns on 2 in. centers with room to spare.
When connected to the welding guns through normal length (12 to 20 in.) flex-
ible cables, they provide secondary currents matching the weld forces available
from the welding guns for the range up to 0.125 in. cold-rolled steel.
Basic Components for Multiple Spot Welding
The application of these basic components to series multiple spot welding is
shown in Fig. 28.8. This is the technique that has permitted the greatest growth
Fig. 28.9.-Typical multiple transformer spot welding machine with two-post

frame and tilt table for loading parts
in multiple spot welding. A welding gun is connected to each terminal of a

secondary, and the path of the current makes two spot welds at a time. As
indicated, three parallel paths are available to the current once it leaves the
electrodes. These are through the top sheet next to the electrodes, the bottom
sheet and the lower shunt die. The current passing through the top sheet does
not contribute to the formation of the welds. Therefore this "shunting" current
must be added to the normal current required to make the welds; it has been
found that this method of welding should not be used on parts where the top
sheet exceeds 18 gage cold-rolled steel. The sheet resistance of thicker gages
is so low that a disproportionate amount of the total current will pass through
the top sheet, causing excess heating in the top sheet, poor quality welds and
heavy electrode maintenance. The obvious advantage of this type of welding is

that there is no confining throat area to limit the size of the parts to be welded.
The guns and transformers are usually suspended from the overhead part of the
machine, and the machine frame generally can be designed to support the
lower shunt die and tooling with ample clearances for the parts (Fig. 28.9).
Use With Other Spot Welding Methods
Other spot welding methods are shown in Chapter 26, Spot, Seam and Pro-
jection Welding and Equipment, Figures 26.14 and 26.15 can be used with these
basic components. The dual secondaries of the transformers make it possible to
make twice the number of welds per transformer as shown in the figures. Note
that several of these methods permit direct welding (with no gage limitations)
yet without direct connections to the lower die; thus, there is no limitation on
part size.
In most of these methods the lower die is made from solid copper, generally
has copper alloy inserts contoured to the part to be welded, and is water cooled
to remove excess heat. The die inserts generally have substantial area to resist
wear. Pointed electrodes should not be used in the lower die because of uneven
wear and the resulting uneven weld force and electrode contact with each weld.
Where it is desirable to have pointed electrodes on both sides of the weld (e.g.
to obtain good heat balance) or where the parts are not normally consistent in
contour to permit good contact with a solid lower die, equalizing guns are often
used. The same basic welding gun is used, but mounted on a special "C"
frame that also mounts the opposing electrode; the entire assembly can "float,"
exerting welding force on both sides of the parts to be welded without trying to
force them to make contact with solidly mounted dies. Direct welds are made
and the throat area of the "C" frames is limited, restricting part clearances.
The various welding methods are often combined in a single machine to meet
the requirements of a single assembly to be welded. It is not advisable to com-
bine two different methods using the same transformer since the current outputs
of the different methods will not be the same for the same tap switch setting
on a single transformer. If desired, only one of the dual secondaries can be used
at a time, leaving the other one unconnected and firing open circuit at the same
time that a weld is being made with the other secondary. For additional second-
ary output, the two secondaries can be connected in series to feed only one
secondary circuit. To increase the thermal capacity available to a single circuit,
the secondaries can also be paralleled.
The side of the parts to be welded, which is a '"show" surface, is always placed
against the lower dies. The large area of the lower die in contact with the under-
side of the parts reduces marking to a minimum. This side will show weld
shrinkage but often the welds are barely discernible after painting.
Stainless steels as well as the usual carbon steels used in the metal fabricating
industry can be successfully welded using these methods. Some of the lower
conductivity nonferrous alloys, such as brass, can also be welded using these
techniques. The higher conductivity alloys of copper and aluminum, however,
present problems of requiring too much current and too closely controlled elec-
trode contours to make successful welds at high production rates.
TYPES OF MULTIPLE TRANSFORMER MACHINES
The multiple transformer machines are used extensively in the metal joining
28.16 I Resistance Welding Equipment
operation of almost all formed metal products. Because of their broad usage and
requirements, several types of multiple transformer machines have been devel-
oped. The machines may be combined to form the welding stations of large,
high-production, automated assembly lines or they may be used singly. The
single machines may be loaded either manually or automatically, and the welded
assembly may be unloaded manually or ejected automatically to a storage
station or conveyor.
In deciding on the best type of machine for a particular part, a number of
points must be considered:
1. Shape, size and complexity of the part;
2. Metal thickness and desired weld appearance;
3. Production required;
4. Equipment available (presses, frames and dial tables);
5. Changeover time for different assemblies;
6. Cost of equipment (degree of automatic devices).
To discuss various types of multiple transformer machines, it is best to group
them according to their design and construction.
Independent machines:
1. Single station;
2. Dial table;
3. Over and under.
Multiple operation or shuttle-fed machines:
1. Multiple station machines;
2. Multiple line machines.
INDEPENDENT MACHINES
The operation of an independent machine is not dependent on previous or
subsequent machines or devices to initiate or control its operation. This is the
main advantage of such a machine over the multiple operation machine. Because
of the usually adequate supply of parts to be welded and the presence of storage
area for welded assemblies, the independent machine is not affected by the down
time of related machines or operations.
Single-Station Machines
Single-station machines are the most widely used. They are usually used when
only two or three parts need to be loaded and the number and configuration of
welds allow all welding to be done in one station. Hopper or magazine feed of
parts, and also automatic ejection, may be incorporated if production warrants.
The type of frame and supporting members for the welding equipment of
these machines is determined by the part configuration and resulting arrange-
ment of the welding guns, and the necessary clearances required. Various frame
types have been developed-"C," flat-top, upright, inclined, and one-, two- or
four-post type. If the usual 3 in. stroke of the welding guns permits part entry
between the guns and dies (electrodes) , the mounting of the guns and dies is
usually fixed. If not, the dies can be mounted on lift tables, tilt tables or shuttle
slides. Two sets of dies or fixtures can be mounted on double shuttle slides to
permit loading of another set of parts while the previously loaded set is being
welded.
Dial Table Machines

Dial table machines are composed of several fixtures mounted on a table,
which rotates through load stations, work stations and possibly an ejection
station. These machines are particularly adaptable for small welded assemblies,
especially if several parts are to be loaded. Many parts such as studs or nuts
are suitable for hopper or magazine loading. The dial table is rotated from
station to station by an index mechanism. A six- or eight-station index is most
common and is generally divided into load, idle, work or ejection stations de-
pending on the product requirements. The main advantage of the dial table
machine is the high production obtained and the possibility of utilizing the dial
index mechanism for future tooling. The disadvantage is the cost of building
several identical fixtures and the difficulty in adjusting and maintaining each
fixture identically to assure uniform part assembly dimensions.
Over and Under Machines
Over and under machines are similar to dial table machines except that the
fixtures are indexed through the loading, work and ejection stations in a straight
horizontal motion and then travel around end sprockets and return to the load
position. It is usually possible to assemble larger parts on this machine than on
a dial table, but the over and under machine requires more fixtures because the
fixtures returning on the under side are not in a position to do work. Because of
the large number of fixtures required, usually eight to twelve, the fixture require-
ments must be fairly simple to make this type of machine practical. It is also
more difficult to adapt the fixture indexing mechanism to future tooling than on
dial table.
MULTIPLE OPERATION MACHINES

Multiple operation or shuttle fed machines are used extensively in the auto-
motive and appliance industries. This system is especially adaptable to large
assemblies that cannot be readily handled by hand. It consists of several ma-
chines or presses mounted adjacent to each other and connected with a common
shuttle or conveyor that transfers the work assembly from one machine to the
next. The shuttles are usually of the reciprocating type, which carries the as-
sembly into a work station or fixture. An elevator or press at each station then
lifts the assembly off the shuttle to a work position. The shuttle then returns and
is ready to receive the assembly in an advanced position. The assembly progresses
through the line, one station at a time, until it reaches the ejection station. Some-
times a portion of the line has interchangeable fixtures for running various
assemblies through the line. Because of the cost and space requirements for a
large line, it must be designed to handle as many variations as possible. Any
small parts that cannot be preloaded into the main assembly are usually loaded
into the station where they will be welded.
Since many stations and operations are integrated into one system, reliability
of all components is of prime importance; this is true because down time at any
point shuts down the entire line. Planned maintenance, and experienced person-
nel, are the best assurances for a successful line operation.
Multiple Station Machines
Multiple station machines consist of two or three work stations mounted on
a common base and crown, the work being transferred from one station to the
next with a reciprocating shuttle. The controls can be mounted on the crown,
and the work station components on subplates so that future tooling or changes
will require a minimum of rework.
When being used in the assembly of larger parts, these machines usually do
not contain idle stations between the work stations. However, on small parts with
short shuttle strokes, idle stations are provided between work stations to allow
room for fixture components and adequate space for proper maintenance.
Multiple Line Machines
Multiple line machines consist of several welding presses or frames connected
with a common transfer or shuttle mechanism for transferring the work from
one machine to the next. This system requires much more floor space than a
multistation machine, but provides greater access for maintenance since there
are one or two idle stations between each work station. The automotive industry
primarily uses the heavy duty welding press because in most cases the welding
force must be contained between the upper and lower press platens. They are
used extensively for doors, deck lids and underbody assemblies. The appliance
industry favors the four-post frame with all tooling mounted from the crown
and a lightweight elevator that raises the work to the tooling. This system is
particularly adaptable to refrigerator and freezer outer shell assemblies.
ROLLER SPOT AND

SEAM WELDING MACHINES
A roller spot or seam welding machine is similar in principle to a spot welding
machine, except that wheel-shaped electrodes are substituted for the tips used in
spot welding. The only difference between a roller spot and a roller seam weld is
the spacing between individual spots or welds. Both are performed on the same
machine.
The essential elements of a standard roller seam welding machine are: ( 1)
main frame, containing welding transformer and tap switch; (2) welding head,
consisting of air cylinder and head slide mechanism; and ( 3) welding wheels,
bearings and secondary connections to the transformer.
The main frame, with transformer, regulator, welding head and air cylinder,
is essentially the same as for the standard, direct, air-operated, press-type ma-
chines described previously. Seam welding machines, almost without exception,
utilize a direct-acting air cylinder as a means of pressure application. Since
provision must be made for electrode wear, either the connection from the
head to the piston rod is adjustable or an adjustable-stroke cylinder is provided.
In addition, the lower electrode with its mounting arrangement (arm, table and
knee) is sometimes adjustable. This lower adjustment is used when it is necessary
to maintain the work at a constant level above the floor.
Most seam welding machine requirements are met by the use of a continuous
drive; however, some problems are solved more successfully by the use of an
intermittent drive. Such a problem could occur when roll-spot welding aluminum
or stainless steel where the close control of postweld current and pressures is
important. The constantly rotating electrode would tend to make an elongated
weld nugget with a variation in quality from beginning to end while a momen-
tary stop in rotation would tend to produce a weld of better quality.
The majority of standard seam welding machine drives make use of constant-
Roller Spot and Seam Welding Machines/ 28.19
~
~L___j
A, Circular, double knurl or friction roll; B, Circular, upper knurl or friction roll; C,. Circular,
upper gear; D, Longitudinal, double knurl or friction roll; F., Long1tudinal, upper knurl or friction
roll; F, Universal, upper gear
Fig. 28.10.-Typical seam welding machine electrode and drive arrangements
speed, a-c electric motors with a variable speed reducing drive. Such drives have
a speed ratio of 3: 1 or 6: 1 in the majority of cases.
Greater flexibility has been obtained by the use of constant torque, variable-
speed, d-e drives using rectified a-c current with a potentiometer to control speed.
A ratio of 20: 1 can be obtained with a drive of this type.
There are three general types of seam welding machines:
1. Circular, in which the plane of the electrode disks is at 90° to the throat
of the machine. This type is used for flat work where the seam may be
quite long. It is used also for all types of circular work such as welding tl}e
heads of containers.
2. Longitudinal, in which the plane of the electrode disks is parallel to the
throat of the machine. This type is used for such applications as the
welding of longitudinal seams in cylindrical containers and similar work.
3. Universal, in which the wheels may be set in either the circular or longi-
tudinal position. This is accomplished by the use of a swivel-type upper

head in which the wheel and its bearing can be swiveled 90 degrees. The
lower mounting may consist of two interchangeable lower arms, or both
may be attached permanently to the machine by means of hinges or a
swinging column, so that either one may be swung into place.
Figure 28.10 shows the electrode arrangements for standard-type machines
as well as the methods of drive.
THROAT DEPTH
Standard seam welding machines, like press welding machines, are classified
by throat depth. The nominal throat depth is generally the distance, measured
parallel to the arms, from the electrode contact point to the frame of the ma-
chine. This entire distance might not, however, be usable. This situation occurs
in the welding of cylinders or similar work. It is also generally true on universal
types of machines. The usable throat depth, therefore, should not be confused
with the nominal throat depth.
DRIVING MECHANISMS
Knurl or Friction Roll
The knurl or friction roll drive has either the upper or lower electrode (or
both) driven by a friction wheel on the periphery of the electrode. When these
friction rolls have knurled teeth cut
in them, they are known as knurls or
a knurl drive. Knurl or friction roll
drive is preferred for most work,
since a constant speed is maintained
regardless of the electrode diameter.
The knurl or friction roll continuous-
ly trims the wheel, thus preventing its
mushrooming. The knurl is used on
coated materials, such as galvanized
steel, terne plate and scaly stock, or
in any application where the elec-
trodes are likely to pick up material
from the stock being welded. Where
the nature of the work permits, both
electrodes should be knurl driven in
order to provide a more positive drive
and to lessen the possibility of skid-
ding.
Gear Drive
The gear drive type is generally
less desirable than the knurl drive,
because the welding speed decreases
as the electrode wears. This, however,
can be compensated for by adjusting
the variable speed drive. Only one
Fig. 28.11.-Typical universal seam electrode should be driven if skidding
welding machine showing electrodes is to be avoided. Otherwise a differen-
and upper knurl drive arrangement tial gear box is needed.
Roller Spot and Seam Welding Machines /28.21
The most important application of the gear-driven machine is the welding of

small-diameter containers. The very nature of standard seam welding mach.ines
requires a minimum distance between electrode centers. If one of the electrodes
must be small to get into the container, the other must be correspondingly larger
to maintain the required center distance. If the ratio of the two electrode diame-
ters exceeds about 2 to 1, the smaller one should be the driving electrode. Other-
wise, excessive skidding will result. Small-diameter electrodes cannot successfully
be knurl driven. They are readily gear driven in the circular, but not the longi-
Fig. 28.12.-Typical traveling electrode type of seam welding machine

tudinal, position. In some cases, where it is desirable to gear drive one wheel,
the other can be equipped with an idling knurl for electrode dressing.
Figure 28.11 shows a universal, upper knurl driven machine with d-e drive,
providing a speed range of approximately 6 to 113 in. per minute.
SPECIAL SEAM WELDING MACHINES

Many types of machines have been developed for special purposes and can
be generally grouped as traveling-electrode type, traveling-fixture type, can
welding machines and portable seam welding machines.
TRAVELING-ELECTRODE MACHINES
In traveling-electrode welding machines the work is clamped or otherwise held
fixed over a mandrel or shoe of some type while an electrode is passed over it.
The mandrel or shoe replaces the lower electrode. The upper electrode is moved
by an air or hydraulic cylinder or by means of a motor-driven screw. Sometimes
two upper electrodes operating in series are used. This is a very desirable type
as it permits an efficient secondary circuit unaffected by different amounts of
magnetic work material in the circuit. Figure 28.12 shows a typical traveling-
electrode type machine.
Fig. 28.13.-Typical traveling fixture type of seam welding machine

Special Seam Welding Machines I 28.23
Fig. 28.14.-Can welding machine designed to roll-form and mash-

seam weld the side seams of steel shells that are later expanded
into rectangular freezer compartments
TRAVELING-FIXTURE MACHINES
In the traveling-fixture type the upper electrode is stationary. The fixture and
work are moved by an air or hydraulic cylinder or by a motor-driven screw.
Here again, multiple electrodes can be used to advantage (Fig. 28.13).
Another important type of seam welding machine is that used for continu-
ously welding the longitudinal seams of piping or tubing. This is a butt seam
weld, but welding current is applied to the two edges of the seam by roller
electrodes or wheels. Strip steel is fed into a series of forming rolls which pro-
gressively form it into a tubular shape. It is then forced through the welding
electrodes wnere it is welded, shaved and cut to length.
CAN WELDING MACHINES

Can welding machines form another group of semicontinuous welding rna-
chines. Rolled drums are fed through electrodes and held in place by "hourglass"
rolls. With the aid of automatic feeding equipment, cans, barrels, drums or other
containers can be welded on an almost continuous basis. Figure 28.14 shows a
typical example of such a machine.
PORTABLE SEAM WELDING MACHINES
Portable seam welding machines may be used where the work is too bulky
to be handled through regular electrodes as, for example, the welding of drip
rails on automobile bodies or the fabrication of disposable gasoline tanks for
airplanes. The work is clamped in a fixture while a portable welding head is
moved over the seam. The head consists of a pair of motor-driven (usually air
Fig. 28.15.-Standard circular seam welding machine equipped

with an iron-man fixture
Special Seam Welding Machines / 28.25
motor) wheels and their bearings, together with an air cylinder mechanism for
providing the necessary pressure. The welding current is supplied by a stationary
transformer through flexible secondary cables. Because of the high duty cycle of
seam welding machines, these cables are quite bulky and should be kept as
short as po$sible.
Where a greater range of speeds is desirable, a variable-speed, d-e drive has
been used successfully on portable seam welding machines, by mounting motor
and reducer directly on the welding machine frame.
FIXTURES
Work-holding fixtures are varied in design and construction. One of the
simplest types, used for items such as toy wagon wheels, holds two plates or
disks being welded around their periphery. This fixture consists of a spindle
upon which the disks are placed, together with a suitable clamping device.
During welding the work rotates around the spindle and a circular weld results.
In one variation of this type of fixture the spindle is carried on a pantograph
which permits its free motion in a horizontal plane. This type is used for welding
out-turned flanges on noncircular as-
semblies such as automotive gasoline
tanks.
A further refinement or variation
is a guided fixture commonly known
as an iron-man fixture. The operator
merely places the work in the fixture
and starts the weld, after which the
work is automatically guided and the
weld completed without further at-
tention (Fig. 28.15).
Figure 28.16 shows a double knurl
driven machine with special fixturing
for a particular component.
COOLING
One of the biggest problems in
seam welding is the proper cooling of
the machine including the electrodes,
current-carrying bearings and second-
ary circuit. Of greater importance,
however, is the cooling of the work.
Whenever concentrated heat is em-
ployed, as in seam welding, warpage
and distortion take place. Warpage is
minimized by cooling the work as fast
as possible. Probably the best seam
welding results would be obtained by
making the welds under water, but
the physical proportions of tht> work
usually make this impractical. Sprays
of cooling water provided for both the
Fig. 28.16.-Double knurl driven ma- work and the upper and lower weld-
chine with special fixturing for welding
shock absorber reservoir tube caps ing wheels are usually satisfactory.
A pan to catch and drain the spray water is sometimes incorporated into the
design of machines (Fig. 28.12). The formation of rust on the work after
welding may be objectionable. A closed water system with a circulating cen-
trifugal pump and intercooler may be used to overcome this condition. An
automobile radiator is simple and effective for this purpose. Soluble oil or a
borax solution may be added to the cooling water for rust prevention.
Another method of cooling the work is to let the heat in the parts being
welded supply the heat-of-vaporization. This is done by mixing air and water
in a nozzle and adjusting the flow rates of each so as to make a very fine, small-
particle water spray.
The mist is difficult to see as it emits from the nozzle but will feel cold to the
touch. As this mist impinges on the part immediately after welding, the parts
supply the heat-of-vaporization and all the water is evaporated. Drain pans are
not necessary if the proper water flow rate is used.
RESISTANCE WELDING ELECTRODES

AND HOLDERS
The perishable tool used in resistance welding is the electrode, which may take
the form of a spot-welding tip, seam-welding wheel or welding die. Because of
their close relationship with holders, adaptors and various other current-carrying
members, all will be considered in this section.
The value of the electrode including its material, design, use and care is para-
mount in any resistance welding application. It has considerable bearing on weld
cost and quality in its function of delivering to the workpiece currents up to
100,000 amp€res and pressures up to 100,000 psi.
The electrode has other demands made upon it: it conducts heat away, and
in specialized uses it may even perform locating, forming, shearing and heat-
balancing functions.
In the design of electrodes, therefore, there should always be enough mass to
provide the required strength and current-carrying capacity with provisions for
adequate cooling, which can never be overemphasized. If it should become
necessary to compromise among any of these three factors, the designer should
recognize that he may be at the same time effecting a relative compromise on
electrode life, weld quality, production rate or all three.
High-production industries are tending to perform heavier welding, which
requires many special electrodes, particularly cold-formed ones. These circum-
stances make it especially important for the designer to consider the possible
behavior and limitations of the electrode material itself.
ELECTRODE MATERIALS
In the many years that have passed since the RWMA* classes of materials
were first developed to improve plain copper electrodes, there have been no very
significant changes or major "breakthroughs" in electrode materials.
However, considerable advances in alloying and processing, combined with
improved designs do result in improved electrode quality even though the basic
concept of material classification remains unchanged.
The only addition is the relatively recent use of zirconium copper as an elec-
*The RWMA (Resistance Welder Manufacturers' Association) classification covers a range of resist-
ance weldinll electrode materials that will meet the demands of most applications.
Resistance Welding Electrodes and Holders/ 28.27
trode material. This alloy is discussed in more detail in the section dealing with
the other alloy classes.
Table 28.1 (p. 28.28) gives the minimum properties for alloys of the various
RWMA classifications.
Group A Copper-Base Alloys

Class 1 is a cadmium-copper alloy having a nominal composition of 1%
cadmium, balance copper. It is recommended as a general purpose material
superior to copper, especially in spot and roll seam welding electrodes, where
electrical and thermal conductivities are of greater importance than most of the
other properties. It is used in the spot and seam welding of such materials as
aluminum, magnesium and galvanized as well as tin plated steel. Class 1 has high
electrical and thermal conductivity, which (with adequate water cooling) keep
the electrode temperature below the relatively low point at which metals, such as
aluminum, have a strong tendency to alloy with copper and bring about electrode
sticking or "pickup." The principal alloying constituent of Class 1 has little or no
affinity for the aforementioned metals and thereby further restricts this sticking
tendency; it also retards the possible intergranular penetration of the low-melting
materials into the electrode.
Class 1 has also been found useful in welding scaly, hot-rolled steel. Of lower
hardness than the other classes, it tends to conform a little more to the rough
surface. The resulting larger total contact area reduces the current density and,
along with it, the amount of electrode sticking and pitting.
Class 1 is not heat treatable but must develop its full properties through cold
reduction in the form of cold drawing, cold rolling or cold forging. It offers little
or no advantage over plain copper in castings and is rarely used or fabricated in
this form.
Class 2 is a chromium-copper alloy having a nominal composition of 0.8%
chromium, balance copper. Class 2 (age-hardened) has higher mechanical
properties but somewhat lower electrical and thermal conductivities than Class 1.
Its good all-around physical properties and resistance to deformation under mod-
erately high pressures make it the best general purpose material. If one had to
cover a wide range of materials and conditions with only one electrode material,
Class 2 would be the unequivocal choice. It is used extensively in the high-
production spot and seam welding of the clean mild and low alloy steels, brasses
and bronzes that comprise the bulk of resistance welding applications.
It is also suitable for shafts, dies, fixtures, platens, gun jaws and various other
current-carrying structural parts of resistance welding equipment.
This alloy is heat treatable, resulting in good properties for castings. It will
take considerable cold work and develops maximum properties in its wrought
form by cold reduction after heat treatment.
Class 3 is a low beryllium-copper alloy having a nominal composition of
0.5% beryllium, 1.0% nickel and/or 1.0% cobalt, balance copper. Class 3 (age-
hardened) has higher mechanical properties with lower electrical conductivity
than Class 2. Its chief value as a spot or seam welding electrode is in those appli-
cations where pressures and the resistance of the workpiece are high. These con-
ditions make the resistance to deformation in the electrode more important than
its conductivity. Included are such materials as stainless steel, high strength
alloy steels and lnconel alloy.
It is especially suitable for many types of welding dies and current-carrying
Tallie 28.1-Minimum properties for alloys
...,
Proportional Limit- Ultimate Tensile Elongation.
co
Tension. psi Hardness. Rockwell Conductivity, % I.A.C.S. t Strength, psi in 2 in. or 4 diameters ;.,
GROUP A co
COPPER BASE .........
ALLOYS Class 1 I Class 2 I Class 3 Class 1 I Class 2 I Class 3 Class 1 I Class 2 I Class 3 Class 1 I Class 2 I Class 3 Class 1 I Class 2 I Class 3 ~
Rod diam., in. Round Rod Stock 1!t;;·
Up to 1 17.500 35.000 50.000 I 65Rb 75Rb 90Rb 80% 75% 45% 13% 13% 9%
%
Over 1 to 2 15,000 30,000 50,000 60Rb 75Rb
70Rb 90Rb I
I 90Rb 160,000
55,000 165,000
59 ,000 1100,000
100,000 14% 13%
s;:s
80% 75% 45% 9%
Over 2 to 3 15,000 1 25,000 1 50,000 55Rb 1 65Rb 90Rb 80% 75% 45% 50,000 55,000 95,000 15% 13% 9% ~
I I I I I I I
Thickness, in. Square, Rectangular and Hexagonal Bar Stock
~
Up to 1 20 ,ooo 135 ,ooo so ,ooo I 55Rb 70Rb 90Rb 80% 75% 45% 160,000 165,000 1100,000 13% 13% 9% iS:
Over 1 15,000 25,000
I 50,000 50Rb 65Rb 90Rb 50,000 55,000 100,000
80% 75% 45% 14% 13% 9% ~-
I I I I I I I I
Thickness, in. Forgings
~
l:::
Up to 1 20 .ooo 22 .ooo·l50 .ooo I 55Rb 65Rb 80% 75% 45% 60 .ooo 55 .ooo I 94,000 12~ 13% 9%
Over 1 to 2 15,000 21,000• 50,000 SORb 65Rb 90Rb
90Rb I 80% 75% 50,000 55,000 94,000 13 0 13%
Over2 45~ 1 1
15,000 1 20,000• 50,000 SORb 65Rb 90Rb 80% 75% 45 0 50 ,000 55 ,000 94,000 13% 13% 9 0
]"
I I I I I I I 9~ (II
Castings ;:s
......
All - 120.000 145.000 1 - 55Rb 90Rb - 70% 45% - 145,000 1 85,000 - 12% 5%
I I I I I I I I I
Elongation,
Group A Proportional Limit Conductivity, Ultimate Tensile % in2 in. or
Copper Base Alloys Tension, psi Hardness, Rockwell % I.A.C.S. Strength, psi 4 diameters
Class 4 Alloys
Cast 60,000 33Rc 18% (Average) 90,000 0.5%
Wrought 85,000 33Rc 20% (Average) 140,000 0.5%
Class 5 Alloys
Cast 12,000 65Rb 10% 65,000 10%
to to to to to
16,000 85Rb 15% 75,000 2%
Group B Ultimate Compression
Refractory Metals Strength, psi
Class 10-:R.ods, Bars and Inserts 72Rb 35% 135,000
Class ll-Rods, Bars and Inserts 94Rb 28% 160,000
Class 12-Rods, Bars and Inserts 98Rb 27% 170,000
Class 13-Rods, Bars and Inserts 69Rb 30% 200,000
Class 14-Rods, Bars and Inserts 85Rb 30% -
* Hot worked and heat treated but not cold worked. t International Annealed Copper Standard.
bushings or shafts for seam welding machines. In castings it is superior in

highly stressed current-carrying structural parts, gun jaw extensions and offset
electrode holders.
Its cast properties are relatively close to its wrought properties because it
develops most of its mechanical attributes by heat treatment. This is less true
in Class 2 alloy. It can be cold drawn or rolled to a minor degree but this adds
only about 5% to the mechanical properties and is considered more of a sizing
and finishing operation.
Class 4 is a high beryllium-copper alloy having a nominal composition of
1.8% beryllium, 0.3% cobalt, balance copper. This is an age-hardened alloy and
develops the maximum hardness and strength currently possible in a copper-base
alloy suitable for resistance welding electrodes. Its lower conductivity (consider-
ably less than Class 3) combined with its tendency to hot-shortness, makes it
unsuitable for electrodes of relatively small contact area such as spot welding
tips or seam welding wheels.
It does, however, serve well in applications of comparatively large contact
area such as dies and die inserts for flash welding, back-ups, heavy-duty seam
welding machine bearings and other uses in which wear is severe and pressure
high, but where beating is not excessive.
The Class 4 alloy is heat treatable, and is available in both cast and wrought
forms. Because of the high hardness encountered in the fully aged condition, it
is frequently machined in the solution-annealed condition and age hardened
afterward.
Class 5 is an aluminum-bronze alloy having a nominal composition of 12%
aluminum, balance copper, and is used as the electrode in large flash or butt
welding machine dies. Most frequently it is used as a die backing or bolder
where its lower electrical conductivity can be compensated for by mass and
position. Because of its high strength and resistance to both wear and flash
adherence, it is used to good advantage in many types of current-carrying,
structural members of resistance welding machines and fixtures.
Special alloys, such as zirconium-copper, according to a number of varying
reports, in recent years been found to have some positive value as electrode
materials, especially in the spot and seam welding of certain coated or plated
materials, such as galvanized iron and steel. Although its properties would seem
to establish it as a combined Class 1 and 2 alloy, the variations encountered in
these properties, as well as the wide variations in results obtained by different
users have been the cause of some uncertainty, unpredictability, and contro-
versy in the industry, especially among the very large automotive production
shops.
Group B-Refractory Metal Compositions

This group of metals is called refractory because, unlike the Group A copper-
base alloys, they are not affected by the beat of the welding operation. They are
not true alloys but are made by the powder metallurgy process. Their chief value
is in those applications where high heat, long weld time, inadequate cooling or
highly concentrated pressure would result in rapid deformation of the Group A
copper-base alloys. In this respect they function well to assist in achieving "heat
balance" where two different electrodes are used to compensate for differences
in gage or material being welded.
Classes 10, 11 and 12 are mixtures of copper and tungsten, the hardness,
strength and density of which increase as electrical conductivity decreases in the

order of their class numbers. They are used as facings on spot welding tips for
welding materials of high hardness and resistance such as stainless steel. In the
various projection, flash, upsetting, electroforging and electroforming dies they
serve as inserts or facings at points of severe wear. It is difficult to establish
firm rules on where to use each grade, as each application must be considered
in the light of design, equipment, opposing electrode and workpiece, to mention
only a few of the many variables that enter into this selection. In general, how-
ever, the ascending order of the class number could be expected to follow the
increasing severity of the application.
Class 13 and Class 14 are commercially pure tungsten and molybdenum, re-
spectively. They are generally considered to be the only electrode materials that
will give good performance and life when welding and brazing nonferrous metals
with comparatively high electrical conductivity. Even though the electrodes may
have lower conductivity than the workpiece, they do not stick because they
have no affinity for the work. In some of these applications, the weld, instead of
starting on the inner faces, actually starts on the other faces and completely
penetrates the workpiece. The welding of braided copper wire and copper and
brass wires to themselves or to various types of brass and bronze terminals are
typical uses for Class 13 and 14 electrode facings.
Selection, Use and Care of Electrodes

Electrode Material.-Although most requirements are met by the RWMA
classifications of electrode materials, there are occasional and exceptional cases
of materials outside this group functioning well (steel, for example, as a die
material in certain types of aluminum flash welding).
Borderline cases are also encountered when the normal recommendation is
changed because of workpiece gage or condition or some other circumstance
that could have a bearing on weld quality or appearance. (Frequently work
normally calling for Class 3 electrodes, because of very thin gage, gains in quality
and appearance if Class 2 or 1 electrodes are used.)
Work is also encountered where there is no completely satisfactory electrode
material. The only answer in this case is the most intelligent and efficient use
of what is available. There are also those instances where the answer cannot be
found in the electrode material.
Hardness, electrical conductivity, and resistance to deformation and wear
under heat and pressure are the properties the average electrode user believes he
is interested in. The mistake, however, of evaluating expected life by hardness
at room temperature or by electrical conductivity alone should be avoided. These
properties may be important, but their relative importance in terms of the
requirements of the application should be the first consideration.
The desirability of keeping electrode heating to a minimum is self-evident,
especially when considering the loss of properties that Group A alloys undergo
at elevated temperatures (Fig. 28.17). Class 1 loses only in hardness, whereas
the age-hardening Class 2 and 3 alloys undergo proportionate losses in conduc-
tivity.
The effects of heating should be borne in mind when making special electrodes
requiring the brazing of Group A materials together or to Group B materials.
Group B will show no Joss whereas Group A will show definite losses that will be
functions of the temperature and the time at temperature. Accordingly a good
Resistance Welding Electrodes and H alders / 28.31
general rule is to braze Group A materials at the lowest temperature and shortest
time practical. It has also been found effective to braze the age-hardening alloys
in the solution-annealed condition, and try to regulate the brazing temperature
and time to perform the necessary aging treatment.
DEG F
32 392 752 1122 1472
,
110
I
CLA~S-3-GJOUP AI
100
....
90
I
..... 80
CLA~S-2-GR1ouP AI i\
.....
w
3: cu~s-1-GJouP AI
...._, \ \
\1 \
~ 70
0
""
~ 60
w I
z: COPPER
= I
""
!\1
50
""'
::c:
40
30
20
I
I
10
0
200 400 ~. 600
-10 ~ 'j ANNrliNtTEMPrATU~
~0
-20
Fig. 28.17.-Hardness vs. annealing temperature for

copper and copper-alloy electrodes
Spot Welding Electrodes.-Because the electrode face contacts the work di-
rectly over the point of fusion, this small contact area is subjected to a vastly
disproportionate amount of heat and pressure; thus the dangers of pickup
(sticking) or deformation (mushrooming) become prime considerations in elec-
trode section. In order to prevent pickup, or at least to reduce it to a minimum,
the workpiece should be considered when selecting an electrode with appro-
priate conductivity and chemistry. Along with these should come the best hard-
ness and proportional limit to cope with the tendency for the electrode face to
deform. It can be drawn from this that a compromise is frequently necessary, but
the compromise should be in the direction of the one most needed property.
It is sometimes possible in the design of electrodes to implement the best
compromise in electrode material with compensations of size and shape. These
can be projected into the four basic structural features of the electrode: (1) the
face, (2) the shank or body, (3) the atta,chment qr shank-~nd and (4) provision
for cooling.
Face.-The size and shape of the electrode face are determined by the thick-
ness and the geometry of the assembly to be welded, and have a determining
effect on current and pressure densities in the weld zone. Figure 28.18 illustrates
the most common faces. The eccentric or '"D" face is used in corners, against
flanges or where centered faces would not lend themselves to correct weld place-
ment, spacing or edge distance (Figs. 28.19 and 28.20). Special applications
requiring Group B refractory electrodes are most economically servad by facings
attached to Group A shanks (Fig. 28.21).
OlO NEW
RWMA MAJOR
®
MORSE DIAMETER
TAPER TAPfR
--3 ~
~
--------4 GD ~:2J
----6~~
3--7~~:_-;~
Fig. 28.18.-lnsets A-F show the common spot welding electrode faces; the compari-
son between Morse tapers and RWMA tapers is also shown
Shank.-The shank obviously requires sufficient cross-sectional area to carry

the welding current and support the repeated pressure applications without
bending and with a minimum of deflection. Shanks may be straight or offset
(Fig. 28.22).
Attachment.-The method of attaching the shank end to the holder is usually
one of the three general types: taper, thread or straight shanks.
Tapered attachments, which comprise the majority, have until recently been
Morse tapers. These included the RWMA Standards and an occasional user of 6,
8 and 12° tapers. However, RWMA has adopted the Jarno taper as standard
and this is now known as the RWMA taper when used in connection with
resistance welding (Fig. 28.18).
The RWMA taper offers the following advantages:*
1. Taper number multiplied by 1/8 in. gives the major diameter (e.g., #5
RWMA taper= 5 j8 in. diameter).
2. Taper numbers progress in unbroken sequence from 3 to 7 and thereby
include the increasingly popular # 6 ( 3j 4 in. diameter) taper. This
Resistance Welding Electrodes and Holders I 28.33
formerly fell between the #2 Morse (5/8 in. diameter) and #3 Morse
(7/8 in. diameter), which are now known as #5 and #7 RWMA tapers,
respectively.
3. Where the Morse taper varies in the amount of taper per foot from
0.5986 in. for the #1 to 0.6023 in. for the #3, the RWMA taper is a
uniform 0.600 in. for all tapers.
Threaded attachments are still used
to some extent where heavy welding
pressures make tapered electrode re-
moval difficult, or where electrode
face location and amount of stickout
are critical (Fig. 28.23).
Straight shanked electrodes espe-
cially in 518 and 314 in. diameters
have been gaining in popularity and
use with increased welding pressures
in the automotive industry. The close-
tolerance straight shank bottoms in
STANDARD UNIVERSAL WATER·COOLED

HOLDER WITH 30° HEAD
APPLICATION OF THE
30° OFFSET ELECTRODE
Fig. 28.19.-Spot welding electrode face Fig. 28.20.-Spot welding electrode face
offset at angle to axis with straight offset
the holder socket, which also holds an "0" ring water seal in a recessed annular
groove. The electrode is held by a thread- or split-type collet.
Cooling.-Wher ever possible and practical, electrodes should be provided with
an internal passage extending close enough to the welding face to permit ·ade-
quate cooling of the face. This passage should be of sufficient size to admit a tube
that is large enough, relative to the passage, to give a continuous and balanced
circulation of cold water during the welding operation. Where internal cooling
is not practical, the possibility of external cooling, by immersion, flooding, or
by a "wrap-around" copper tube should be considered.
Cold-formed materials are being used more widely for both standard and
special electrodes. Due to improved metal flow characteristics in the alloys and
*Electrode taper lengths, major or minor diameters, and gaging points are the same for Morse and
RWMA tapers. Tolerances on taper diameters allow the amount of taper per ft. to fall within the
same limits for both. Consequently, the tapers can be considered interchangeable. R WMA tapered
electrodes will fit Morse tapered holders ana vice versa.
improved forming techniques, there are only a few instances of forged and cast
electrodes that have not been replaced by cold-formed electrodes.
There are a few cases in which angles or radii are too sharp for cold-formed
electrodes, but in most designs they are possible and do offer definite advantages.
These advantages include the following: ( 1) high physical and mechanical
properties of cold-drawn rod; (2) drilling close to the welding face prior to
forming provides better cooling, allowing insertion of the water tube before
forming, which also assures good circulation; ( 3) lower cost and faster delivery
(because electrodes may be obtained from stock or machined from blanks).
The use of the two-piece or cap-and-shank type of electrode has also increased
considerably (Fig. 28.24). The degree of economy increases with the length of
the electrode and the number of times the cap can be replaced between adaptor
shank replacements. Two caps per shank would be uneconomical, whereas twelve
caps, or more, would be considered
to be economical.
TAPERED ELECTRODES
i I
DOME FLAT INSERT
THREADED ELECTRODES
FLAT FLAT
Fig. 28.21.-Typical spot welding elec- Fig. 28.22.-Typical offset spot welding
trode faces brazed to shanks electrodes
By comparison with one-piece electrodes, the cap-and-shank type has shown

favorable results when performing vertical welding of clean steel. However, in
angular welding or on scaly, coated or other stock where there is a tendency
toward electrode sticking, the cap-and-shank electrode often leaves something to
be desired.
Spot Welding Electrode Care.-To get the best weld quality at lowest cost,
some thought and planning must be given not only to the selection of the proper
shape, size and alloy for electrodes but also to their proper use and maintenance.
Following are a few general suggestions to assist in this regard.
1. Standard electrodes, holders and adaptors are available in so many sizes
and types that it is possible to fit a correct combination to almost any setup
(Fig. 28.19, and 28.20). Special electrodes are usually more costly and
not readily available; homemade electrodes and holders frequently cost
more and many perform less satisfactorily than is realized.
2. The recommended or best available alloys for the work under considera-
tion should be used. (See Recommended Practices for Resistance Welding,
AWS Cl.l-66.)
3. Regular and correct electrode dressing must be maintained; otherwise it
is not possible to control weld quality and electrode cost. It is important
to study each job to establish the number of welds to be made, or parts to
be welded, and also to determine when consequential pickup or deforma-
tion of the electrode begins. Then, the point at which a light dressing
should be performed in the machine can be established; this should be
adhered to religiously.
Regular light dressing of this type will extend the time between
major dressings. These can be
done with an abrasive paddle
or other tool used sparingly
and followed by abrasive pol-
ish. Heavy dressing should not
be done with a coarse file.
This wastes electrode material,
and the resulting irregular
electrode faces impair quality
and appearance.
WRENCH
FLAT
fj
FLAT FACE
u fi
TRUNCATED
CONE
STRAIGHT
Fig. 28.23.-Typical threaded spot weld-

ing electrodes
OFF·SET
Fig. 28.24.-Typical cap-and-shank type

of spot welding electrode
When complete redressing becomes necessary, a worthwhile practice is

to remove and replace the electrode. When sufficient deformed electrodes
have been collected to make the operation economical, they can have
their original contours restored by turning on a lathe. This is a practical
and efficient method of controlling cost and quality.
Exceptions to the foregoing are high-production assembly lines where
it would not be practical. Here large quantity purchases and minimum
electrode size have already reduced electrode cost to a minimum, and
electrodes can only be dressed in the machines when the line is down
for shift changes and lunch breaks. The best practice here seems to be
to change or dress all electrodes on the line at one time. Dressing, if done
at all, is done with a properly tooled, power-operated portable dresser

applied with controlled pressure for minimum electrode material removal.
4. Thorough water cooling (1 to 5 galjmin) is of the utmost importance.
Water should circulate in the proper direction, and water tubes should be
inserted into electrodes far enough to allow the stream to strike the in-
ternal end of the water hole. Immediate repair or replacement of leaking
holders and electrodes is advisable. Sealing compounds should never be
used around the attachment, however, since they interfere with current
and heat transfer, and can plug water tubes or lines.
5. The engagement section of electrodes and holders should be kept clean
and free of tiny particles that can scratch the mating surfaces, destroy the
seal and shorten the life of the parts.
6. Proper alignment of electrodes is important, and all parts and fasteners
between the electrodes and the machine should be as tight and rigid as
possible to avoid or minimize electrode deflection and skidding.
7. Metal hammers or other metal devices should not be used to tap holders
or electrodes into position or to eject or remove tips, for these will mark
and damage the parts and shorten their life. Nonmetallic mallets are far
more acceptable. The use of pipe wrenches and serrated pliers, or the
striking of electrodes on the side for removal damages the tip and holder
tapers. The use of ejector holders or proper tip-removing tools will result
in longer service life.
8. Correct machine settings are important factors in electrode life. Electrode
impact should be held to a minimum, and current should flow only when
the tips are fully closed and full electrode pressure is obtained. Substitutes
such as longer weld time for insufficient transformer capacity, or higher
pressure for poor fit, are abuses that radically diminish electrode life, to
say nothing of weld quality and appearance.
PROJECTION WELDING ELECTRODES
Projection welding electrodes usually make contact with the work on flat
surfaces that must always be larger than the base diameter of the projection. It
is common practice to use standard flat face spot welding electrodes for pro-
jection welding (Fig. 28.25). Rectangular bar stock is also used for the same
purpose, especially in cross-wire welding.
Projection welding electrodes are frequently made with an internally water-
cooled holder and equipped with replaceable inserts at points of contact with
the projections. These inserts may be in the form of threaded electrodes, or
pieces of Group A or Group B materials pressed or otherwise secured in posi-
tion. The material can vary with the severity of the work and the heat-balancing
function required (Fig. 28.26). Because the wear is usually more rapid on the
electrode against the flat surface, it is customary to have a mechanically harder
and electrically less conductive grade of electrode material on this side to equal-
ize the wear and move the heat center toward the flat sheet.
Care of Projection Welding Electrodes
Since the areas of contact between each electrode and the workpieces are
larger than in spot welding, the current and pressure densities within the elec-
trodes are lower. Therefore electrode deterioration from wear, deformation or
pickup is not nearly as rapid. The electrodes do, however, eventually become
Resistance Welding Electrodes and Holders / 28.37
piMed or deformed under the projection weld area. When this becomes serious
enough to interfere with the proper electrode contact or weld quality, the pro-
jection welding electrodes or inserts should be redressed or replaced.
By selecting the best combination of opposing electrode materials to balance
heat, the resulting maximum life and uniform wear will do much to reduce
maintenance. Regular cleaning of the
electrodes to remove grease, dirt,
flash or other types of insulating ma-
terials will prolong electrode life and
reduce scrap.
In recent years multiple projection
welding dies have been developed to
automatically compensate for height
variations or wear. These equalizing
electrodes generally employ an agent
such as grease, or some mechanical
Fig. 28.25.-Projection welding using method, to effect the automatic float-
spot welding electrodes ing or equalizing features.
SEAM WELDING ELECTRODES

Seam welding electrodes are usually shaped like wheels or disks. The five basic
considerations are face contour, width, diameter, cooling and attachment
method. The diameter and width of the wheel as well as the face contour are
usually dictated by the thickness, size and shape of the work, current density
and pressure requirements, and the type of drive mechanism. The four basic
UPPER DIE BLOCK
FACED
REPLACEABLE INSERTS
WATER OUTLET
WATER INLET
Fig. 28.26.-Typical electrode construction for multiple-projection

welds
face contours in common use are straight flat, single-bevel fiat, double-bevel flat
and radius. The last three contours are shown in Fig. 28.27.
The electrodes are usually cooled by flooding or directing jets of water on both
the electrodes and work, top and bottom. Where such cooling must be avoided,
the electrodes can be designed for internal cooling in addition to shaft cooling;
the latter requires the Seam Welding
r •-·· ELECTIODE FACE WIDTH ·-~·
·---~----j r-----~-·::1
GEU-DIIYEN Ol
IDLING ELECTIODES machine bearing shaft tO be COOled,
generally by water or other fluid cir-
culation, with heat conduction from
SINGlE I DOUilE
IEYEl IEYEl _r_ the electrode through the attachment
____.___
lAD IUS joint and into the shaft.
Cooling by simply flooding top and
bottom electrodes and work is notal-
Fig. 28.27.-Seam welding wheel con- ways adequate. A steam pocket en-
tours cased in a water bubble at the point
where the electrode meets the work can keep water away from the immediate
area. It is good practice to have small forceful jets of water directed against these
points. When flood cooling is objectionable, water mist or vapor cooling has been
found to be effective.
The attachment method considerations are contact area (for both electrical
and heat conductivity) , mechanical strength and ease of removal for mainte-
nance. The economics of the throw-away electrode material very often necessi-
tates compromises in the attachment methods.
Peripheral drive mechanisms such as knurl or friction drives running against
the electrode require adequate work clearance. Knurl drives, although they
result in work marking by the electrode, are very useful in cleaning welding
wheels of pickup from coated or plated metals and maintaining the wheel con-
tour and contact area.
Although the work and drive may require flat welding faces with side bevels,
they are more difficult to set up, control and maintain than the radius-faced
electrodes. In addition, the best weld appearance is given by radius faces, or one
radius face used in combination with a flat face.
Care of Seam Welding Wheels
Seam welding wheels, like spot welding electrodes, have a predetermined area
of contact that must be held within established limits, if current and pressure
densities and weld quality consistency are to be maintained. Only minor dress-
ing in the form of touching up with light abrasives should be attempted with
the electrode wheel in the machine. Otherwise it is possible to lose the necessary
roundness and contour; thus it is extremely difficult to restore the roundness and
contour without considerable loss of electrode material. Removing the electrodes
from the machine and turning them in a lathe is the preferred method of
retaining uniform contour, conserving electrode material and reducing work
rejects.
Even where knurl or friction drives are used, or where machines are equipped
with wheel dressers, precautions must be taken to prevent foreign materials or
grinding wheel particles from becoming embedded in the electrode wheel or work.
Roughing the faces does not improve traction; however it will affect weld appear-
ance and can contribute to cracking. Allowing the wheels to run off the work
without opening will adversely affect face contour, weld appearance and quality.
Resistance Welding Electrodes and Holders j 28.39
FLASH, UPSET AND PERCUSSION WELDING DIES

Unlike spot and seam welding electrodes, flash, upset and percussion welding
dies usually are not in contact with the weld area. Accordingly they are regarded
more in the nature of work-holding and current-carrying clamps, and are often
referred to as such. They contact a much larger area of work (as large as is
practical), which results in relatively low current densities. Accordingly, harder
electrode materials with lower conductivity give highly satisfactory performance.
Since there are wide variations in the shape of workpieces, and electrodes
must conform to them, there can be no standard die designs, except for a few
generalities.
The important requirements are that the materials have sufficient conductivity
to carry the current without overheating, be rigid enough to maintain alignment
and minimize deflection, and be able to resist the adherence of flash.
The dies are fastened to the welding machine platen and (depending on the
application) can be made in solid, one-piece construction of any of the Group
A materials from Class 1 through 5. Die life, however, usually can be increased
by making a backing of Class 2, 3 or 5 with replaceable inserts of Class 3, 4 or
one of the refractory Group B materials at the points or surfaces of most severe
wear. The choice of materials must, of course, be governed by the usual variables.
Care of Dies
A varying amount of die wear inevitably occurs, which results in decreased
contact area and the possibility of localized burning of the work. Keeping the
dies cool, clean and free of dirt, grease, flash and other foreign particles will
contribute much toward retarding the wearing process. All fasteners and holding
devices should be tight and properly adjusted, and gripping surfaces should be
maintained to avoid work slipping during welding. A spatter-resistant paint will
help to reduce flash adherence and facilitate flash removal. It is likewise worth-
Fig. 28.28.-Typical straight spot welding electrode holders

while to replace steel holding dies and other steel parts within the area exposed
to flash with aluminum bronze, which has resistance to wear and flash adherence.
ELECTRODE HOLDERS
There are three fundamental designs of holders: straight, offset and universal
or adjustable offset. (The first type is illustrated in Fig. 28.28). These three basic
types are available in standard sizes and designs for use with standard spot
welding electrodes. The same fundamental principles are generally employed in
the design of special holders, with or without adaptors for use with a great
variety of special or standard electrodes.
The three types of standard holders are all available as nonejector or ejector
types. Ejection of the electrode is effected by striking a plug aligned with the
axis of the electrode socket.
The offset and universal holders are usually available with 90° and 30°
heads, whereas the straight holders are found in three different lengths with a
variety of diameters.
From the many available standard holders and electrodes, it usually is possible
to find a combination to tit most requirements (Figs. 28.29A and 28.29B). Also
worth considering are the low-inertia holders, which incorporate light spring
pressures and rapid follow-up, to till a definite requirement.
The care of electrode holders is closely associated with the care of spot weld-
ing electrodes and is covered in the sections dealing with that subject.
FLASH AND UPSET

BUTT WELDING MACHINES
An upset butt weld is obtained by bringing two pieces of metal into end-to-end
contact under pressure and then allowing current to flow from one piece to the
other.
A flash-butt weld is obtained by applying a voltage across a gap between two
pieces of metal. The pieces are then brought into contact with little pressure, in
order to cause current to flow and create flashing.
Manually operated machines may be used both for upset or flash welding. Air-
or spring-operated machines are used for upset welds. Flash-butt welding ma-
chines may be actuated by motor driven cams, hydraulic cylinders, or by air
cylinders controlled by hydraulic snubbers, by mechanical linkages or by cams.
UPSET WELDING MACHINES
Upset welding is quite similar to spot welding in principle, except that the
nature of the work requires different handling. A typical upset welding machine
consists of a unit having a set of clamps to hold the work and mechanical means
to force the two pieces together. Quite often timing equipment is provided to
synchronize the over-all welding cycle.
The simplest type of upset welding machine is manually operated. In this ma-
chine the work is clamped in the dies and pressure is exerted on the movable
platen through a hand-operated leverage system. Current is applied, and when
the ends of the work are sufficiently hot, the upset and weld are made under
the applied pressure. The current is manually cut off at the required time during
the welding cycle and the work is removed from the dies. A limit switch may be
used to cut off the current automatically when the upset has reached a pre-
Flash and Upset Butt Welding Machines j 28.41
IUllON-lYPE
OFFSET TIP
PADDLE-TYPE HOLDER
WITH llUNCATED
CONE ELECTRODE
SllAIGHT
- WATEI-CDOLED
HOLDEI
STIAIGHT
WATEI-COOLED
HOLDER
Fig. 28.29A.-Various combinations of electrodes and holders

determined amount, or the current cutoff may be determined by means of a

timing device.
Machines may be made automatic in operation by the substitution of springs
or air cylinders for the hand lever. Either device merely assures uniform pres-
sure application. Spring-operated or air-operated machines are particularly suc-
cessful for welding nonferrous materials because the narrow plastic range of
such materials requires quick and accurate follow-up of pressure as the material
LIGHT-DUTY
WATEI·COOLED
L...l;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;..,~~"""- :~~~EISAL HOLOEI
r'-rr-L---... COMPLEMENTARY
30• OFFSET TIP
Fig. 28.29B.-Further combinations of electrodes and holders

Flash and Upset Butt Welding Machines/ 28.43
upsets. Figure 28.30 illustrates a typical automatic upset butt welding machine.
By the use of relays the operation is rendered completely automatic and very
fast. There are two methods of timing the weld, either of which gives generally
satisfactory results: the use of a limit switch operated by movement of the
platen, or an automatic timer. Sometimes both methods are used in combination.
APPLICATIONS
Upset butt welding is used extensively in the welding of small wires, rods and
tubes, such as in the manufacture of chain links, refrigerator and stove racks,
automotive seat frames, various hardware items and joining coils of wire for
further processing. The use of upset welding is often selected where the upset
material is not removed from the final product and the smooth bulge type of
upset is preferred to the rougher joint created by a flash weld. It is best adapted
to joints of compact cross section where the welding current is relatively
uniformly distributed in the cross section.
FORGING, UPSETTING AND METAL GATHERING
With modifications, the upset welding machine can also be used for upsetting,
forging and shaping rods, bars or tubing. Instead of making a welded joint, the
machine upsets or shapes the work through the medium of the heat and pressure
applied. The work is clamped between the electrodes and is upset to the
required proportions. Hot riveting by resistance heating has the advantages of
completely filling rivet holes, tighter joints by virtue of shrinkage of the heated
rivet, and the elimination of hot cracking in some types of rivet material.
Figure 28.31 shows a typical vertical metal-gathering machine.
Metal gathering and shaping is an
elaboration of the process, consisting
basically of one fixed electrode that
Fig. 28.30.-A ir-operated, automatic Fig. 28.31.-Hydraulically operated,

upset butt welding machine automatic vertical metal-gathering mn-
chine
acts either as a clamp or anvil. The other electrode grips the work lightly, and an
additional cylinder-operated or mechanically operated feeding mechanism pro-
gressively pushes the work through this clamp into the heating and upsetting
zone as the gathering takes place. In the most simple usage of this process, the
workpiece is gripped between the two sets of electrodes of an upset butt welding
machine, and material is gathered between the two sets.
The gathered shape of the metal is often quickly transferred while hot from
the heating machine to a forging machine for further shaping and flash trimming.
Intake and exhaust valves for internal combustion engines are made in very
large quantities by this process. Metal-gathering machines may be of vertical or
horizontal construction. Figure 28.32 illustrates some products made by the
metal gathering process with and without subsequent forging. Grain flow struc-
ture of such products is excellent.
Fig. 28.32.-Typica/ products made by m etal-gathering machines

Flash and Upset Butt Welding Machines /28.45
CABLE SEVERING MACIHNES

Merely by reversal of its action, these butt welding machines can be used to
perform the function of severing stranded wire cable. The cable is clamped in
the dies where the cut or severance is to be made. Then tension, instead of
pressure, is applied to the movable platen. When current is applied, the machine
severs the cable and at the same time fuses the strands together on each end
to prevent fraying. Machines are built for automatic operation. The cable may
be fed from a reel, measured for length, severed and stacked, all without any
attention from the operator.
FLASH WELDING MACIHNES
General Construction
A standard flash welding machine basically consists of a main frame, a sta-
tionary platen, a movable platen, clamping mechanisms and fixtures, transform-
er, tap switch, electrical controls and a flashing and upsetting mechanism. This
stationary platen is generally nonadjustable, although some designs provide a
limited amount of adjustment in reference to the movable platen for electrode
and work alignment. At the other end of the main frame the movable platen is
mounted on ways and connected to the actuating flashing and upsetting mechan-
ism. Both platens are usually of cast or fabricated steel, although some small
welding machine sizes use cast bronze, cast iron, or copper platens. These platens
are arranged to accommodate copper conductors, which connect to the trans-
former and also act as mounts for the welding electrodes, clamps and work
locators. The transformer is generally located within, or to the rear of, the
frame, in a location to best protect the transformer from the effects of the
welding flash and to provide a low impedance electrical circuit. The transformer
tap switch is located where readily accessible for operation, often being built
integrated into the transformer unit.
The width (front to back) of the frame and, consequently, the width of the
platens depends upon the maximum width of the work (or the length of the
weld line) as well as the type of construction of the clamping mechanism. Up-
setting forces are applied as nearly as possible to the centerline of the cross
section of the welded joint to minimize machine deflection and to assure
accurate weld alignment. If platens are wide, double flash and upsetting cylinders
or cams are used to balance the load on the work and machine, as well as to
provide work clearance when the work projects beyond the end of the machine
in the region of the upsetting mechanism.
A wide variety of flash welding machine designs is available for joining metal
products of all shapes and sizes.
Transformer, Tap Switch and Electrical Controls
Transformers are essentially the same as those used on other types of resistance
welding machines. They have terminals suitably arranged, often totally enclosed
to prevent the entrance of flash and dirt. Usually there is a selection of secondary
current output through tapped primary windings selected by a tap switch. An
autotransformer is sometimes used to extend the range of adjustment of welding
current and voltage. Basic electrical control of the transformer is either a mag-
netic contactor connected to the primary of the transformer or an electronic
contactor with or without phase-shifting heat control for fine control between
transformer tap settings or to provide rapid transition to more than one value
of flashing and upsetting current. When electronic contactors are used, auxiliary
load resistors must be connected in parallel with the transformer primary for
proper operation of the contactor ignitron tubes.
Controls of the transformer power often provide programming of the current
into the work at different levels and for variable time periods to accomplish best
results in preheating, welding and postheating of various work materials and
cross sections.
Flashing and Upsetting Mechanisms

In the operation of a flash-butt welding machine the workpieces are moved
together at a controlled rate of speed during flashing. The control of this move-
ment must be exact in order to provide the best quality weld. When the ends of
the work attain the proper temperature, the pieces are suddenly pushed together.
This is called the upsetting action. This action happens quite fast and a large
amount of force is usually applied at this instant to upset, or forge, the hot
plastic work ends in order to extrude the metal at the joint and make the weld
sound and free of oxides and cast metal. The upsetting action must be accurately
synchronized with the end of the flashing. The types of mechanisms for this
controlled flashing movement, followed by the high forging or upsetting force,
vary with the sizes of welding machines and the application requirements. Some
types of mechanisms permit the work ends to be butted together under pressure,
current to flow through the work to preheat it, the work ends to be separated and
the flashing and upsetting sequence then to be initiated.
Manual.-Flash and upset platen movements on small machines (up to about
75 kva or 1 sq. in. cross section of steel through the weld) can be applied satis-
factorily by a hand lever that operates the platen either directly or through a
simple or compound leverage system. This type of mechanism is particularly
adaptable for job shop and short production runs. Although operator skill is
necessary, only minor training is required. Preheating and postheating, when
necessary, require no changes in the
machine, only a variation in operator
technique.
A utomatic.-Applications involv-
ing high production with relatively
few different setups and for a maxi-
mum of approximately 1 1/2 sq. in.
cross section very often use automatic
flash and upset mechanisms. Such
mechanisms consist of a motor, va-
riable-speed drive and gear reducer
combination, which in turn drives a
rotary cam of required contour, for
flashing. This cam may be equipped
with an insert block for upsetting
(Fig. 28.33). The mechanism may
operate the platen directly or through
a lever system. The motor may either
Fig. 28.33.-Automatic flash-butt weld- start and stop for each welding cycle,
ing machine with motor-operated flash -
ing mechanism and air-operated, ver- or run continually and energize the
tically pivoting clamping m echanism platen through a clutch on the slow
Flash and Upset Butt Welding Machines j 28.47
speed side of the gear reducer.
A motor-driven, variable-speed flashing cam is often used in combination with
an air or hydraulically operated upsetting mechanism, particularly on the larger
sizes of welding machines. Such a combination provides adjustment of upset
speed, dimension and force independently of the flashing mechanism. Motor-
driven machines may be made highly automatic. Welding current is controlled
by a contactor in the primary circuit of the transformer and synchronized with
the mechanical motion of the platen by a limit switch. Flashing cams must be
changed when different amounts of work material are to be flashed off. Insert
blocks for upsetting may be adjusted with shims to vary the amount of upset.
Speed of cam controls the flashing time.
Automatic air-operated flashing and upsetting mechanisms use air cylinders
controlled through leverage systems or oil dash-pot arrangements for flashing
followed by application of forces for upsetting by use of the same air cylinder
mechanism.
Most medium and large sized welding machines use hydraulically operated
flashing and upsetting mechanisms; these mechanisms provide the high upsetting
forces required, are accurate in operation, and are readily set up for a wide
range of work requirements (Fig. 28.34). Older designs sometimes controlled
the platen movement manually through a hydraulic control valve, but modern
designs predominately use some form of mechanically or electrically operated
servo-valve system to control the platen motion for flashing and upsetting.
The signal to the servo-system may be from the use of motor or hydraulically
actuated pilot cam mechanisms or from an electrical signal provided by voltage
across the work parts or by the current in the primary of the welding trans-
former. Choice of mode of operation depends upon the application, and the
control may be programmed to include preheating and postheating in addition to
flashing and upsetting. Accumulators are generally used to supplement the
Fig. 28.34.-Automatic flash-butt welding machine with hydraulically operated flash-

ing mechanism and hydraulically operate4, horizontal, direct-actin¥ clamping mech·
amsm
hydraulic fluid from the pumping unit to meet the high demand for fluid during
the upsetting action.
Clamping Mechanisms and Fixtures

Many styles of clamping mechanisms have been developed for the require-
ments of different types of parts to be welded. These styles may be grouped
generally as vertical and horizontal.
Vertical.-The motion of the upper clamp member with respect to the platens
of the welding machine is vertical, either on a slight arc or in a straight line. If
operating on an arc, the member pivots around a trunnion and is generally
termed the "alligator" type (Fig. 28.35). Clamping force may be applied by
means of a leverage- or cam-operated mechanism, by air cylinders operating
directly or through a leverage- or cam-operated mechanism, or by hydraulic
cylinders operating directly or through a leverage- or cam-operated mechanism.
Pivoting mechanisms have limitations for welding work widths greater than
approximately 16 in. because of difficulties in maintaining uniform clamping
pressure over the entire work width, even though the usage of equalizing elec-
trodes is common. For wider work, beam-type mechanisms are generally used.
The alligator fixture is commonly used for bar stock and other compact sections
as well as for flat sections within the above limits.
Fig. 28.35.- Automatic flash-butt welding machine with motor-operated flashing

mechanism and heavy-duty, vertically pivoting clamping mechanism actuated by air
cylinders and cam
Flash and Upset Butt Welding Machines/ 28.49
Horizontal.-The motion of the clamps with respect to the platens of the

welding machine is parallel to such platens and generally in a straight line (Fig.
28.34). The major advantage of this type of clamping mechanism is that it
permits ready application of current to both front and rear electrodes for best
distribution through the work. Such distribution is highly desirable for welding
large tubing, bars and other large concentrated sections. Alignment of work-
pieces can be conveniently obtained and large workpieces readily loaded by
crane, by hoist or manually. Clamping forces are applied by the same variety of
mechanisms described for the vertical type of clamps.
Clamping fixtures for special purposes may be mounted in positions other
than vertical or horizontal to the welding machine platens, e.g., 45 degrees.
Sometimes the clamping forces applied to the electrodes are supplemented by
separately operated non-current-carrying clamps for gripping the work against
slippage when backups cannot be built into the machine. Clamping is such an
important function that often the clamping requirements dictate the choice of
machine design rather than the reverse.
Fixtures-Fixtures are usually determined by the work requirements and are
used for work location and backup of work parts to prevent slippage during up-
setting. When the work is of a nature that permits it to be backed up, the clamp-
ing force need only be sufficient to ensure good electrical contact and to maintain
satisfactory weld alignment.
Large, long, flat sections, rings, bands and similar sections that cannot be
backed up must be clamped with sufficient force to prevent slippage during
upset; therefore, extremely large and heavy clamping mechanisms and fixtures
are required. When work backups can be used, they are usually adjustable to
accommodate the geometry and range of work length required, and must be
sturdy to withstand the upset force without yielding or deflecting.
CONTROLS FOR FLASH AND UPSET WELDING MACHINES
Controls for flash and upset welding machines are quite simple and consist
principally of a contactor for applying the welding current and a means for
closing and opening it.
Contactors
Contactors may be either magnetic or electronic. The former are generally
the most suitable for small, low-production machines; the latter are generally
preferred for medium, and large, high-production machines. On manually
operated machines they are closed by push button or foot switch. They are
opened either by hand or by a limit switch mounted on the platen and connected
in series with the push button. On motor-driven or automatic hydraulic ma-
chines, they are closed and opened by a limit switch operated by means of an
adjustable cam.
Electronic contactors are finding increased use in medium-size and large-size
machines. Among their advantages over magnetic contactors are the following:
1. Elimination of periodic maintenance such as contact dressing.
2. Control of upset current independent of flashing current.
3. Application of postheat current at a value different from that of either
flash or upset current.
4. Use of dual flashing voltage in which the flashing action can be started at
one voltage and switched to another without interrupting the flash.
Because of the discontinuity of current flow during the flashing action, it
is necessary to use auxiliary load resistors when flash welding machines are
controlled with electronic contactors.
Auxiliary Controls
A postheat or normalizing operation immediately after welding is sometimes
necessary or desirable when certain types of steel, usually the air-hardenable
types, are welded. It must be possible to unclamp the work, reclamp it with a
greater die opening and again apply the current, usually of a lower value. This
requires a second contactor connected to a different tap on the transformer. The
postheating may be controlled entirely by hand or by means of a timer. If an
electronic contactor is used, a phase-shift heat control with two control stations,
one for welding and one for postheating, may be used.
RESISTANCE WELDING CONTROLS

The resistance welding control functions as the brain of the resi11tance welding
machine. The principal functions of the controls are to initiate and stop the
current to the welding transformer and to control the magnitude of the current.
There are three general groups of controls: welding contactors, timing and
sequencing controls, and accessory controls. If the machine is simple in con-
struction, such as a foot-operated spot welding machine, its associated control
is simple. If the machine cycle is complex, such as that used in welding the heat-
resistant alloys to military specifications, the control is complex. Many types of
resistance welding machine controls are manufactured. However, only the more
popular controls as used on single-phase welding machines will be discussed.
Timing and sequencing controls are divided into two groups, referred to as
nonsynchronous and synchronous precision. The first type is less expensive than
the second and is more popular. Invariably a synchronous precision control can
be used in place of a nonsynchronous one, but a nonsynchronous control cannot
always be substituted for a synchronous precision one.
Many additional features and details of the various types of controls are in-
cluded in the NEMA Standard for Resistance Welding Controls IC-2-1964.
SYNCHRONOUS PRECISION CONTROL
A synchronous precision timer provides an accurate timing period. As each
weld is made, the timer closes the primary circuit of the welding transformer at
precisely the same point (electrical angle) with respect to power circuit voltage.
Thus the current wave form is consistent, and the energy delivered to the welding
transformer is the same for consecutive operations. A synchronous precision
control always contains heat control.
The second major distinction of a synchronous precision timer is that not
only is the timed period "precise," but it is also equal (within standard limits)
to the actual adjustment dial setting. The current conduction is in full cycles.
A welding machine circuit consisting of welding transformer and secondary
output or welding circuit is always inductive, with power factors varying from
80% for portable resistance welding machines with their secondary cables to
20% or less for pedestal-type spot welding machines with a 36 in. throat.
In an inductive circuit, the proper point to initiate the current to avoid a load
transient is at the power factor angle, or an angle of delay whose cosine is equal
Resistance Welding Controls / 28.51
to the power factor. If the circuit is closed earlier, the initial current is increased
above its steady state value; if it is closed later the initial current is smaller.
The maximum transient that can exist is two times the steady state current.
This transient appears in the secondary or welding circuit and can materially
affect the energy delivered to the weld, especially if the weld time is short. In
a machine with an inherent power factor of 20%, the transient would last about
2 cycles ( 60 cycle per second system).
In welding applications requiring short weld times, the synchronous precision
control must be used for consistent results.
NONSYNCHRONOUSCONTROL
A nonsynchronous control by NEMA standards may initiate the welding
current at random points with respect to the line current wave form. Variations
of timing and of current input to the machine result from closing and opening
the welding contactor at random points on the wave form. The time variable
will be at least plus or minus one half-cycle and sometimes more. The percentage
of variation on welds of 20 cycles duration or more is low and can usually be
neglected. If the welding time is below 10 cycles, the percentage of variation
becomes somewhat greater and usually requires synchronous precision timing.
The nature and quality of the work determine the type of timing required for
welds of 10 to 20 cycles duration (Fig. 28.36).
The engineering development of nonsynchronous controls has continued to
the point that many manufacturers
now offer models (including heat
control) which initiate the current
synchronously and have inherent full
cycle current conduction. The main
distinctions between this model and
the synchronous types are that the
minimum time is generally 2 or 3
cycles, and the adjustment dial cali-
bration is not nearly as exact as in
the synchronous counterpart.
There is considerable confusion
about transient currents in welding
circuits. The load transient was dis-
cussed under synchronous precision
controls, which are manufactured to
control it. There is another type of
transient caused by the magnetic
circuit of the transformer. This
transient appears on the primary side
of the transformer and exists to es-
tablish the proper transformer flux
under unusual conditions. Its only
effect on the secondary is the slight
change in voltage caused by the extra
line voltage drop resulting from the
increased primary current.
Fig. 28.36.-Typical nonsynchronous re-
Full-cycle conduction is one resistance welding machine control panel
quirement for minimizing the transient; that is, the transformer is always initiated
on a polarity opposite to that at which it was when it was de-energized. This
requirement is sufficient for the vast majority of stacked iron transformers.
The magnetizing transient will be greatly reduced if the voltage is applied at
a delay angle slightly less than 90 degrees. This is true whether the transformer
is made of stacked iron or grained-oriented iron. However, by the nature of
economical design, the stacked-iron type seldom presents a problem and the
grain-oriented type invariably presents one.
Since the magnetizing transient is more severe than that of the load transient
in equipment using grain-oriented-core transformers, it is advisable to ini-
tiate at the 85 to 90° point on the voltage wave, rather than the power factor
angle. At this setting the load transient is actually negative or subtracts from
the steady state condition so the resultant initial current is less than the steady
state condition. Welding controls can be equipped with an accessory that will
allow initiation at the 85 to 90° point on the voltage wave. This accessory is
called a delayed firing unit.
ELECTRONIC CONTACTORS
The actual switching of the primary current in a synchronous prectston or
nonsynchronous control is invariably performed by an electronic contactor.
Electronic contactors are electronic switching devices that control the current
to the primary of the welding transformer. The primary current is carried in
its entirety by controlled gaseous discharge tubes such as ignitrons (for large
values of current) or thyratrons (for small values when used with bench-type
welding machines).
The ignitron contactor is especially valuable for those applications requiring
either an extremely high number of welding operations per minute or extremely
high welding current or precise initiation of the welding current. The first two
conditions impose a severe duty on magnetic contactors, and the last is impos-
sible for a magnetic contactor.
Electronic welding contactors in standard sizes mount two inversely con-
nected tubes to make and break one line of a single-phase welding system.
Figure 28.37 is a diagram of an ignitron contactor connected to a machine.
The contactor consists of two ignitron tubes connected in inverse parallel, so
that one tube carries the positive
half-cycle of welding current and the
other carries the negative half-cycle.
These two tubes together act as a
single-pole electronic switch to con-
trol the flow of current in the pri-
mary of the welding transformer.
RECTIFIERS This type of unit is normally initi-
ated from a relay contact.
INITIATING PROTECTIVE
Figure 28.38 is a diagram of an
SWiT(H FUSE THERMOSTAT ignitron contactor using thyratrons
in place of the semiconductor recti-
Fig. 28.37.-Schematic diagram of ig- fiers. This is called a tube firing con-
nitron contactor power and control tactor and is normally a part of a
circuits system using heat control.
Resistance Welding Controls I 28.53
AC SUPPLY WELDING
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER
II~
Fig. 28.38.-Schematic diagram of ignitron contactor using thyratron firing tubes;
transformers TSJ and TS2 supply signals from the welding control to make firing
thyratrons V 1 and V2 conduct at the proper time in the electrical voltage wave
An ignitron tube is constructed as shown in Fig. 28.39. It consists of a steel,

vacuum-tight container with a pool of mercury in the bottom to serve as a
cathode; a graphic anode at the top supported by an insulating glass bushing
through which the power lead is brought to the anode; and an ignitor that starts
the flow of current in the tube.
Most ignitrons are water cooled and have a water jacket made of stainless
steel to prevent corrosion.
The ignitron is a rectifier, since current flows only from the graphite anode
to the mercury pool cathode. Thus two tubes are required to conduct alternating
current.
The ignitor will cause the igni-
tron to begin conducting current if
a sufficient pulse of current is passed
from the ignitor to the mercury pool.
The ignitron itself will not stop con-
ducting current until the current has wuu INSUIUINff
OIJTLU S!Al
been reduced to zero, which occurs
at the end of each half-cycle of al- AHOOt
ternating current. The ignitor must
start conduction for each individual
half-cycle during which current flow IHUMOSI&I
is desired. ....,.._ ---

IUUll
~
The control circuit of the tube

contactor is very simple and was
shown in light lines in Fig. 28.37.
The rectifiers are used to allow cur- MU(UlY
CAIHOG[
rent flow from the ignitor to the
mercury pool only. A control circuit .)I
fuse is provided for protection of the WA1£1
ignitors and isolation of the remain-

UttiOO£
(Q'ili!E<TION
INU I
1
der of the control circuit from the
power circuit. Fig. 28.39.-Cross section of typic<ll
ignitron tube, showing general features
A thermostatic switch is mounted of construction
on one of the ignitrons to stop operation if the temperature of the ignitron

becomes too high. Another thermostatic switch can be mounted on the other
ignitron, in conjunction with a solenoid water valve, to provide a means of
conserving cooling water.
The tube contactor energizes the welding circuit when the control circuit is
closed. This control circuit requires no additional voltage, since its potential
is obtained from the power circuit. Each ignitron is fired for each conducting
half-cycle by its ignitor, which is energized through the control circuit whenever
the control circuit is closed by the timer.
The effect of duty cycle on the selection of ignitron tube sizes is much more
critical that it is in the selection of magnetic contactors. Duty cycle averaging
time is a matter of a few seconds, depending on the tube size. Tube manufac-
turers' rating charts should be followed carefully in the selection of these tubes.
Ignitron tubes require a minimum load current to ensure satisfactory oper-
ation. If the primary current to the machine is likely to be less than 40 amperes,
an auxiliary load resistor should be used. This resistor is permanently connected
in parallel with the welding transformer terminals and provides the required
minimum tube loading.
If sufficient current for proper ignition is not furnished, the ignitor circuit
will try to carry the welding transformer load. Obviously this action severely
overloads the ignitor and its associated thyratron or rectifiers. Ignitor circuits
are usually protected by fuses to avoid damage if overloading occurs.
Water-cooled, silicon-controlled rectifiers are available as functional replace-
ments for ignitrons. At present the maximum thermal capacity is approximately
equal to that of NEMA "C" size ignitrons.
MAGNETIC CONTACTORS
Although they have been displaced by electronic contactors as current switch-
ing devices in the larger sizes of welding equipment, magnetic contactors are
still widely used in the simple, smaller spot welding machines.
A magnetic contactor consists of current-carrying contact members actuated
by an electromagnet. When electrically energized, the magnet supplies the
closing force that brings the contacts together to establish the power circuit to the
primary of the welding transformer. When de-energized, the magnetic pull disap-
pears and the contacts are opened by spring pressure and gravity.
The types available are:
1. Single-pole contactors to break one side of the single power line.
2. Double-pole contactors to break both sides of the single-phase power line.
(They can be connected with poles in series or parallel on one side of
the line.)
3. Synchronously interrupting magnetic contactors (usually single-pole).
Any of these three types of contactor may be used when applied within its
current and duty-cycle rating.
Synchronously interrupting magnetic contactors open the power circuit at an
instant when the a-c wave approaches zero, thus reducing arcing.
Magnetic contactors are classified by six size numbers with nominal and
maximum-demand ampere ratings as given in Table 28.2.
The nominal rating represents the load that can be carried continuously
Resistance Welding Controls j 28.55
without exceeding the temperature

Table 28.2-Size numbers and ratings of
rise on which the rating is based. It magnetic contactors
has little meaning except for compar-
ison purposes, since resistance weld- Maximum
ing service is intermittent in nature. NEMA Size,
Nominal
Rating,
Demand
During
Selection of contactors for any number amp Welding,
rmsamp
given machine or application is de-
termined by the maximum demand ow 50 200
and the duty cycle. For most appli- 1W
2W
100
150
400
600
cations the duty cycle can be neg- 3W 300 1200
4W 600 2400
lected, and selection determined by 5W 900 3600
maximum demand only.
TIMING AND SEQUENCE CONTROLS

Sequence And Sequence-Weld Timers
Modem high-speed welding requires controls to sequence the operation of
air and hydraulic machines and to time accurately the application of current.
The four basic steps required for the most common type of complete spot or
projection welding machine cycles are the following:
1. Allow time for the electrodes to close and develop pressure on the work
(squeeze time) .
2. Initiate and time current flow to welding transformers primary (weld
time).
3. Hold the electrodes together for a preset time after weld current has been
interrupted, while weld solidifies (hold time) .
4. Open electrodes to allow work to be moved into position for next weld
(off time).
The weld timing may be either nonsynchronous or synchronous; if it is non-
synchronous, the time function may be built into the sequence control and be
an integral part of it. Such units are called sequence-weld timers. When weld
timing is accomplished by synchronous control, and the sequence of welding
machine operations is timed, the units are called sequence timers.
Certain resistance welding machines use manual or motor-operated electrodes
geared to a camshaft, which initiates the weld timer. In most installations of this
type, a single-function weld timer is used to time only the duration of welding
current.
Multiple impulse welding timers provide for a number of welding impulses.
The duration of each of these impulses, as well as the time interval between im-
pulses, are controlled. This total time is known as weld interval.
Welding timers and sequence controls have now been reduced to a few types
which fill most commercial applications:
NEMA Type JA.-Tbis is a simple timer that controls a single function. It
is used on foot- or cam-operated machines or other places where a maintained
pilot contact is provided.
NEMA Type lB.-This is a timer that controls a heat-and-cool time. It is
used for multiiple impulse welding where ·the total elapsed time or time interval
is governed by a means external to the timer.
NEMA Type 3B.-This is the most popular timer used today. It controls over-
all sequencing of the welding machine: squeeze, weld, hold and off periods.
NEMA Type 3C.-This is a sequence-weld timer developed for high-speed
repetitive welding. It provides the following: a squeeze delay, or initial squeeze
timer for the initial travel of the electrode to the work; squeeze, weld and nega-
tive hold time to allow for lag in pressure system response; and an off timer.
NEMA Type 5B.-This is used for multiple impulse welding and provides,
in place of the weld time on the 3B device, control of weld interval, heat and cool
times.
NEMA Type 7B.-This is a sequencing panel for use with a synchronous pre-
cision timer. It provides the same functions as the 3B type.
Timing Mechanisms
Several types of mechanisms are employed to obtain timing periods. These
are pneumatic, motor, R-C, and digital. The first two are being continually dis-
placed by the others.
Pneumatic Timing.-A pneumatic timer is a mechanical device that consists
of electrical contacts actuated by delay mechanisms, involving the transfer of a
small volume of filtered air from one chamber to another. A regulated orifice
determines the speed of transfer of air and, therefore, the length of the timing
period. A needle valve with an adjusting knob is used to set the timing period.
The time setting is usually indicated in cycles on a calibrated dial geared to the
needle valve.
Motor Timing.-Motors having a constant operating speed can be employed
for timing purposes. Cam-operated contacts close and open the circuit to the
operating coil of the welding contactor. A clutch is sometimes used to engage
and disengage the camshaft, thus allowing the motor to run continuously. The
camshaft is occasionally connected directly to the motor, which is then started
and stopped at the beginning and end of each timing period. Motor timing is
generally employed where timed intervals are at least several seconds long.
R-C Timing.-The principle of timing using the charging or discharging of a
resistor-capacitive series network has been employed for years in all electronic
devices. This is the major system used in electronic welding controls, but it loses
accuracy with intervals longer than a few seconds.
Digital Counting.-This is the sophisticated type that will ensure accuracy of
timing regardless of the length of period. It is also the most expensive and com-
plex method. It employs gaseous counting tubes or, more recently, transistors
or other semiconductors. The principle is to count the actual number of power
supply frequency cycles and to initiate action when a preselected number of
cycles has elapsed.
ACCESSORIES FOR WELDING CONTROL
Heat Control
The control of the heat or current output of the welding machine is accom-
plished in two ways: by adjusting the taps on the welding transformer, and by
electronic means known as heat control. All standard synchronous precision con-
trols are equipped with electronic heat control. It may be added to nonsyn-
chronous controls.
Resistance Welding Controls/ 28.57
POWER
FACTOR
110 ~--~f--~-"l "' 0
K --
~ f+ .£9.:.,. ~~ ~~
100
' ,,
"·~ _,. ....
.........
... '
....
90 ' I
'
K, .. \
~·--
-~·
80
//
' 1'-.\\ '

'
"
/
/
'
"'"'-\
I
..v"'APPLIEP
VOLTAGE
0 /
/
'~ ·~\ \
1- 50
el /
'~~\ \
~ 40
I'
I
'
"'
\
"\;;~
30
\
I
\
20
......... \
I
I \
10
I
\
0 I
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
DELAY ANGLE IN DEGREES
Fig. 28.40.-Curve showing relation between percent of rms current and delay angle
for different power factors
In the electronic method of heat control the semiconductor-type rectifiers in

the ignitron contactor are replaced by thyratrons. These thyratrons, referred to
as firing tubes, control the conduction of the ignitrons during each half-cycle of
current conduction. The ignitron conduction can be delayed by delaying the
application of a firing signal to the thyratron grid. This delay is normally con-
trolled by the heat adjustment dial.
Silicon-controlled rectifiers are now available as a replacement for the thyra-
tron firing tubes. The action is the same and maintenance is much less.
As this firing point in the voltage wave is retarded, the resultant root-mean-
square (rms) current in terms of the maximum rms current (at 100% current
conduction) is reduced. The degree of reduction and its relation to the angle of
delay is shown in Fig. 28.40. The reduction in heat or energy varies as the square
of the current. Thus if the rms current can be varied from 100 to 20%, the heat
will vary from 100 to 4 percent.
Complete control from 100% to zero is not feasible. It is necessary to limit
the minimum value to 40% rms current for 220 volt systems and to 20% rms
current for 440 volt systems to provide enough voltage for the ignitron tube.
Phase-shift heat control circuitry in which the phase shift is controlled auto-
matically rather than manually, forms the basis of all accessories that change the
welding current level during a welding sequence. Thus current regulators, voltage
regulators, up and downslope controls, and quench and temper controls, all
require that the basic welding machine control be equipped with a heat control
unit.
Electronic heat control, when used at too low a setting, will promote varia-
tions in welding current. If reference is made to Fig. 28.40, where a welding

current of 20% of rms maximum current is being used, it takes a change of only
a few electrical degrees (not noticeable on most oscilloscopes) to produce 22%
rms maximum current or a 10% change in welding current. Line voltage disturb-
ances, such as another welding machine passing current, can distort the sinusoidal
line voltage sufficiently to produce this change. Consequently, it is advisable to
use as high a heat control setting as possible to minimize this condition.
The other major adverse effect is that the power demand is always greater
when using heat control to adjust the magnitude of the current. As an example,
if the welding current, adjusted by heat control is 80% of its maximum value,
the kva demand will be 80% of its maximum. However if the welding trans-
former secondary voltage was reduced to 80% of its maximum value by chang-
ing the welding machine transformer turns ratio through a tap switch, the current
could conduct for 180 electrical degrees (or 100% conduction) instead of being
phased back. As a result, the kva demand is about 64% of maximum. In general,
if heat control is used, the kva demand in relation to maximum follows a linear
relationship with current. If the transformer turns ratio is changed by a tap
switch, the kva demand varies as the square of the secondary (welding) current
value.
It is common for welding equipment to have tap switches to change the weld-
ing transformer turns ratio as well as having heat control.
Upslope and Downslope Control

Upslope control means starting the weld current at a lower value and con-
trolling its rate of buildup to its maximum value. Opinions differ as to when
upslope control is desirable in a welding process. It definitely seems to minimize
electrode pickup in the spot welding of aluminum. It is also helpful in multiple
projection welding in that it allows the projections to even out before the full
welding current is applied.
Downslope control means decreasing the value of the welding current from
its maximum to a lower value called the postheat current. Downslope control is
used when welding age-hardenable aluminum alloys, because it minimizes the
tendency of the welds to crack.
MAXIMUM CURRENT
II
INITIAL
CURRENT
1-------------WELD TIME-------------~
Fig. 28.41.-Graphical representation of welding current with slope control; simulates

functions of NEMA Type NJAUD or SJUD controls
Resistance Welding Controls I 28.59
Up and downslope control are illustrated graphically in Fig 28.41. This figure
also indicates the accepted nomenclature for the various parts of the welding
current cycle.
Quench and Temper Control

Quench and temper control is a device that allows a period immediately
following the weld time of no current flow (quench) followed by a period of
current flow (temper). In each case the time period is adjustable.
The current magnitude is adjustable during the temper time. This is the most
common form of postweld interval.
This type of control is used when spot welding hardenable steels in thick-
nesses ranging from 0.016 to 0.125 inches. After the weld is made, it is then
rapidly cooled during quench time to hasten formation of the martensitic
(brittle) metallurgical structure. A current pulse is then applied during temper
time to temper the martensite. This cycle is quite sensitive. The quench time
must be long enough for the brittle structure to form. Each thickness and steel
composition therefore has a minimum time. The temper current pulse must pro-
duce enough heat to temper the martensite but not enough to form austenite,
which would become brittle martensite again after cooling.
Although it generally cannot obtain results equivalent to furnace heat treat-
ment, the cycle usually will prevent weld cracking. Due to its sensitivity it is
usually confined to spot welding or projection welding in which only one weld is
formed at a time.
Forge Delay Control

Forge delay control is a device that will initiate a forge solenoid valve at a
definite time interval after the start of the weld time or weld interval. It is used
to make welds at two levels of force, the welding force and the forging (larger
value) force. Obviously the welding equipment must have mechanical means to
perform this function.
The use of dual force or pressure, the common name for this type of sequence,
is advisable when spot welding age-hardenable aluminum alloys. The principle
is to form the weld at low force and then apply a high force during cooling to
avoid the formation of cracks. It is common to combine downslope to retard the
cooling rate with the application of forging force.
Dual pressure may serve a different purpose in projection welding. During
the welding sequence, it maintains the desired force on the projection; then
upon collapse of the projection, it follows with a forging force reducing the
separation between the pieces and completing the weld.
Electronic Current Regulator

The electronic current regulator is a device designed to maintain a constant
welding current under adverse conditions. This device will make correction for
line voltage fluctuation or impedance change generally caused by insertion of
magnetic material into the throat of the welding machine.
It compares the primary current as measured by a current transformer, or
other device (feedback signal) to a previously adjusted satisfactory level (com-
mand signal) and varies the phase shift or heat control network to make these
signals equal and opposite. This is a form of electroservo mechanism.
Electronic Voltage Regulator

The electronic voltage regulator is a device designed to maintain a constant
voltage at the welding machine transformer in the presence of line voltage
variation.
There are various forms of this device, some of which make an arbitrary
correction dependent on voltage rise or drop, and some of which compare the
line voltage (feedback) to a previously adjusted (command) operating voltage.
Both types cause the phase-shift network to respond to change the ignitron con-
duction point.
This type of regulator is simpler than the electronic current regulator.
Bench Welding Machine Controls
Bench welding machine controls are defined as welding controls used with
welding heads (small machines) in which the welding transformer is external
to the welding head. The welding transformer, usually of less than 5 kva rating,
may be mounted in the control enclosure.
This type of control furnishes only weld time and consequently is used with
a foot or mechanically operated welding head.
The control may be a direct-energy type or a stored-energy type.
The direct-energy type takes two popular forms. One is a miniature or low-
capacity version of NEMA type SlH with a short time range and using thyratron
tubes as the primary current contactor. The other type allows a maximum weld-
ing time of one half-cycle of the power line frequency. The time can be reduced
by heat control adjustment. An ignitron tube acts as the primary current con-
tactor and thus a high pulse of current is available for welding.
The stored-energy type uses the principle of accumulating a charge in a bank
of capacitors at a low rate and then discharging the capacitors through the
welding transformer primary. This type of control works from a single-phase
line and is manufactured in maximum storage ranges varying from 15 to 300
watt-seconds.
The welding current resulting from this type of control has a very sharp rise,
reaching its peak in 0.5 to 2 milliseconds, dependent on control size and asso-
ciated welding transformer.
The control may be purchased with inherent voltage regulation that keeps
the energy stored within close limits while the line voltage varies over much
larger limits.
I.oad Distribution Control

A load distribution control is a control used with resistance welding machines
having two or more welding transformers. The control distributes the electrical
power demand by energizing the welding transformers in sequence on one or
more phases. Reconnection is normally provided to energize the transformers
simultaneously on two or more phases.
This control generally incorporates single-function timers that time mechanical
functions such as squeeze and hold, and a series of weld timers plus an ignitron
contactor for each weld timer. The weld timer is a function timer but is weld
safe; that is, the termination of its time (weld) is not dependent upon conduction
of a single electronic tube. Such a control is shown in Fig. 28.42. Accessories
Fig. 28.42.-Load distribution control with three ignitron contactors; three weld times
and three heat controls with both squeeze and hold sequences
such as heat control and upslope control are occasionally added to this type of
control.
A less expensive version of this control uses only one ignitron contactor and
a series of magnetic contactors. The ignitron contactor switches the current on
and off. The magnetic contactors successively connect the welding transformers
to the ignitron contactor circuit during a nonconductive period.
Electrode Voltage Regulation Control

A control is available that regulates the voltage across the welding electrodes
to a constant, preset value. This is accomplished by comparing the actual elec-
trode voltage with a preset reference and making automatic correction to the
phase-shift heat control. Typical response times for such a system are of the
order of three cycles.
Electrode voltage regulation is useful as an aid to welding quality control in
that it corrects for the harmful effect of several of the welding process variables.
Power line voltage variation results in a comparable variation in weld voltage.
Weld voltage control is important to weld quality maintenance.
The effect of shunting is to lower the resistance of the metal between the
electrodes by introducing another path for the welding current. This lower re-
sistance causes a corresponding drop in weld voltage. Regulation of the weld
voltage to bring it up to the original value increases the current to provide both
the welding current and the shunting current.
Mushrooming of electrodes results in poor welding, usually because the
current density of the electrode faces is reduced. The lower electrical resistance
caused by the increase in conducting area results in a lower electrode voltage.
Regulation of the weld voltage is, in effect, regulation of the current density.
The most noticeable effect of mushrooming when this control system is used is
that the weld nugget size increases with the increase in electrode area. Since
control is directed at the weld zone, the effect of outside disturbances such as
cable deterioration is considerably reduced.
A disadvantage of the system is that the weld voltage must be set for each
combined thickness of material to be welded. It is not normally possible, for
example, to weld three thicknesses of metal with the same control setting used
for two thicknesses.
The control system functions by making an automatic setting of the phase-
shift heat control. It is often necessary for the system to use heat settings con-
siderably higher or lower than those initially set up. For this reason, the manu-
facturer of this control system recommends that the welding machine on which
the control is to be used have reserve capacity in the welding transformer to
allow the control system enough latitude in which to operate. Also, because of
the three-cycle response time of the control, it is recommended that the weld
time used be at least 6 cycles to allow time at regulated heat.
Fig. 78.43.-Typical electrode voltage regulator control panel

An additional feature of the control is a warning device that provides a

signal in case the control is unable to perform the regulation function because
of extreme variations in welding conditions.
The electrode voltage regulation system is available in several model con-
figurations to allow adaptation to almost any welding machine and control
combination.
Figure 28.43 shows a typical electrode voltage regulation control panel and
cabinet.
NEMA Standards for Welding Control
As previously mentioned, these standards contain many details on charac-
teristics of welding control as well as the accepted definitions of the welding
control and process.
Figure 28.44 is an example of a simple weld cycle selected from NEMA
standards. This is the most popular version. The various times such as squeeze,
weld, hold and off are defined graphically. Figure 28.45 is an example of a
more complex cycle. The various times are also defined graphically.
The data in Table 28.3 (p. 28.64), selected from the NEMA standards, indi-
cate the timing ranges of various auxiliary control functions. Table 28.4 (pp.
28.66-7) tabulates the combination controls, indicating the type of timer and
contactor in the accepted NEMA standard type of controls.
WELDING PROCESS
r·l ~~~~·j r·l

TIME ~SQUEEZE ---+--HOLD--+-- OFF~ SOUEUE
CURRENT ---~----1
ELECTRODE FORCE
I
SOLENOID VALVE
COIL VOLTAGE /\MN\
--'f---WELD-----i- HOLD - - 1 - -
TIMER
TIMER
INITIATED
Y~MACHINE OPERATING TIME
Fig. 28.44.-Graphical representation of simple resistance welding cycle; simulates
functions of NEMA Type N2 control
Controls for Flash Welding Machines

The type of control that is selected for operating a flash welding machine
varies and is dependent on the application. The smaller machines use a mag-
netic or ignitron contactor for switching. An upset current timer that times
the upset current period is applied to most equipment. If it desired to have
two secondary voltage levels during flashing, furnished by changing the trans-
former taps, two ignitron, or in some cases magnetic, contactors are used.
Generally, phase-shift heat control is added to allow control of the upset current
level during the upset period.
II.)
00
t
.........
~
~
1:;•
Table 28.3-Auxiliary control functions
----------- ~----- ~-~-----------~---------------------------------------
NEMA Suffix No.•

I
Description. N onsynchronous-Timer Rangeh Synchronous Precision-Timer Rangeb
Timer Function
~-
~
F• ~-~-'-~- d U• ~-~~-~-~-d ~-~ ~
Up Slope 3-30
1 _~::_-!1-~~~-~~ I 1-10• ~
I 1-30*
Weld Heat 3-60 1-60 ]'
Weld Interval Heat 3-180 3-180•
~
Down Slope 3-30 1-10• ;:s
1-30• ....
Quench 9-360 9-360•
Temper 3-120 1-120
Forge Delay 3-360 0-60'*
Q-360 1•
Precompression 3-10•
Delay After Precompre"sion 3-10•
Preheat 3-120
Weld Delay 0-3'
Final Hold 1-180
Index 3-360
Delay After Index 1-10
• Auxiliary control functions are indicated by a suffix letter. When a control does not conform in every particular to any NEMA designation, it shall be designated by
adding the suffix "X" to the nearest NEMA type designation.
b Timer ranges in cycles, based on 60 cycle power supply. For 50 cycle power supply, multiply the ranges by the factor 50/60; for 25 cycle power supply, multiply
by 25/60.
• Includes means to by-pass control function.
d Where a letter designation does not exist, the timer function shall be described.
e N onsynchronous accuracy required.
I 0-1 vernier is in .3 cycle increments is added to functions beginning with 0.
• Select only one range marked with an asterisk.
Electrical Characteristics /28.65
ELECTRODE
fORGE - -
SOLENOID
VALVE
VOLTAGE
~~~~f ~8tf:~~o- 51-+---'-tftAAftf'---+--t-c.----!-.AAAAAAAAA'IAJ'IAJWWtr------+-

ACOR DC* ~
SQUEEZE
Tlt'::R FUNCTIONS - -
&TIMES
Y•MACHINE OPERATING TIME

fAC FORGE SOLENOID WLTAGE SHOWN
Fig. 28.45.-Graphical representation of complex resistance welding cycle; single

impulse simulates functions of NEMA Type N2UDFTPZ or S2UDFTPZ
SINGLE-PHASE EQUIPMENT
The electrical system of a single-phase, a-c resistance welding machine con-
sists of (1) transformers and tap switch and ( 2) secondary circuit, including
electrodes.
The welding transformer, in principle, is the same as any other iron-core
transformer. The chief difference, due to the low secondary voltage (2 to 20
volts) and very high secondary current (5000 to 100,000 amperes), is that the
secondary is usually a copper fabrication or casting with only one turn. In
portable transformers the secondary has two turns that are tapped.
Transformer Ratings
The electrical rating of welding machines is based upon their transformer
rating or capacity; it is a thermal rating and has nothing to do with welding
capacity. The nameplate rating in kva is based upon the ability to carry the
rated current on a 50% duty cycle basis without exceeding temperature limita-
tions. (See RWMA published standards.)
Thus a 100 kva welding transformer will carry a 100 kva load for 30 seconds
out of each minute without being overloaded. Power distribution transformers
are rated on a 100% duty cycle basis. A power distribution transformer rated
at 70.7 kva would have, therefore, a rating comparable to a 100 kva welding
transformer.
Welding transformers, however, operate at much lower duty cycles. Their
actual output, therefore, is usually many times their thermal rating.
Since the kva rating of a transformer specifies the kva load that it can
carry at its rated duty cycle without exceeding a specified temperature rise, the
rating is determined by the rate at which the internally generated heat can be
dissipated through the cooling system. The rate at which heat is generated
within the transformer increases very rapidly as the load exceeds the trans-
lo.)
01)
Table 28.4-Combination controls-600 volts or less ~

........
NEMA Type No.• ~
Description ~
Sec- N onsynchronous Synchronous Precision !:;•
tion
I Timers Suf-
II Auxiliary Functions h.x _NIA I_NlB NlH N2 N3 N6 S3H S4H•rl S5Hd
III Contactors - - - - - - - - - - - - - =SlH I=S2H I
--- ------ ------ ------ ~
Type lA Weld Timer ~
Type lB Pulsation Weld Timer e
Type 3B Sequence Weld Timer e ~-
Type 3C Sequence Weld Timer e
Type 5B Sequence Weld Timer e
I Type 7B Sequence Timer e ~
;:::
Type 9B Sequence Timer e e
Type lAS Syn. Prec. Weld Timer g e
Type lBS Syn. Prec. Seam Weld Timer e e e
Type lCS Syn. Prec. Weld Timer g
;:::
--- --------- --- --- --- --- --- ---
l
Heat Control Hb f f e f f f e e e e e -
Type A Current Regulator c g g g g g g g g g g
Type B Current Regulator v g g g g g g g g g g
Up Slope Control u f f f f f f f f f
II Down Slope Control D f f f f f f f f
Quench Temper Control T f f f f f
Preheat Control p f f f f f
Hold-Index Control R f
Forge Delay Control F f f f f f
- -- - - - -
• When auxiliary controls are added, a suffix letter after the numeral shall be used to describe these controls. When a combination control does not conform in every
particular to any NEMA designation, it shall be designated by adding the suffix "X" to the nearest NEMA type designation.
b When an auxiliary control requires heat control, the suffix denoting that auxiliary control shall replace suffix "H". Examples are "C", "V", "U" and "D". For example
N6U-600.
• Includes means to change from seam to multiple impulse welding.
d Includes means to change from intermittent to continuous seam welding.
• Indicates control feature provided in combination timer.
I Provision shall be included for these auxiliary controls. The auxiliary controls shall be specified when required.
• In Section I under SlH, select either lAS or lCS timer.
In Section II, when current regulator is required, select either type A(C) or type B(V).
In Section III. select contactor required. (Magnetic contactors cannot be used with auxiliaries that involve heat control.
Table 28.4 (Cont.)-Combination controls-600 volts or less
NEMA Type No.•

Description
Sec- N onsynchronous Synchronous Precision
tion
I Timers Suf-
II Auxiliary Functions fix NlA NIB NIH N2 N3 N6 SlH S2H S3H S4Hcd S5Hd
III Contactors --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ------
--- ---- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Magnetic Welding Contactor, 50 amp ow g g g g
Magnetic Welding Contactor, 100 amp lW g g g g
•i Magnetic Welding Contactor, 150 amp 2W g g g g
bO Magnetic Welding Contactor, 300 amp g g g g
3W
~
" Magnetic Welding Contactor, 600 amp 4W g g g g
Magnetic Welding Contactor, 900 amp 5W g g g g
III
--- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
Electronic Welding Contactor, 10 amp 10 g g g g g g g g g g
~§
>.._ Electronic Welding Contactor, 25 amp 25 g g g g g g g g g g
~ ... Electronic Welding Contactor, 75 amp 75 g g g g g g g g g g
--- ---- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- tl'J
Electronic Welding Contactor, 150 amp 150 g g g g g g g g g g g ~
= Electronic Welding Contactor, 600 amp 600 g g g g g g g g g g g
-~ Eleetronic Welding Contactor, 1200 amp 1200 g g g g g g g g g g g ~
~= Electronic Welding Contactor, 2400 amp 2400 g g g g g g g g g g g
- -
[
• When auxiliary controls are added, a suffix letter after the numeral shall he used to describe these controls. When a combination control does not conform in every
particular to any NEMA designation, it shall he designated by adding the suffix "X" to the nearest NEMA type designation. Q
b When an auxiliary control requires heat control, the suffix denoting that auxiliary control shall replace suffix "H". Examples are "C". "V", "U" and "D". For example
N6U-600.
• Includes means to change from seam to multiple impulse welding.
d Includes means to change from intermittent to continuous seam welding.
e Indicates control feature provided in combination timer.
f Provision shall he included for these auxiliary controls. The auxiliary controls shall he specified when required.
• In Section I under SlH, select either lAS or lCS timer.
In Section II, when current regulator is required, select either type A(C) or type B(V).
is·
~-
In Section III. select contactor required. (Magnetic contactors cannot he used with auxiliaries that involve heat control.)
.........
..,
CD
...0.
former rating. In order to limit the amount of heat generated, it is necessary to
limit the time that the transformer is actually carrying current by decreasing
the operating duty cycle of the transformer. A 100 kva transformer, for ex-
ample, rated at 50% duty cycle could supply 100 kva to a machine for 10
seconds in every 20 seconds for an indefinite period of time. The same 100
kva transformer, however, could supply 200 kva to a machine without over-
heating, if the on-time is reduced to 2 1/2 seconds in every 20 seconds ( 12 112%
duty cycle) .
The duty cycle of a transformer is defined as the percentage of time the trans-
former is actually carrying current and may be expressed by the following
formula:
% Duty Cycle = Current on-time X 100
Current on-time + Current off-time
Secondary Circuit
The secondary circuit of a welding machine carries the high secondary cur-
rent from the secondary terminals of the welding transformer to the material
being welded. In the actual welding operation, of course, the secondary circuit
includes the material being welded.
The electrical impedance of a welding machine should be minimized in order
to permit the delivery of sufficient welding current with minimum secondary
voltage (and kva demand). The electrical impedance will be less when:
1. Throat depth of the welding machine is decreased.
2. Throat height of the welding machine is decreased.
3. Electrical resistance of the secondary circuit is decreased.
4. Diameter or width of the secondary conductors is increased.
5. Magnetic material (work being welded) is removed from the welding
throat.
6. Frequency of electrical power supply is decreased.
Power Factor Correction

Series Capacitors.-Well-designed welding machines effectively minimize the
resistance of the secondary circuit. Because of the size of the work to be welded,
however, the secondary throat depth and throat height may add considerable
inductance to the secondary circuit. The inductance for the required welding cur-
rent causes a reactive voltage drop. Thus, higher secondary voltage is required,
and the necessary electrical kva demand is increased. The low power factor and
intermittent, high electrical demand type of load are not desirable to the electric
utility, which must maintain a stable power supply to other customers.
One method to reduce line kva demand is to use series capacitors. By the use
of a specific amount of capacitance, connected in series with the transformer of
a welding machine, the inductance of the machine can be neutralized and the
resultant electrical demand from the power line can be made at approximately
100% power factor and the demand can be considerably lower in magnitude.
Application of this method results in an increase in the voltage applied to the
welding machine transformer. High-voltage insulation is therefore required. A
tap switch to vary secondary voltage is not used as it changes the series resonant
condition. The welding current is varied by phase-shift heat control or by a
tapped autotransformer.
Electrical Characteristics / 28.69
The resistance of the circuit limits the current in any high power factor system.
Since the resistance is caused largely by the material being welded, objectionable
variations in welding current may be experienced with slight changes in material
thickness or cleanliness.
Since voltages appearing across the welding machine transformer and across
the series capacitors are higher than the electrical supply voltage, special high-
voltage electrical control panels are normally required. A protective overvoltage
device, a discharge resistor and a contactor are generally provided for operation
and maintenance safety.
Series capacitors are less frequently applied as electric utilities continually
strengthen their power supply system. Proper electrical supply to a normal
power factor welding machine is generally less troublesome than the expense
of series capacitor installation and maintenance, as well as the excessive sensi-
tivity in welding operation. The three-phase welding systems have now made
series capacitor installations almost obsolete.
Shunt Capacitors.-Shunt capacitors have seldom been applied to resistance
welding equipment. The initial high inrush of current may actually increase the
demand from the line, thus defeating the purpose of shunt capacitors. If the
welding time is comparatively long, as in noninterrupted resistance seam weld-
ing, shunt capacitors may be preferred to series capacitors.
The use of capacitors, either the series or shunt type, is strictly a matter of
power supply and has no effect on the weld. In some cases, however, the machine,
when operated at high power factors, is much more sensitive to work resistance
or other variables.
DIRECT-ENERGY, THREE-PHASE EQUIPMENT

Low-Frequency Converter System
Figure 28.46 schematically indicates the use of a transformer that has a
SHELL TYPE SINGLE

PHASE CORE
PRIMARY
CIRCUIT
SECONDARY
WELDING
CIRCUIT
Fig. 28.46.-Schematic representation of low-frequency converter type of direct-

energy three-phase spot welding machine
28.70 J Resistance Welding Equipment
primary winding divided into three sections, each connected to one of the three
phases. There is one secondary winding, which is interleaved among the primary
windings and connected to the welding machine conductors.
The transformer primary windings are connected to the power supply by
three electronic contactors. The welding control causes ignitrons A, B and C to
conduct in sequence around the three phases for a period of time, passing current
in the same direction through the primary windings. These ignitrons are then
shut off for a necessary minimum of time, approximately one cycle of the 60
cycle per second power supply system, and then ignitrons A', B' and C' are
caused to conduct in sequence around the three phases for a period of time, pass-
ing current in the opposite direction through the primary windings. The ignitrons
have a dual function: they act as a switch and as a rectifier. This dual function
reduces the ignitron current ratings (compared to conventional rating as a
switch) and larger sizes are required than when ignitrons are used in other types
of resistance welding machine controls. This action of the ignitron tubes effec-
tively applies a reversing "d-e" voltage to the primary windings, which is then
transmitted to the secondary as long as the transformer core is not saturated.
The transformer is larger than an equivalent 60-cycle transformer to obtain
the desired length of the alternating positive and negative pulses that determine
the rate of the low-frequency welding current pulses. The maximum time of
current pulses is governed primarily by the core area in the transformer. It is
common practice to have two maximum time lengths; the short one at high
current magnitude is usually 5 cycles, and the longer one at one-half current
level is usually 10 cycles of the 60 cycle per second power supply system. Special
designs using very massive transformers may combine the higher current and the
longer time.
I SQUEEZE TOTAL WELD HOLD

~ TIME TIME TIME
Fig. 28.47.-Typical current-fore~ diagram for either a low-frequencl convert.er
type or a d-e rectifier type of dzrect-energy, three-phase spot weldmg machme
Figure 28.47 shows a typical current-force diagram, and programming may be

provided for preheating current, precompression force, tempering current, etc.
Single or multiple impulse welds may be made. Figures 28.48A and 28.48B indi-
cate a typical seam welding machine, and control of the three-phase, low-fre-
quency converter type.
Fig. 28.48A .-Direct-energy seam Fig. 28.48B.-Electronic control for

welding machine direct-energy seam welding machine
D-C Rectifier System
The schematic representation (Fig. 28.49) indicates the use of a three-phase
transformer feeding a low-voltage, high current a-c output into a rectifier section,
which converts it into low-voltage, high current d-e welding current. This rectifier
section is connected to the welding machine conductors. The transformer pri-
mary windings are connected to the three-phase power supply by two electronic
3 PHASE CORE TYPE

TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY
WELDING
CIRCUIT
PRIMARY CIRCUIT
Fig. 28.49.-Schematic representation of d-e rectifier type of direct-energy,

three-phase spot welding machine
contactors. These contactors are caused to conduct and vary the magnitude of
the welding current by the same type of control circuitry used for single-phase,
direct-energy machines. Tapped primary windings of the transformer are used
in addition to the phase-shifting circuitry of the electronic contactors to provide
a wide range of selection of welding current.
The rectifier section consists of water-cooled conductors mounting a multi-
plicity of silicon rectifier cells or diodes. The arrangement of conductors and
diodes is electrically symmetrical; that is, within each phase the impedance of
each diode circuit is similar, allowing each diode to load (divide current) equally
when the diodes themselves have similar electrical characteristics. Each diode is
hermetically sealed; they do not age, and have long life if properly applied and
used. The welding current may continuously flow as long as desired provided
the combination of current values and time does not exceed the thermal rating of
the size of machine involved.
Fig. 28.50A .-D-e rectifier type of direct-energy, three phase spot welding
machine
Figure 28.47 is also a typical current-force diagram for a d-e rectifier type
machine, and programming may be provided for preheating current, precom-
pression force, tempering current, etc. Single or multiple impulse welds may be
made. Figures 28.50A, B and C indicate a typical spot welding machine, control
and transformer with rectifier section of the three-phase d-e rectifier type.
Fig. 28.50B.-Typical electronic control for d-e rectifier type of direct-energy,

Fig. 28.50C.-Typical transformer and rectifier power pack for d-e rectifier
type of direct-energy, three-phase welding machine
PERCUSSION WELDING EQUIPMENT

Percussion welding machines, although actually of the stored-energy type, are
not considered in the same category as other types of resistance welding ma-
chines. The principle of operation is entirely different. The machine is essentially
an upset butt welding machine, and only work of this type can be performed on
it. Power is usually taken from a three-phase line and is transformed and recti-
fied to a d-e voltage, which is used to charge a bank of capacitors. To this point,
the operation is similar to that of the electrostatic stored-energy welding
machine to be described later. Here, however, the similarity ends.
After the capacitors are charged, their terminals are directly connected to two
electrodes that clamp or otherwise locate and make contact with the work to be
Electrical Characteristics I 28.75
welded. The workpieces are separated and insulated from one another sufficiently
to withstand the voltage to which they are now subjected. By means of a spring,
pneumatic cylinder or electromagnet, one of the workpieces travels toward the
other at a high rate of speed. When they approach arcing distance, determined
by the voltage to which the capacitors are charged, the capacitors discharge
themselves through this gap, creating an intense heat on the surfaces being
welded. When the two pieces actually contact each other, the discharge is com-
pleted and the two pieces forge together. Arc-starting nibs between the work-
pieces are often used to initiate the arc, and lower welding voltages are then used.
(For further information on the percussion welding process, reference should
be made to Chapter 27, Flash, Upset and Percussion Welding.)
STORED-ENERGY, SINGLE-PHASE EQUIPMENT
Equipment of this type is almost entirely confined to quite small sizes for
bench mounting. Many designs of welding machines (heads) or tongs (pliers)
with cables of limited length (in the range of 3 to 5 feet) are available for a
wide variety of applications, such as small electrical components, and electrical
circuitry connections including miniature types. Nonferrous metal combinations
predominate over ferrous materials in this application. The machines and con-
trols are of the precision type, having force ranges down to ounces and having
precisely controlled energy levels and welding pulse shapes and amplitude~.
Thousands of these welding machines and control units are used daily in
production.
Force systems usually use calibrated springs to apply the welding force and
manual (foot) power to operate the welding machine head force system. Stored
energy is used to obtain precise control of the welding energy (watt-seconds) and
the welding current amplitude, time of flow and unipolar wave shape are deter-
mined by the circuit electrical characteristics (capacitance, reactance, resistance
and capacitor voltage) rather than by timers, tapped transformers, phase shifting
of electronic contactor tubes, etc. Welding times are often substantially shorter
than the half-cycle (8.3 milliseconds) minimum time of a simple single-phase, 60
cycle per second power supply system. Power supply requirements are com-
paratively negligible and there is no advantage to using other than a single-phase
power supply.
Figure 28.51A shows a typical foot-operated (accelerator pedal and chain)
bench-type welding machine with a maximum force capacity of either 8 pounds
or 20 pounds, depending on spring size selected. The typical control uses 600
microfarads capacitance, has an energy rating of 40 watt-seconds, and can be
adjusted for welding outputs as indicated by the charts (Fig. 28.51B).
STORED-ENERGY, THREE-PHASE EQUIPMENT
This type of equipment uses four different principles: the energy is stored
electrostatically in capacitors, electromagnetically in a magnetic circuit (re-
actor), electromechanically in rotating apparatus and electrochemically in bat-
teries. The power supply furnishes balanced three-phase power at high power
factors and at lower power levels and for longer times than when making the
weld. The accumulated energy is then drawn from storage at the required high
level for making the weld and for relatively short welding times.
During the period of World War II, hundreds of three-phase electrostatic and
electromagnetic stored-energy spot and seam welding machines were used in
production, primarily to weld aluminum with an approximate maximum thick-
28.76/ Resistance Welding Equipment
Fig. 28.5JA.-Typical foot-operated, bench-mounted, stored-energy, three-phase

spot welding machine
ness of 0.100 in. in the manufacture of aircraft. Some of this equipment is still
being used for this or similar purposes. However, three-phase, stored-energy
equipment has been superseded by direct-energy, three-phase equipment for
welding thicker aluminum, stainless steel and other corrosion-resistant alloys,
and low-carbon and low-alloy steels, where welding times must be longer than
feasible from stored-energy equipment.
Electrostatic Stored-Energy Machines
The schematic representation (Fig. 28.52A) and the typical current-force
diagram (Fig. 28.52B) indicate the principles of the three-phase electrostatic
stored-energy spot welding machine. The three-phase, full-wave rectifier, 3,
WELDING CURRENT OUTPUT

MEASURED WITH 2- 16" LONG #4 CABLES INTO 100 MICROHM LOAD
3500
3000 3000
..,
<f)
2500
..,"'
..,
0:: ..,
0::
Q.
Q.
::f 2000 ::;;
<( <(
.....,z
~
...z
~
1500
w
0:: 0::
0:: 0::
::> 1000 ::>
0 0
500
TIME IN MILLISECONOS TIME IN MILUSECONOS
Fig. 28.5IB.-Typical time-current output data of 40 watt-second stored-energy, single-

phase spot welding machine and control
@ 0 ®
1, Power breaker for overload protection; 2, Three-phase Delta-Y rectifier transformer; 3, Three-
phase full wave, grid controlled, thyratron rectifier; 4, Resistance voltage divider; 5, Energy-storage
capacitor bank; 6, Shunt ignitron tube; 7, 8, Discharge contactors (alternate closure); 9, Center-
tapped welding transformer; 10, Vacuum tube leveling circuit; 11, Voltage leveling potentiometer;
12, Resistor; 13, Rectifier blocking circuit
Fig. 28.52A.-Schematic representation of electrostatic stored-energy, three-phase

for charging the main capacitor bank, 5, utilizes a grid-control thyratron tube
for furnishing a d-e supply and an inherent controllable device for predeter-
mining and maintaining the capacitor voltage level. During the instant of
recharging the capacitors, the value of rectifier current is determined by the
impedance of the rectifier transformer, 2, and the resistance of resistor, 12.
The values of impedance and resistance are such that the current is limited to
the maximum current rating of the rectifier tubes. Starting with zero at the
instant of start of charge, the voltage across resistance, 4, increases with time,
until it is great enough to oppose the preselected voltage of potentiometer, 11.
The leveling circuit, 10, is generally composed of the ordinary radio tube type
circuit and the necessary d-e, positive-bias and negative-bias voltages for proper
on-conduction and cutoff, or off-conduction, time of the rectifier tube. The
voltage, predetermined across capacitors, 5, generally is predetermined from
a range of 1000 to 3000 volts by potentiometer, 11. When the contactor, 7, is
closed, discharging the capacitor energy into the welding transformer, current
flows in one-half of the center-tapped welding transformer. At the instant of
WELD FORCE
her----SQUEEZE
TIME
----~---wEL o _ _ _ __,__ _ HOLD
TIME TIME - . j
I
Fig. 28.528.-Typical current-force diagram of electrostatic stored-energy,

closure of contactor, 7, the rectifier tubes are automatically cut off by reversing
the bias on the grid of the thyratron tubes to a high negative value. After dis-
charge, welding current ceases to flow, the rectifier tubes are made conductive,
by the reversal of the negative bias to a positive value, and the capacitors are
automatically recharged.
The shunt tube, 6, is placed across the main capacitor, 5, to prevent reverse
voltage from appearing across the capacitors. Contactors 7 and 8 alternate dur-
ing successive welds to prevent saturation of the welding transformer.
Electromagnetic Stored-Energy Machines
The schematic representation (Fig. 28.53A) and the typical current-force
diagram (Fig. 28.53B) indicate the principles of the three-phase electromagnetic
THREE PHASE IGNITRON TUBE RECTIFIER _...-CURRENT LIMITING RELAY
ENERGY STORAGE
---REACTOR
~
Rp
Ep Rd THYRITE-----....
Lp
~
\ ~ HIGH SPEED
S t~CONTACTOR
PRIMARY_} M,K
LSECONDARY
Fig. 28.53A.-Schematic representation of electromagnetic stored-energy, three-

phase spot welding machine
stored-energy spot welding machine. This system employs a three-phase ignitron

rectifier working through a high impedance transformer (energy-storing re-
actor). Direct current is applied to the transformer and, as the buildup of direct
current through the primary winding of the transformer approaches the satura-
tion point of the transformer (as indicated by a current-limiting relay), a con-
tactor opens, causing a current pulse through the welding machine secondary
and the work being welded. The welding electrodes are required to be in position
and apply pressure to the work during the time of accumulating the energy;
a low current through the work during this period is followed by the high current
welding pulse. The contactor was originally of the magnetic type but consistent,
reliable operation was difficult to maintain. The use of an air-operated contactor
made some improvement in this respect.
Fig. 28.53B.-Typical current-force diagram of electromagn(!#r; ~tared-energy,

three-phase spot welding machin(!
Electromechanical Stored-Energy Machines
Stored-energy, three-phase equipment of the electromechanical type (rotating
motor-generator unit) is sometimes used where very high welding power de-
mands are required, or where it is desired to change from a power supply
frequency such as 60 cycles per second to a different welding frequency, such as
400 cycles per second. Typical of the first application is the use for flash welding
of a 3000 kva motor-generator unit driven by a three-phase, 2300 volt, syn-
chronous motor (high power factor), a single-phase, 60 cycle per second gen-
erator to supply the welding machine, and a flywheel to store energy for use
during peak welding power periods. The use of the field control on the generator
provides an accurate control of the welding power level, and a main contactor on
the welding machine is unnecessary. Similar equipment is used on smaller units
when the welding power supply furnishes 400 cycles per second to the single-
phase welding machine.
Initial cost of such motor-generator equipment is relatively high and welding
voltage regulation requires careful consideration. The time of welding pulse at
peak loads must not unduly reduce generator speed as the energy stored in the
rotating equipment is withdrawn.
Electrochemical Stored-Energy Machines
A very few three-phase, stored-energy welding machines of the electrochem-
ical (battery) type have been manufactured. The schematic representation (Fig.
28.54) indicates the circuitry used. A charging circuit continually stores energy
into a bank of battery cells, which are then connected through a special con-
tactor and a current-control rheostat to the secondary circuit of the welding
machine; this applies d-e welding current to the work for the required time. The
unavailability of suitable battery cells and a high amperage d-e contactor has
limited the application of this type of equipment. The carbon disk contactor
shown in Fig. 28.54 is air operated to actuate the carbon disks used as contacts.
Also, control of welding current has presented difficulties: the control rheostat,
for instance, dissipates large amounts of energy.
AUTOMATIC CHARGE
DISCONNECT SWITCH RATE SWITCH CHARGER PRIMARY CHARGER SECOMOARY CHARGE RECTI Fl ER
WELDIMG ELECTRODES CARBOM DISC COMTACTER CURREMT COMTROL RHEOSTAT
Fig. 28.54.-Schematic representation of electrochemical stored-energy, three-phase

POWER SUPPLY
POWER REQUIREMENTS
Power demand from the line is a function of the type of current and equip-
ment employed. An adequate power supply is one of the prerequisites of high-
production resistance welding. A major part of the power supply system for any
industrial plant lies within the plant itself and consists of the power supply
transformers and conductors.
Cyclical and Noncyclical Flicker
The basic problem presented to power companies by resistance welding instal-
lations is that of carrying the fluctuating load without creating objectionable
lamp flicker. The sudden and repeated flow of current to the machine through
the impedance of the supply system causes an intermittent voltage drop which,
if sufficiently great in magnitude, may result in flicker objectionable to lighting
customers fed from that portion of the system. Resistance welding machines can
cause two types of lamp flicker: a noncyclical flicker from single-impulse ma-
chines, such as spot or projection welding machines, and a cyclical flicker from
seam, spot and projection welding machines equipped with multiple impulse
control.
A noncyclical, or individual, flicker is usually objectionable to most lighting
customers if it causes the lamp voltage to drop more than 2 volts.
Sometimes the limit of 2 volts can be extended upward to 3 or 4 volts and,
conversely, it may have to be revised downward to 1 112 volts, depending to a
large extent upon the number of lighting customers affected. Where a particular-
ly large machine may affect a large area, such as one that might be fed from a
24 kv bus bar, it may be prudent to set the design limit as low as 1 or 1 112 volts.
Cyclical flicker becomes evident and may prove objectionable whenever the
frequency of occurrence exceeds one flicker per second. The borderline of objec-
tion follows a typical V-curve, dropping to a minimum of about 112 volt at the
wors't frequency of 7 or 8 flickers per second.
Figure 28.55 shows objectionable limits of lamp flicker, caused by resistance
welding loads, in voltage drop at the lamp. This refers to the momentary drop
caused by the welding load only, without reference to over-all plant voltage drop.
A 115 volt lamp may operate at 115 volts at night and 110 volts during day-load
conditions. This 5 volt drop is not considered, but the welding load drop would
refer to either the 110 or 115 volt normal voltage. The curve is the result of
many studies on the subject and may be considered equally correct for 60 watt
incandescent lamps. Larger lamps, because of their larger filaments, are less
susceptible to voltage fluctuation, whereas fluorescent lamps are more susceptible.
This fact must be taken into consideration because of the wide use of fluorescent
lamps.
Many seam welding machines operate at frequencies of from 1 to 4 cycles
heat and from 1 to 4 cycles cool, which is in the cyclical range. Similarly, spot
or projection welding machines, equipped with multiple impulse control to pro-
vide a series of current pulses (so many cycles heat and cool), may produce
lamp flicker in the cyclical range also.
Even if the frequency of a specific multiple impulse weld is fairly high on
either side of the V-curve, it is quite likely that at some time during the life of
the installation the control will be changed and the welds will be made at the
Power Supply I 28.81
3.0 I I I I I I I II I I I I I Ill
I
- NON-CYCLIC FLICKER
I
CYCLIC FLICKER ---
2.5 ··(SPOT, BUTT, FLASH, AND PROJECTION i -T (PUlSATION AND SEAM -
WElDING MACHINES) I I WElDING MACHINES)
V'l
>-
.....
2.0 I I I II II I j_ I
2 VOlT LIMIT
~
C>
>
........""
UJ
I
>- 1.5
.v
~
C>
> I
I
...
a...
:::E
I
1.0
l i\ ,_
:z:
'
a...
C>
I
"" I
o.s
Q
I 1f2 VOLT LIMIT
0 I I I I IIi
0.1 o.s 1 4 5
3 10 20
FLUCTUA Tl ONS OR Fll CK ERS PER SECOND
Fig. 28.55.-0bjectionable limits to lamp flicker caused by resistance welding loads
worst frequency-some 7 or 8 pulses per second. Such a change in the frequency

of impulses can be made easily by a simple turn of the control dial, thus bringing
the operation within the entire range of cyclical flicker. For this reason, where
either seam, spot or projection welding machines with multiple impulse control
are concerned, it is usually necessary to design the machine service so that it will
stay within the 1/2 volt limit. Again, this 1/2 volt cyclical flicker limit, like the
2 volt noncyclical limit, must of necessity be somewhat flexible and must be
revised slightly upward or downward as conditions dictate.
Power Systems
Since no two power systems are alike, it is impossible to give any general rule
for serving resistance welding machines of different sizes. Where the ohms
impedance of the supply system is low (near large sources of power such as
generating stations or large step-down substations), large welding machines are
easily served without exceeding the predetermined flicker limit. It is obvious,
however, that as the ohms impedance becomes greater, either through stepping
down to a lower-voltage part of the system or through adding miles of line at
any given voltage, the size of welding machine that can be handled without
exceeding the flicker limit becomes smaller and smaller.
Where large plants are served at 24 kv in established industrial areas, there is
almost no problem as far as large welding machines are concerned. They can be
connected with the rest of the plant load. Other large plants served at 4800 volts,
even in the same general location, cannot ordinarily handle such large welding
28.82 J Resistance Welding Equipment
machines, because of the greater percentage of ohms impedance due to the lower
voltage.
For the smaller plants which, in common with other customers, are served
from 4800 volt lines, the permissible welding demand must be reduced to values
of the order of 200 to 500 kva. For similar plants in residential areas, which
are some distance away from large stations, the size of machine that can be
handled, even on the 4800 volt lines, is reduced to the order of 100 to 200 kva.
Still farther out in a suburban area the 4800 volt lines can accommodate welding
demands in the range of only 50 to 100 kva.
Power Supply Transformer Rating
In considering the installation of a resistance welding machine, it is necessary
to determine the kva rating of the power supply transformer required and the
size of the power supply conductors. The power supply transformer, which is
usually connected to a 2300 or 4800 volt primary feeder, is installed external to
the machine and should not be confused with the welding transformer mounted
in the welding machine. The power supply conductors are the power leads be-
tween the power supply transformer and the welding machine.
The selection of the power supply transformer and supply conductors is gov-
erned by two factors: the permissible voltage drop and the permissible heating.
The permissible voltage drop is the determining factor in the majority of installa-
tions, but consideration must be given to both factors. In all cases, the final
selection of equipment must be determined by the factor that requires the larger
transformer and the larger conductors.
It is relatively simple to determine the size of the power transformer on the
basis of heating alone, inasmuch as the welding machine transformer is rated on
a heating basis and a definite ratio exists between the two ratings. Power trans-
formers are usually rated on a continuous or 100% duty cycle basis, whereas the
welding transformer is rated on a 50% duty cycle basis, as explained previously.
The power transformer rating, required on a heating basis only for a given weld-
ing machine, will be equal, therefore, to the welding transformer rating at 50%
duty cycle, divided by the square root of two. The square root of two is the
conversion factor.
To find, on a heating basis, the size of the power transformer required for
the proper operation of a 200 kva seam welding machine, this value can be
substituted in the aforementioned relationship as:
200 kva (50% duty cycle)
v2 141.4 kva
If more than a single machine is to be served from a common power supply

transformer, a thorough study of actual operating duty cycles of all machines,
as well as of the operating diversity factor between machines, must be made.
Welding machines operate below their maximum thermal capacity. The size of
the transformer in the machine is dictated by the required welding current output
rather than by thermal considerations. Tests of many installations show that the
values given in Table 28.5 are representative of actual field conditions. Thus, for
example, if the machines are predominantly spot or projection welding machines,
a power supply transformer with a rating of 20% of the sum of the nameplate
ratings of the machines would, in most cases, be adequate as far as permissible
heating is concerned.
Power Supply / 28.83
In order to determine, on the basis of voltage drop, the size of the power sup-
ply transformer required to serve a welding machine, it is first necessary to
determine the maximum permissible voltage drop. When the same power trans-
former is used with two or more machines, in such a manner that the voltage
drop resulting from the operation of one machine will be reflected in the
operation of the second, it is advisable to confine the total maximum voltage
drop to not more than 10 percent. All voltage drops should be measured at the
machine location, and the percentage voltage drop should be calculated by
means of the formula:
( (No-load voltage) - (Full-load voltage)) 100 = %voltage drop

N o-I oad voI tage
Where an electronic tube-type timer and contactor are employed, it is neces-
sary to hold to the limitation of 10 percent. It is possible under certain circum-
stances that sufficient welding current will be supplied even at 15% voltage drop.
In this case it is advisable to connect the electronic control power to another
source that will not drop 15 percent. Attention must be paid to electrical phasing
if the electronic control uses phase-shift heat control.
The percentage of the total voltage drop that should be apportioned to the
power transformer, together with the percentage that should be apportioned to
the supply leads between the transformer and the welding machine, involve a
consideration of installation costs and the amount of voltage drop existing in
the high-voltage system ahead of the
transformer. Very little can be done
Table 28.5-Equivalent continuous loading
in most cases to reduce the voltage
Equivalent
Continuous
drop in the high-voltage system at a
Type of Welding Load Expressed cost commensurate with the expendi-
in Percent of
Sum of Name- ture needed for the same percentage
plate Ratings reduction in the low-voltage system.
Where more than one machine is in-
Spot, projection (single
impulse) 20 volved, the largest machine of the
Spot, projection (multiple
impulse) 40
group is considered when the voltage
Flash, multipoint spot or drop is calculated, together with cal-
projection 20
Seam 70 culations of the diversity factors of
other machines present in the group.
The high-voltage system regulation can be obtained from the local power
company by giving them the maximum kva and power factor that the largest
welding machine will draw from the power system. The difference between the
figure thus obtained and the total allowable 10 or 15% voltage drop is the
allowable voltage drop in the step-down bank and secondary or low-voltage bus
system.
A group of welding machines can be served either from a single-phase trans-
former bank or a three-phase bank. Where the welding load is large enough to
justify a separate transformer bank for welding load only, it will be found advan-
tageous and more economical to use a single-phase system. The load is single-
phase and will remain so no matter how the transformers ahead of it are con-
nected. Sometimes it is desirable to spread the individual single-phase loads over
the three-phase wires for more economical utilization of the supply lines. Unless
there are large numbers of machines connected, however, load balancing is not
practical. When there are many machines, they are usually scattered throughout
28.84/ Resistance Welding Equipment
a plant. Several step-down banks, therefore, become necessary at different loca-

tions. In this case individual single-phase banks can be connected to separate
phases and thus bring about some semblance of balance on the supply wires.
A given kva of single-phase load fed from a three-phase transformer bank will
cause just twice as much transformer voltage drop as the same kva load fed from
the same capacity of transformers connected as a single-phase bank. Thus it is
obvious that it is highly desirable and more economical to use single-phase, step-
down banks of transformers where the transformer voltage drop must be kept at
a minimum.
The voltage drop through the power transformer is a function of the charac-
teristic called transformer impedance. The transformer impedance is a measure
of the total restriction that the transformer offers to the flow of current. It is
usually expressed as a percentage of the rated voltage. The impedance value for
standard power transformers is generally between 5 and 6% and is stamped
upon the transformer nameplate. For present purposes this value can be inter-
preted as the percentage voltage drop through the transformer when the rated
kva load is applied.
Although the foregoing explanation is subject to correction for technical ac-
curacy, the approximations indicated are sufficiently accurate for estimating the
size of the power transformer required for supplying a given during-weld kva
demand with a given maximum voltage drop through the power transformer.
Bus or Feeder System

In general, the low-voltage bus or feeder from the transformer to the machines
should always be as short as possible and of low reactance design, in order to
keep the voltage drop within the prescribed limits. The simplest and most eco-
nomical bus construction consists of insulated wire taped together and either
hung on racks or pulled through a conduit. One disadvantage of such construc-
tion is the lack of facilities for easily tapping off connections for welding ma-
chines throughout the bus length. When only two or three machines are to be
served at a common location at considerable distance from the supply trans-
former, this construction is economical and effective.
A bus construction that permits easy tap-connections at frequent intervals
along its length is desirable in production plants where manufacturing layouts
are continually changing. Since the welding bus extends the full length of the
plant, machines can be moved about without great trouble to meet the changing
conditions. The bus can be made up on the job or it can purchased prefabricated
in unit lengths, either with or without enclosures. The copper spacing should be
kept at a minimum. Different manufacturers offer several standard designs of
buses, particularly for welding loads.
An adequate power supply is assured by dividing the supply system into the
three parts: high-voltage system, power transformer and low-voltage feeder or
bus. A balanced layout should be provided to prevent the sum of the voltage
drops in the three parts from exceeding the predetermined allowable standard.
The entire subject of voltage drop regulation is too involved for complete
coverage in this chapter. Any question concerning availability of power should
be approached by competent engineering analysis.
Various attempts have been made to interlock two or more machines to
prevent simultaneous firing. Any scheme of interlocking causes some curtail-
Power Supply I 28.85
ment in production. Although this may not be serious on two or three machines,
it can easily become a factor if more machines are interlocked. The interlocking
of two or three machines may be the solution of a problem in some cases, but
it is doubtful if the interlocking of more than three can ever be justified.
All the foregoing discussion is related to voltage drop caused by the welding
load as it affects the power supply system. No consideration has been given to
the effect of the voltage drop on the welding machine itself or to the quality or
consistency of its output.
If the voltage drop at the machine, or the during-weld voltage at the trans-
former terminals, is constant, proper compensation can usually be provided
through the machine controls. The during-weld voltage at the machine, however,
may fluctuate as much as 10% at different times of the day. This fluctuation is
caused by voltage drop from other plant equipment. For corrective measures to
be taken for this condition refer to the discussion of voltage and current regu-
lators in the section on controls in this chapter.
Electrical Protective Devices

Resistance welding machines should be connected electrically to the power
lines with the same care given to other electrical apparatus. The cable installa-
tion should be made in accordance with electrical code standards. Adequate dis-
connecting switches and protective devices should be interposed between the
machine and the power lines.
The cable size should be calculated both on a thermal and voltage drop basis.
Because many electronic controls contain phase-shift heat control, it is neces-
sary that the control power be in phase with the welding power. Thus only one
electrical source is supplied to the equipment. The control power is fused
separately from the welding power.
Enclosed fusible isolation switches are frequently used for the power or weld-
ing circuit. These switches seldom have adequate interrupting capacity to be dis-
connected under load. For emergency disconnecting purposes it is advisable to
use a circuit breaker. One circuit breaker may furnish power to several machines.
The rating of the breaker in carrying capacity should be sufficient to carry the
maximum demand of the machine with its electrodes contacting without the
work in place. The rating may be from two to four times the machine nameplate
rating. It is not considered possible to protect the machine against thermal over-
load because of its variable demand and duty cycle. The protective device,
therefore, is intended for short circuit protection only. One of the advantages of
the circuit breaker over fuses is the fact that a pushbutton can be located on
the welding machine in such a way that the operator may conveniently and
quickly open it in emergencies.
Circuit breakers are also rated in interrupted capacities. The required inter-
rupting capacity for any given installation is a function of the impedance of the
power supply from the breaker back to the power source. The power engineer
should be consulted to ensure adequate interrupting capacity.
When fuses are used, their size should be calculated on a modified demand
basis rather than on a thermal basis. The circuit breaker operates on an instan-
taneous load, whereas fuses have a time lag. Welding machine manufacturers
provide wiring diagrams in which fuse ratings are recommended. It is not gen-
erally necessary or desirable to fuse a machine to its maximum demand, as is
required for a circuit breaker. On the other hand, however, the fuses should hold
for any normal demand or operation of the machine. The purpose of fuses is
almost solely to interrupt a short circuit in the transformer, in its controls or
in its wiring.
Measurement
Primary Current.-One of the simplest and most reliable methods of measur-
ing primary current is by means of an indicating ammeter and current trans-
former. If the reading is taken during a regular weld, the time duration of the
weld is too short, in most cases, for the pointer to come to a stop. Pointer-stop
ammeters are available for such readings. A number of tests should be made,
each time moving the stop up until the pointer barely moves from the stop. This
gives the actual demand with good accuracy. If a pointer-stop ammeter is not
available, any ammeter may be used by removing the cover over the scale and
using a pencil as a stop.
Table 28.6 shows relations of primary and secondary voltages and currents
for a typical welding transformer.
Table 28.6-Primary and secondary circuit relationships
Tap
No. TR• Eg* I,• r,• kva
----- ---------------- ------- -----
1 100 4.4 100 10,000 44
2 96 4.58 108.5 10,400 48
3 92 4.78 118 10,860 52
4 88 5.0 129 11,350 fj7
5 84 5.24 142 11.900 62
6 80 5.5 156 12,500 69
7 76 5.79 173 13,150 76
8 72 6.11 193 13 ,900 85
* TR == turn ratio; Eg == open circuit secondary voltage; lz = primary current, amp; I,* =secondary
current, amp.
The values given are for a typical transformer, 440 volt primary with 8 taps,
with an assumed primary load of 100 amperes on the low tap. If the secondary
circuit is not physically changed so that its impedance is constant, the primary
and secondary currents for other taps will be as shown.
Standard tests by machine manufacturers provide for a prescribed secondary
circuit (see RWMA Resistance Welding Equipment Standards) with a reduced
voltage applied to the machine terminals. This reduced voltage remains on long
enough to obtain a steady reading from a standard ammeter. A simultaneous
voltage reading is also obtained. The current in amperes at rated voltage will be
proportional to the ratio of rated voltage to test voltage. Thus, if 55 volts applied
causes a reading of 100 amperes, the current at 8 X 55 volts [440 volts] will be
100 X 8 = 800 amperes.
In the same way, the primary current for any tap may be calculated from the
turns ratios of the various taps. (Tum ratios for various taps may be secured
from the manufacturer or by measuring the open circuit secondary voltage for
the various taps. Line voltage divided by open circuit secondary voltage provides
the tum ratio for any tap.)
Primary current can also be measured with an oscillograph. For ordinary
Power Supply j 28.87
purposes, however, this method involves too much time and equipment, and the
results are no more accurate.
If primary voltage and current readings are obtained simultaneously, the kva
demand is the product of the two. If a watt meter is added, and all three readings
are taken simultaneously, the kw demand and the power factor of the machine
are also obtained. (Power factor is the kw divided by the kva.)
Secondary Current.-The simplest and most commonly accepted method of
measuring secondary current is merely to multiply primary current by the weld-
ing transformer turn ratio. Although this method is subject to the errors and
losses of transformation, other methods introduce errors the extents of which
are hard to determine. Measurement of the current by the voltage drop across a
shunt placed in the secondary circuit has been done on a laboratory basis. This
method, however, is undesirable because of the difficulty of placing the shunt in
this circuit.
It is possible to measure the secondary current by inserting an integrating
toroid around an electrode holder and feeding its output into a special measuring
circuit. A commercial device to do this measurement is available.
Time.-The best method of measuring welding time depends upon the fol-
lowing: the type of weld, the length of time to be measured or checked, and the
accuracy required. For long, noninterrupted seam welds and for very long flash
welds, an ordinary stop watch is sufficiently accurate. An electric clock with a
clutch can also be used. The clutch is energized during the interval that time is to
be measured.
For accurate measurement of time in spot or projection welds a cycle counter
can be used. Most of the present versions of this device use gaseous-type count-
ing tubes or transistors and count the cycles as each cycle feeds an input into
the device.
A direct inking-type oscillograph is often used to determine the length of
time. A trace of the primary current is displayed on the oscillograph and the
cycles of current are manually counted from the record.
Synchronous precision timers are designed to pass complete cycles and are
calibrated in cycles. The calibration can be assumed to be correct.
Nonsynchronous timers are also graduated in cycles. The repetitive error in
actual operation is about 1 cycle. This error can, therefore, be neglected if the
time is 10 cycles or more. If the time is under 10 cycles, the accuracy 'desired
will determine whether or not this possible error can be tolerated. Timing periods
in cycles can be counted readily when dekatron-type electronic timing tubes are
used as the timing media in the welding control.
Pressure.-Pressure, or welding force, is difficult to measure while welding.
Although it is customary to use a strain gage and an amplifier plus the oscillo-
graph, the high magnetic field resulting from the welding current seriously influ-
ences the signal picked up from the strain gage, especially if it is placed near the
welding circuit. Normally it is necessary to use ingenuity in locating the strain
gage so that it is outside the welding circuit influence and yet gives a reading
proportional to the electrode force.
The static electrode force can be measured by using a deflection gage, which
is normally inserted between the electrodes and the force applied. The deflection
is read from a dial indicator attached to the deflection gage. Such devices are
commercially manufactured,
The reactive kick or force due to secondary current passing into the secondary
members, which are spaced several inches apart, is so low compared to the
usual weld forces that it may be neglected for practical purposes.
An estimate of the electrode force can be approximated by calculating the
piston area of the operating cylinder and multiplying it by the air pressure per
square inch. This estimate is incorrect because the packing and piston friction is
not subtracted from the weld force. This is in part compensated by the movable
head weight, which adds to the calculated force.
Upset pressure or force of manually operated flash welding machines can be
calculated from the ratios of the upset lever linkages. On air or hydraulic ma-
chines it can be calculated from the force exerted by the operating cylinders,
which is the method used for press welding machines. Since upset force is deter-
mined by the spring or yield of the machine frame and components, it is difficult
to estimate on a motor and cam operated machine. A strain gage can sometimes
be inserted in the mechanical system, and upset forces can be measured with a
strain gage and associated equipment.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Evaluating the Effects of Cold Work on Resistance Seam Welding Electrodes,"
H. A. Mullen, Welding Journal, 44 (8) (1965).
"Aircraft and Commercial Applications of Direct-Current Resistance Welding
Using Silicon Diodes," J. Paul Thorne, Ibid., 44 (6) (1965).
"Resistance Welding of Composite Sections," E. J. Del Vecchio, Ibid., 43 (6)
( 1964).
"NEMA Standards Publication for Resistance Welding Control, IC 2-1964" Na-
tional Electrical Manufacturers' Association.
"400-Cycle Resistance Welding," J. F. Deffenbaugh and F. E. Murray, Welding
Journal, 42 (12) (1963).
"Universal Data for Resistance Welding," H. Frankel, K. C. Wu and R. E. Lewis,
Ibid., 42 (4) (1963).
Resistance Welding Manual, E. J. Del Vecchio, Vol. II, 3rd ed., Resistance Welder
Manufacturers' Association: Philadelphia, Pa.
"Flash Welding-The Process and Applications," W. F. Savage, Welding Journal,
41 (9) (1962).
"Transformers for Resistance Welding," J. J. Riley, Ibid., 39 (11) (1960).
"Percussion Welding Using Magnetic Force-A Production Process," R. F. Man-
ning and J. B. Welch, Ibid., 39 (9) (1960).
"Design of Transformers for Resistance Welding Machines," D. L. Knight, AlEE
Technical Paper # 53-296.
"Electrode Tip-Life Studies in Series Spot Welding," E. P. Nippes, W. F. Savage,
S.M. Robelotto and K. E. Dorschu, Welding Journal, 37 (6) (1958).
_ _ _ _CHAPTER 29
THERMAL SPRAYING
Introduction 29.2
General Description 29.3
Surface Preparations and Effects 29.7
Flame Spraying-Oxy-Fuel Gas 29.13
Flame Spraying-Ceramic Rod 29.18
Flame Spraying-Self-Fluxing Alloys 29.23
Plasma Spraying 29.30
Electric Arc Spraying 29.40
Performance Data and Advantages of Electric Arc Spraying 29.45
Detonation-Gun Process 29.48
Post Treatment of Thermal Sprayed Coatings 29.49
Finishing Sprayed Metals 29.52
Properties of Thermal Sprayed Coatings 29.58
Applications of Sprayed Coatings 29.64
Bibliography 29.71
M. A. LEVINSTEIN R. J. McWATERS
General Electric Co.-Chairman Metco Inc.
F. J. HERMANEK, JR. H. S. MILLER
General Electric Co. New England Hard Facing Co.
E. J. LELL J. D. PETERSON
Wall Colmonoy Corp. Avco Bay State Abrasives
M. LEVY H. N. WATSON
U. S. Army Materials Research Agency Hard Face Welding & Machine Co., Inc.
W. H. McMAKIN W. M. WHEILDON
Metallizing Co. of America, Inc. Norton Co.
J. N. CHILDS, JR.
Meta/weld Inc.
_ _ _ _ CHAPTER 29
THERMAL SPRAYING
INTRODUCTION
THE SUCCESSFUL COMMERCIAL development of the thermal spraying process

is attributed to the Swiss engineer, Dr. M. U. Schoop, and his associates. A
process for producing a metal coating by blasting a surface with a metal
dust was patented in 1902, but it never achieved commercial use. In 1910
Dr. Schoop designed a nozzle that permitted an annular flame to heat the
particles as they were propelled onto a surface. This process became known as
metallizing (metallization, in Europe). Further developments by Schoop and
his associates led to the utilization of a wire in place of the powder and the
apparatus became known as a wire metallizing gun or pistol. As early as
1914 Dr. Schoop experimented with a gun in which an electric arc was formed
between two wires fed through a nozzle that provided an air blast to atomize
the molten metal. Only in recent years has the latter device achieved com-
mercial status.
Originally, the term metallizing was used as a designation of the process,
because only metallic materials were deposited as coatings or to form struc-
tural shapes. As advances in technology were made, it became feasible to
deposit ceramic materials by this process. Consequently, the more general term
flame spraying was applied to define the deposition of materials, both metallic
and nonmetallic, by the use of a combustion flame. With the advent of the
plasma-generating devices and electric arc units, flame spraying could no longer
comprise all types of deposition. Therefore, the more general term thermal
spraying has been adopted to cover all deposition processes by which materials
General Description I 29.3
are made molten or semimolten by a heat source and propelled onto a surface
by a rapidly moving gas stream. Also included is a detonation process in which
a mixture of powders and combustible gases is detonated, thereby simultane-
ously heating the powders and propelling them onto a surface at very high
velocities.
GENERAL DESCRIPTIO N
Thermal spraying is the process of depositing finely divided particles of

metals, intermetallics, metallic oxides or plastics in the molten or semimolten
condition to form an adherent coating on a suitable substrate, or to produce a
structural shape. The process is further defined by the heat-generating source,
combustion flame, plasma, electric arc or detonation, and categorized by the
two basic materials forms: (1) powder, where the material is originally in the
form of finely divided particles and (2) wire or rod, where the metals are in
the form of wires and the ceramics in the form of rods.
In powder spraying the fine particles become molten or semimolten as they
are impelled through an intense heat source; when impinged on a substrate,
they flatten out to form thin platelets or lamellae, which conform to any irregu-
larities in the surface. When the surface has been intentionally roughened, these
irregularities serve as anchorages for the deposited particles. The latter then
serve as anchorages for subsequent particles and, in this manner, an adhesive
and cohesive deposit is built up. Along with this mechanical bonding there is
some point-to-point fusion of particles and some oxide-to-oxide bonding, but
the primary bonding mechanism is mechanical.
In wire or rod spraying, the solid material is introduced into a heat source
surrounded by a stream of high-pressure air. As the surface of the material is
melted by the heat of the flame, it is atomized by the air stream into fine
droplets, which are impelled onto the substrate. Almost all metals and ceramics
with melting points below 5000°F (2760°C) can be deposited in this manner
when the proper oxygen-fuel combination is used. Some limited use of plasma
has been made in wire and rod spraying.
For materials with melting points above 5000°F (2760°C) it is generally
necessary to resort to the plasma as the heat source. All known materials that
do not volatilize or dissociate before reaching their melting points can be
sprayed with the plasma. Some materials, such as tungsten carbide, tantalum
and tungsten can be deposited by the detonation and plasma processes.
Metals deposited by the thermal spray processes retain essentially the origi-
nal chemical composition, but their alloys may change significantly depending
on the process used. In the plasma and electric arc processes, appreciable losses
of lower melting point constituents may occur. The physical and mechanical
properties of the deposited metals and their alloys may differ considerably from
that of the original materials. The structure produced is lamellar and non-
homogeneous; its cohesion is due to mechanical interlocking with some point-
to-point metallic fusion and oxide-to-oxide bonding as a result of the thin oxide
film formed on the particles during flight. Tensile strength is low compared
with that of the same material in the wrought form. Although compressive
strength is fairly high, ductility is low, and all deposits are less dense than the
original material. Sprayed deposits bear some resemblance to the stronger types
29.41 Thermal Spraying
of sintered metals and, as with the latter, should be considered separate and
distinct metallurgical materials.
Of the ceramics, the oxides retain their chemical properties on deposition.
In some cases, however, a change in crystal structure may occur; for example,
alumina, which may be alpha originally, may be deposited as the metastable
gamma. The reactive ceramics, such as the carbides, silicides and borides, do
not retain their original chemical composition when sprayed with combustion
flame or plasma in air; this is because of the formation of appreciable amounts
of carbon dioxide, silicon dioxide or boron trioxide, respectively. When silicon
carbide is sprayed, only silicon dioxide is deposited. With such materials, plasma
deposition may necessitate special environmental chambers, and special process-
ing techniques, or both, to minimize changes in the original composition.
Plastics also have been deposited by one or more of the above processes.
Development of this method has been more extensive in Europe than in the
United States.
Thermal spraying is widely used for production purposes for the application
of coatings to resist oxidation, corrosion, abrasion, erosion, impact and wear.
The greatest use for the process in this country has been in the machine com-
ponent field. Worn or inaccurately machined parts can be restored to size by
applying metal selected for the particular service involved. More recently, ex-
tensive use has developed for plasma sprayed coatings in aircraft engine com-
ponents, and the field is continually expanding. Fused metallized coatings have
found wide application wherever wear is a problem. Many new uses have been
formulated for ceramic coatings during the past few years.
Thermal Spraying Terms and Definitions
The terms and definitions listed in italics are selected from those prepared
by the Committee on Metallizing (Flame Spraying) of the American Welding
Society, published in "Metallizing Terms and Their Definitions," C2.9-62. In
several definitions, the term thermal spraying has been substituted for metal-
lizing. These are marked with an asterisk. Other terms commonly used in the
thermal spraying industry are also included, but they have not yet been adopted
as standard definitions.
Anchoring.-A supplemental method of locking the spray-deposit to the base
material by screw heads, studs, drive screws or similar means.
Angle of impingement.-The angle at which the spray-deposit strikes the
work surface.
Atomization.-The operation of reducing the molten material from the end
of the wire or rod into fine particles.
Bead Welding.-Depositing one or more string beads of weld metal to pro-
vide a protective confining wall for the spray-deposit and for a dovetail if re-
quired for mechanical bonding. See also, Collaring.
*Blasting.-A method of surface roughening by a stream of sharp angular
abrasive forcibly projected against the surface to be thermal sprayed.
Bond.-The adherence between the base material and coating.
Bond Electrode.-A metallic electrode used for surface roughening in Elec-
tric Bonding.
Coating.-The spray-deposit and any additional material that has been ap-
plied to the base material.
General Description I 29.5
Collaring.-Attaching a collar to a shaft or similar component for the pur-

pose of providing a protective confining wall for the spray-deposit, and for a
dovetail if required for mechanical bonding (Fig. 29.1).
Collar attached to shaft
Fig. 29.1.-Collaring
Deposition Efjiciency.-The ratio of the weight of the spray-deposit to the

weight of metal sprayed.
Deposition Rate.-The weight of metal deposited in a given unit ,of time.
Dovetailing.-A method of surface roughening involving angular under-
cutting to interlock the spray-deposit (Fig. 29.2).
Fig. 29.2.-Dovetailing
29.6 I Thermal Spraying
Electric Bonding.-A method of surface roughening wherein an irregular

weld deposit is produced on the base metal by means of a low-voltage, inter-
mittent electric arc.
Fused Metallized Coating.-See Fused Spray-Deposit.
Fused Spray-Deposit.-A spray-deposit that is subsequently heated to coa-
lescence within itself and with the base metal.
Groove and Rotary Roughening.-A method of surface roughening wherein
grooves are made and the lands roughened and spread (Fig. 29.3).
Fig. 29.3.-Groove and rotary roughening
Grooving.-Part of a method of surface preparation wherein grooves are

machined to the base material.
Keying.-See Anchoring.
Mechanical Bonding.-The adherence of the spray-deposit to the base ma-
terial by the interlocking of particles with irregularities in the base material
surface.
Metal Spraying.-See Metallizing.
Metallizing.-The process of spraying metals or intermetallics, in the molten
or semimolten condition, to form a spray-deposit bonded to the base material.
Molybdenum Spray Bonding.-A method of surface roughening wherein a
preliminary spray-deposit of molybdenum coalesces with the base material
(process formerly known as Metallic Spray Bonding).
Multiple Passes.-Superimposed passes to produce the desired thickness of
spray-degosit.
Pass.-A single progression of a gun across the surface of a base material
being sprayed.
Powder Metallizing.-The metallizing process wherein the material to be
sprayed is in powder form.
Rod Speed.-The length of rod sprayed in a unit of time.
Rotary Roughening.-A method of surface roughening wherein a revolving
roughening tool is pressed against the surface being prepared, while either the
work or the tool, or both, move.
Rough Threading.-A method of surface roughening that consists of cutting
threads with the sides and tops of the threads jagged and torn sufficiently that
other roughening or knurling is not required.
Seal Coat.-Material applied to seal a spray-deposit.
Shrinkage.--Contraction of a spray-deposit caused by cooling following ap.
plication.
*Spray-Deposit.-The material applied bv thermal spraying,
Surface Preparations and Effects I 29.7
Spraying Sequence.-The order in which different passes of similar or dif-

ferent materials are applied in a planned relationship, such as overlapping,
superimposed or at certain angles.
*Surface Roughening.-A group of procedures for producing irregularities
on a surface to be thermal sprayed.
Threading and Knurling.-A method of surface roughening wherein spiral
threads are made and the tops of the threads are spread with a knurling tool
(Fig. 29.4).
Fig. 29.4.-Threading and knurling
Threading.-See Rough Threading.

Undercutting.-A step in surface preparation involving removal of base ma-
terial to prepare the surface for roughening, to allow a satisfactory coating
thickness, or to improve the interlocking of the spray-deposit with the base
material.
Wire Metallizing.-The metallizing process wherein the material to be
sprayed is in wire or rod form.
SURFACE PREPARATIONS AND EFFECTS

Surface preparation of the base metal is one of the most important factors
in the success or failure of the thermal spraying process.
Cleanliness of the surface is even more important than the configuration of
the surface of the base metal. There are several configurations (surface condi-
tions). The type of configuration depends upon the conditions that the sprayed
coating is going to be subjected to, plus the facilities and equipment available
to apply the coating.
The generally accepted methods of surface preparation are: undercutting,
rough threading, grit blasting, use of self-bonding materials, electric bonding,
studding, sanding or grinding, and etching.
It is necessary to remove any contaminated metal (present because of work
hardening, surface oxidation, etc.) found on the surface, and to provide for
the deposition of an even thickness of coating. It is good practice to remove
any prior coatings that may have been applied to the part. All evidence of the
previous coating and its surface preparation must be removed before a second
coating is applied to the part. Machining, grinding, sanding and grit blasting
are the methods used.
All surfaces to be prepared for coating, regardless of the method to be used,
should be degreased well beyond the area to be coated as the first step in the
process. Oil or grease is made more fluid by slight rises in temperature, and has
a tendency to flow into the prepared area. No person or contaminated object
should be allowed to touch a surface once it has been degreased or prepared
for coating. Only oil-free solvents should be used for degreasing.
If possible, all surfaces prepared for coating should be protected by cover-

ing with clean kraft paper, unless the coating is to be applied immediately after
preparation, with no intermediate handling. It is good practice to coat a part
as soon after preparation as possible. A part may be prepared and allowed to
remain overnight, or even longer, only if it has been properly protected from
moisture and other contaminants, and if there are no temperature changes
radical enough to cause condensation to form on the surface.
All porous-type base metals, such as cast iron, if they have been in service
with a lubricant, should be baked at a temperature of approximately 800 to
900°F (427 to 482°C). The baking should be preceded by taking a clean-up
chip from the surface. This procedure will bake out oil or grease that would
affect subsequent surface preparation.
Any heavily scaled or otherwise contaminated surface that is to be grit
blasted should be cleaned with spent sand, descaling oxygen, a chipping hammer
or other mechanical means prior to the final grit blasting. This will eliminate
the possibility of embedding surface contaminants into the base material and
contaminating the grit.
Tables 29.1 and 29.2 list the relative values of bond strength using different
methods of surface preparation. The effects of each may be summarized as
follows:
1. Grit blasting is widely used for preparation of surfaces or for preclean-
ing prior to application of self-bonding materials. Angular chilled iron
grit and aluminum oxide are normally used for in-plant work, where the
abrasives can be reclaimed and reused. Angular silica sand, flint, crushed
garnet or crushed slag are used for field work as preparation for alumi-
num or zinc coatings. Blasting produces a compressive stress on the sur-
face. This increases with higher air pressures and larger size abrasives.
Under certain conditions it improves fatigue resistance. On thin sections
care must be taken to prevent distortion. When preparing surfaces for
application of self-fluxing alloys, only steel grit should be used.
2. Sprayed coatings of molybdenum and exothermically reactive materials
are widely used as bonding media. These materials are self-bonding to
thoroughly clean metal surfaces. Blasting or a machine cut is required,
just prior to application. Some loss in fatigue strength may occur on
small highly stressed parts. These materials are not used on copper alloys,
except in conjunction with other bonding methods. All other materials
will bond to these undercoats.
3. The groove and rotary method may be used on all machinable metals
and should be used on highly stressed parts such as steam turbine shafts.
4. Rough threading and use of a roughening tool over a 24 pitch thread
are commonly used for machine element maintenanct:. Because of the
notch effect, however, these procedures should not be used on heavy-
duty parts.
5. Electric bonding lowers the fatigue resistance of materials but only as a
skin effect. It should not be used on highly stressed or cyclically loaded
parts. It can produce slight distortion on thin cross sections. Electric
bonding is not a common method of preparation; it is usually used
around keyways and holes, and on hardened materials.
Table 29.1-Relative bond strengths of different methods of preparation for steel Table 29.2-Key to bond factors shown in
coatings applied to various base metals Table 29.1
Base Metal Approximate Approximate

Shear Tensile
Factor Strength, Strength,
Alloy Steel Steels psi psi
Method of Hardened to Hardened to ----1
Preparation Cold Approxi- Approxi- 1100
Finished mately mately Cast Alumi- 10 10,000 and over 3,000 and over
Steel RC-52 RC-67 Bronze Iron num 9 9,000-10,000 2,400-3,000
8 8,000- 9,000 2,000-2,400
---- 7 7,000- 8,000 1,800-2,000
Grit blast-SAE G18 steel at 90 6 6,000- 7,000 1,600-1,800
psi or for base hardness exceed- 5 5,000- 6,000 1,400-1,600
ing RC-50 aluminum oxide at 4 4,000- 5,000 1,200-1,400
90 psi 6 4 2 3 4 3 3 3,000- 4,000 1,000-1,200
2 2,000- 3,000 800-1,000
Molybdenum spray bonding over Not 1 Less than 2,000 Less than 800
grit blasted surface 8 9 9 applicable 10 8
Molybdenum spray bonding over Not Not Note: The bond factors given in Table 29.1 are
24 pitch thread 10 10 applicable applicable 10 8 determined according to the above table. If shear
and tension values indicate different bond factors. VJ
Exothermic self-bonding materials the lesser factor is used. S::
on grit blasted or threaded sur-
...
faces 10 10 10 9 10 10 'i:i'
~
High carbon or high chrome steel
as sprayed with the electric arc
gun on grit blasted or threaded ~
surfaces 10 10 10 10 10 8
Rough thread: 24 pitch full thread 10 1 Not 6• 10 6

applicable
l;-;:;·
Groove and rotary roughening Not Not
tool method 10 applicable applicable 10 10 6 ~
Roughening tool over 24 pitch Not Not [
75% thread 10 applicable applicable 10 10 6
~
Electric bonding over 24 pitch Not
thread 10 10 applicable 1 to 6• 10 - ~
(')
Electric bonding-eoarse 9 8 9 1 to 5* 9 2 <:;-
"-.
Electric bonding-medium 6 5 7 1 7 1 ...,
Electric bonding-fine 4 3 5 1 4 1 '0
:0
*Field experience indicates considerable variation in results depending on base metal analysis and operator
technique. Tests should be made.
29.10 1 Thermal Spraying
MACHINE ELEMENT SURFACE PREPARATION

Various methods of surface preparation are used prior to depositing the
sprayed material. These methods include undercutting, rough threading, bead
welding or collaring, dovetailing, groove and roughening, threading and knurl-
ing, grit blasting, spray bonding with molybdenum using wire or powder, spray
bonding with nickel-aluminum wire or powder, and electric bonding.
In undercutting, metal is removed from the surface by machining or grind-
ing in order to obtain a satisfactory thickness of sprayed deposit. Section 202
of AWS Recommended Practice C2.1-60, Part lA, "Metallizing Shafts or Simi-
lar Objects," provides details of use of undercut for various services.
Rough threading consists of chasing a thread with a specially ground tool,
in such a manner as to tear apart the surface and produce a rough, ragged
thread. The surface obtained by this method is shown in Fig. 29.5.
SPRAY!O MfTAL
THREADED AND KNURLED
THREADED ONLY
Fig. 29.5.-Surface prepared by threading (right) and by threading and knurling

(center); a metallized surface is shown at the left
Whenever a coating must go to the edge of a shaft, and there is the danger
that the edge can be mechanically damaged, bead welding, or collaring, can
be used. An even better method is to bring the undercut over the edge of the
part and down across the face as shown in Fig. 29.6.
Dovetailing increases the stresses owing to compression during cooling and
is very seldom used now. An angle of 0 to 10° is the maximum that should
be used, as indicated in Fig. 29.7.
Surface Preparations and Effects I 29.11
-t- o•-1o•
Fig. 29.6.-Alternate preparation for Fig. 29.7.-In dovetailing, maximum

bead welding (collaring) angle should not exceed 10•, as shown
Groove and roughening surface preparation is often employed. A rotary tool
is used over a thread or over a series of grooves to deform the threads.
In the threading and knurling method of surface roughening, spiral threads
are made and the tops of the threads are spread with a knurling tool.
Grit blasting (Fig. 29.8) is usually used in the preparation of the surfaces
to which corrosion-resistant coatings of zinc, aluminum or cadmium are to
be applied. Angular steel grit, aluminum oxide grit or washed, salt-free, angular
silica sand, crushed garnet, silicon carbide or crushed slag are the blasting abra-
sives commonly used. Silica sand and garnet should be free of feldspar and
other mineral constituents that tend
to break down and remain on the
surface. A mesh size of 12-30 should
be maintained, with a minimum of
40% retained on a 20-mesh screen.
Crushed chilled iron grit should be
clean and reasonably sharp. Old grit
that has a rusty appearance or is
worn should not be used. For coat-
ings thicker than 0.006 in., the grit
should have a mesh size between
SAE G18 and G25. Thinner coatings
require the use of grit with a mesh
size between SAE G25 and G40.
Conventional force-feed, pressure-
type or centrifugal blasting equip-
ment may be used. With the pressure-
type equipment, it is imperative that
a nozzle be used that will maintain a
pressure of 75 psi at the generator.
For an aluminum oxide abrasive, a
pressure of 50 psi is sufficient. Ex-
cessive pressure tends to break the
grit down too rapidly; this is uneco-
nomical and does not produce sur-
face roughness required for proper
anchoring.
Prior to the grit blasting operation,
the surface should be thoroughly
cleaned with a degreasing fluid to Fig. 29.8.-Surface preparation by the
grit blast method; a sketch of the cross
remove paint, oil, bituminous mate- section of a typical grit blasted surface
rials or any chemical contamination. is shown at bottom
The air supply must be sufficiently

free from oil and moisture to avoid
contaminating the surface. Periodic
inspection should be made of the
abrasive and blasted surface.
Ordinary blast cleaning techniques
do not prepare· surfaces properly.
Failure to remove broken-down fines
in abrasive blasting media results in
poor surface preparation. Contami-
nants of any kind reduce the effective
adherence of a coating.
Any areas not to be subsequently
coated should be protected during the
surface preparation step by masking
tape, rubber or sheet metal, depend-
ing on the severity of the operation.
Self-bonding materials, such as
molybdenum or exothermics may be
sprayed directly onto a smooth, clean
surface, but better adherence is ob-
tained if a grit blast is used first. This
method produces a fusion-type bond.
On shaft build-up (Fig. 29.9) it is
customary to increase the bond area
and improve the adherence of the
coating by cutting a 20 to 30 pitch
thread on the area before the ap-
Fig. 29.9.-Molybdenum spray bond plication of self-bonding materials.
method of surface preparation However, molybdenum cannot be
used on nitrided steel, copper or copper-alloy surfaces. Any deposit of metal
will adhere to the sprayed self-bonded material. Molybdenum spray bonding is
a common method of shaft preparation.
Molybdenum as a bonding coating is usually limited to continuous operation
at temperatures below 750°F (399°C) because it tends to oxidize readily above
that temperature and result in bond failures. For temperatures above 800°F
(427°C), exothermic materials are used.
In the electric bonding process, a bonding coat of nickel alloy is applied,
using a transformer having the proper current characteristics, and by stroking
the work with nickel-alloy electrodes. Surfaces thus prepared are quite rough
and produce a strong bond, but are generally unsuitable for thin, uniform
coatings.
OTHER SURFACE PREPARATIONS

Surface Preparation for Flat Surfaces
In general, the same methods can be used as in machine element prepara-
tion, with the addition of studding for heavy coatings. Studding consists of
merely drilling and tapping the prepared surface about every square inch of
surface to receive a flathead screw sized from 6-20 to 1/4-24 in accordance
Flame Spraying I 29.13
with the surface area coated. The surface is then grit blasted, including the
screws. It is usually good practice to bring the coating over the edges of the
piece being sprayed.
Surface Preparation for Ceramic Coatings

In general, surface preparation techniques for ceramic coatings are the same
as those used for metallic coatings; bonding coats, in particular, are used exten-
sively and vary with the base material.
Coatings of self-bonding materials are used for base metals that are too thin
to receive mechanical surface roughening treatment. Materials such as copper,
aluminum, zinc, lead and mold metal have been found to aid in the bonding
of ceramic coatings to lower temperature base materials such as plastics.
Nickel-chromium alloy sprayed undercoatings 0.002 to 0.013 in. thick are
advantageous as adhesive bases for flame sprayed ceramic coatings that are
subjected repeatedly to high temperatures. It has been found that heavier under-
coats promote longer life under oxidizing conditions.
Surface Preparation for Plasma Sprayed Coatings

As a rule, the techniques used are the same as for the flame sprayed coat-
mgs, but the usual procedure is to use only grit blasting with or without bond-
ing coats.
Surface Preparation for Electric Arc Sprayed Coatings

As a rule, the techniques used are the same as for flame sprayed coatings,
but with no special undercoating. The surface must be clean and rough, but
the degree of roughness can be much less than for comparable coatings applied
by flame spraying.
FLAME SPRA YING-OXY·FUEL GAS
A much-used heat source for spraying is the oxy-fuel gas flame. The material
to be sprayed is fed into the flame, melted by the heat of the flame, atomized
and projected away from the heat source by means of a stream of compressed
air. The sprayed material is generally applied in layers less than 0.010 in.
thick. For protective coating purposes, thicknesses do not exceed 0.015 inch.
The final coating thickness is dependent on several factors, namely: (1) pur-
pose of coating; (2) kind of metal required; (3) post treatment of coating;
( 4) strength of section to be sprayed. Coatings greater than 114 in. in thick-
ness have been successfully applied to worn mechanical parts.
OXY-FUEL SYSTEM
Fuel Gases
Of the several fuel gases used, acetylene, with a flame temperature of 5660°F
(3127°0) has been generally employed for spraying oxides and the higher
melting point alloys. A more recently introduced fuel gas mixture, methylaeety-
lene propadiene, produces a flame temperature of 5301 op (2927°C), and can
also yield excellent coatings. Hydrogen has been used for materials with lower
melting points. Use of propane is confined almost completely to the spraying

of zinc, aluminum, tin, lead and babbitt metal.
Air Supply
The quality of the compressed air supply required for atomizing the ma-
terial and projecting it onto the surface to be sprayed is an important factor
in the quality of the deposit. Excessive oil or water in the air may cause fluctua-
tion in the flame and produce poor or irregular atomization of the material.
Unclean air can also cause a defective deposit. A filter is almost always re-
quired between the air source and the gun. In some cases, filters on either side
of the air regulator are advantageous; in extreme cases, after coolers and
chemical filters are required. Regulation of the air pressure is important for
maintenance of uniform atomization. An air source of approximately 40 cfm
is required at a minimum pressure of 60 psi.
Oxy-Fuel Gas Balance and Control
For best work, flowmeters should be used. Their use eliminates guesswork
in balancing the gases and usually results in increasing spraying speeds. Metals
being sprayed are exposed to uncombined oxygen at a high temperature, and
some oxide film forms even when a reducing gas-oxygen ratio is used. The
thickness of the oxide film on the metal droplets does not appear to vary greatly
with minor changes in the gas-oxygen balance. Some metals, such as tin,
copper and particularly cadmium, are adversely affected by the presence of
excessive oxygen.
WIRE METALLIZING
Wire Metallizing Equipment
Oxy-fuel gas equipment using wire-type guns to introduce the metal into the
flame is very common. Several models of this equipment have been developed
to meet the requirements of different classes of work.
Manually operated guns generally weigh from 3 to 6 pounds, and use wire
from 20 B & S (Brown & Sharpe) gage to 3/16 in. in size. Typical guns are
shown in Fig. 29.10. These guns are used for general shop work, and are
operated either manually, or mounted in the tool post of a lathe for semiauto-
matic work. Up to 20 pounds of steel per hour can be sprayed with guns of
this size. Where large machine parts are sprayed, or high deposition rates are
required for fast semiautomatic or automatic production work, heavy-duty
models weighing 10 peunds or more are lathe mounted for spraying 3/16 in.
wire. Steel and other hard metals can be applied at rates up to 15 to 20 pounds
per hour. The larger models are also occasionally used for manual spraying.
Zinc may be deposited at rates up to 55 pounds per hour; steel is normally
sprayed at rates up to 16 pounds per hour; lead may be sprayed at rates up to
100 pounds per hour.
Modern wire guns may be used with almost any combustible gas. Improved
feeding mechanisms, with means for accurately controlling the wire speed,
have eliminated many of the spraying difficulties formerly encountered. The
use of larger diameter wire or rod has greatly increased the deposition rates
for both the high and the low melting point metals.
Wire-type 8\!US consist essentially of two parts: ( 1) the power unit, which
Flame Spraying I 29.1 S
feeds the wire, and (2) the gas head,

which controls the flow of fuel gas,
oxygen and compressed air. The
principles of operation of all wire-
type metallizing guns are very simi-
lar.
The drive units may be air or elec-
trically powered. Air-powered units
are by far the most common because
of their greater versatility. An air
unit is ,also lighter in weight than an
electrically powered unit of the same
capacity and therefore can be used
manually as well as for automated
systems. The electrically powered
units are primarily used for machine-
mounted installations and semiauto-
matic or fully automatic systems.
Variable speed d-e motors, controlled
input air motors and controlled out-
put turbines have all proven to be
satisfactory for driving a pair of
knurled feed rolls through suitable
reduction gears to advance the wire
into the flame at the correct rate.
The gas head consists of two parts: Fig. 29.10.-Typical manual wire type
a valve or valves to control the fuel metallizing guns for metal spraying ap-
gas, oxygen and compressed air flow; plications
and a wire nozzle and air cap to melt
and atomize the wire. The wire is fed through a central orifice in the nozzle. A
number of small gas jets are placed around this orifice and directed toward the
wire at a small angle, somewhat resembling the arrangement in a cutting torch
tip.
These jets are surrounded by a high-velocity air stream. As the wire advances
into the heating zone, it is melted by the flame, and fine droplets of molten
metal are picked up by the gas and air stream and propelled forcibly against
the work. If the feed rate of the wire is excessive, the wire tip will extend beyond
the hot zone of the flame and will not atomize properly. If the feed is too slow,
the metal will oxidize badly, and the wire may fuse in the nozzle. Very coarse
deposits are produced when the wire speed is too high. If the wire travel is too
slow, the sprayed deposit will have a high metal-oxide content. Gas and oxygen
pressures vary with different guns, but the volumetric ratio is generally one
that produces a neutral flame. Fairly accurate gas regulation is desirable, and
two-stage regulators are commonly used, although guns can be used with any of
the usual fuel gases if the correct wire nozzles are chosen. Acetylene is currently
the most frequently used gas.
Wire Metallizing Accessory Equipment

The wire in coil form is normally placed in a bori~ntal plane on a ~el
stand that permits easy withdrawal of the wire, usually through rollers that
tend to straighten the wire as it is withdrawn.
For spraying inside small diameter cylinders, or other areas where space is
limited, nozzle-extension tubes of various lengths are used in combination with
air caps designed to deflect the spray stream to the work surface at approxi-
mately a 45° angle. For metallizing large area surfaces, air caps that produce
broad, fan-shaped spray streams are sometimes used.
Deposit thicknesses can usually be measured with micrometers, calipers or
by other conventional means. In applications such as tank coatings, magnetic
or electronic thickness gages offer the only means of checking the progress of
the work.
In addition to the gun, hoses, oxygen and fuel gas equipment, regulators,
etc., that relate directly to the spraying operation, a variety of equipment that
positions and orients the work-such as lathes, turntables and other jigs-can
be useful. Material that is too brittle to be coiled but is available in rods
(usually 3 to 8 feet long) can be fed directly, one rod after the other, into a wire
metallizing gun.
Proper care and maintenance of wire metallizing equipment is especially
important to good operation. The equipment manufacturer's instructions on
these matters should be followed carefully. Equally important are the pre-
cautions taken to make sure that the interiors of all hoses are clean, since
wire metallizing equipment is particularly sensitive to any obstructions or
restrictions.
Corrosion-Protection Spraying vs. Machine Element Spraying
Oxy-fuel gas guns used for corrosion protection are usually hand held, in a
manner somewhat similar to paint spraying devices. However, production
work can usually be set up so that the operation is partially or completely
mechanized.
Flat Surfaces.-Fiat surfaces and large areas are usually coated manually.
Thickness may be controlled by calculating the area, and weighing out the
required amount of wire. The surface is generally traversed three to six times,
usually with alternate vertical and horizontal passes. The coating can be
checked with an electronic or magnetic thickness gage immediately after
spraying, provided that a nonmagnetic coating is applied to a magnetic base.
Coating thickness can also be checked by using a micrometer on a sample
piece of metal sprayed with the same technique. If any thin sections are found,
more metal can be added.
Flat parts should be positioned and sprayed with a back and forth motion
to attain uniform appearance with full coverage. The first deposited layer
should be from 0.003 to 0.005 in. thick. After the first layer is deposited, the
part or the gun should be rotated 90°, repeating this performance and rotation
after each layer is applied until the required thickness has been built up.
Machine Element Work.-For machine element work, the piece is generally
set up in a lathe or other machine tool, and the gun mounted on the tool post
so that it traverses the work automatically. The distance from the gun nozzle to
the work surface may vary from 4 to 10 in., depending on the type of the gun,
the substrate and the material being sprayed. The surface speed of the work
varies from 25 to 200 feet per minute. The traverse is adjusted to deposit
only a few thousandths of an inch of material per pass.
Flame Spraying 1 29.17
If the traverse is too slow, local overheating may result. (Normally the
temperature of the workpiece should not rise above 300° F/149°C during the
spraying operation.) Under some circumstances, particularly with heavy sec-
tions, a mild preheat is useful, and tends to remove any moisture that can
condense from the products of combustion of the fuel gas; it also tends to
pre-expand the work slightly, resulting in less stress in the finished coating.
In any event, a preheat temperature of 200° F (93°C) is sufficient.
Another effect of slow traverse is the development of a laminated structure
as a result of excessive oxide and dust trapped in the surface pores. Such
coatings may not take a good finish, and may even exfoliate in service.
Internal Diameters.-Equipment is available for providing extensions on
spray guns to allow deposition on internal diameters. Shallow holes or inside
diameters to depths equal to the diameter can be sprayed with standard model
guns without extensions. Deeper holes are sprayed by means of air-cooled or
water-cooled extensions, and are limited by the length of the extension and the
skill of the operator.
Sprayed Particle Size.-Sprayed metal particles vary greatly in size. Diam-
eters in the range of 0.0001 to 0.0015 in. are usual. If the feed is too slow, a
large proportion of the metal particles will be extremely fine. Since the oxide
film thickness is nearly the same regardless of particle size, it is readily apparent
that extremely fine coatings will contain a large percentage of the oxides. Such
coatings are brittle, difficult to machine and susceptible to cracking. On the
other hand, if the speed is too rapid, spray particles have insufficient plasticity,
resulting in nonuniform, poorly adhering coatings.
Substrates.-In general, flame spraying does not affect the properties of
the workpiece (substrate). Exceptions may be the self-bonding materials, which
can lower the substrate's fatigue life. Flame spraying can be successfully done
on nonmetallic substrates such as wood, glass and plastic.
Spraying Distance.-It is important that the flame spray gun be held away
from the substrate surface at the prescribed spraying distance for the type of
coating desired. This distance should be maintained as closely as possible at all
times. A close distance may result in crazing, with low thermal shock resistance;
and too great a spray distance can result in soft, spongy deposits with low physi-
cal properties and lowered deposit efficiency. A range of 5 to 8 in. is normal.
Variations in type of equipment and spray techniques affect the quality and
properties of the coating. The operating instructions of the equipment man-
ufacturer should be carefully considered.
Safety and Health Protection Considerations
The handling of oxygen and fuel gases is always a matter for careful con-
sideration and good practice. The general principles involved are well covered
in USA Standard Z49.1-1967, "Safety in Welding and Cutting." For the special
condition of wire metallizing, the cylinders of oxygen and fuel gases should
not be in the immediate vicinity of the thermal spraying operation; furthermore,
the hose connections should be very carefully checked for tightness when
working inside confined spaces.
Exhaust Systems.-Adequate ventilation is essential in thermal spraying
operations. Some metals, such as lead and cadmium, are extremely toxic, and
others, such as copper, tin and zinc, produce fumes and dust that, if inhaled
in sufficient quantity, can lead to serious pulmonary disorders. Exhaust systems
vary in type, but for manual work in a spray booth, a minimum air velocity of
200 feet per minute through the entire front opening is required. Lathe exhaust
hoods are used to pick up dust from spray operations in machine element work.
Spray rooms having exhaust vents, usually at the floor level, are used for
spraying larger pieces. Spray booths having a water curtain to trap toxic metal
dust are used in places where the exhaust air from the booth cannot be con-
ducted a safe distance away from the work areas.
Masks.-Even the most elaborate exhaust system is inadequate for the
spraying of lead and cadmium, and a force-feed type of gas mask is a necessity.
Air is taken from the compressed air line to the mask through a suitable filter
and a pressure regulator. A positive pressure is maintained within the mask
to prevent the entrance of contaminated atmospheric air.
A force-feed mask is required to ensure adequate protection during metal-
lizing operations, and for outside work or work in any area where conventional
exhaust equipment cannot be used; such a mask is also necessary when noxious
and toxic materials are sprayed. Filter-type respirators are frequently used
when spraying zinc, tin and copper in a booth, but do not offer sufficient pro-
tection where no exhaust system is provided. Relying solely on a filter mask
and goggles while applying a coating of zinc to large equipment parts located
outside a building is insufficient protection, and can result in pulmonary
troubles.
Work Clothing.-Sprayed metal is hot. If it is accidentally sprayed into an
opening in the operator's clothing, results can be painful, and severe damage
done. Shoe tops should be covered by trouser legs that do not have cuffs. Open
shirt-collars and unbuttoned pocket flaps are potential hazards. Gloves should
be the kind with close-fitting wrists, not open gauntlets.
Protective Barriers.-Asbestos curtains and portable, fireproof canvas shields
are sometimes required to enclose work areas. Where there is a possibility of
the spray stream being misdirected, or where the glare of the gun flame could
injure unprotected eyes, barriers such as those used to protect against arc
welding flash are erected to screen the spraying operations.
Eye Protection.-Safety goggles should always be worn; fitted with the
proper lenses, they offer protection against the glare of the gun flame when
high melting point metals are being sprayed. Darkness of the lens should be
in the range of 3 to 5.
Ear Protection.-Eardrum protection should be utilized in accordance with
the AWS standard, "Safety Practices in Metallizing," and local codes.
CERAMIC ROD
Introduction
Thermal spraying of ceramic rods came into being in the 1950's. It pro-
vided the first modern successful system for applying a high melting point
ceramic coating. Its background of development and application covers both
space environment and industry. Thermal spraying of ceramic rods is an
established system, capable of producing sound coatings from a range of
useful engineering materials.
Principle of Operation
Figure 29.11 illustrates the principle of the gun for the atomization of solid
ceramic rods in a combustion flame. A rod is fed into a high temperature

flame where the end of the rod is melted. The molten material is atomized by
a blast of compressed air, and the resulting spray delivered to the substrate or
work surface to be coated. The commonly used heat sources for melting the
rod are multiple flames of oxyacetylene or methylacetylene propadiene gases.
Material feed (rod feed) is accomplished by mechanically driven plastic
rollers in contact with the rod.
Air Cap
Oxygen
Fig. 29.11.-Schematic drawing of nozzle used for thermal spraying of ceramic rods
Impacting spray particles flatten, interlock and overlap one another, so that
they are securely bonded together to form a dense coherent coating, built up
to the desired thickness. The adherence of the coating to a surface results
primarily from mechanical fastening of the spray particles as they deform to
take the shape of the suitably prepared surface being coated. Thus the proper
degree of substrate roughness for anchoring is a prerequisite for creating an
optimum coating.
Spray particle velocities have been measured from 400 to 1200 feet per
second, depending on operating parameters and material selection. Obviously,
particles with high velocity and low viscosity flatten to a great extent on
striking a surface. Particles such as these force themselves into the irregularities
of the surface they strike. They bond securely, and tend to have few pores.
Conversely, particles with low velocity deform only slightly and produce a
mQre porous coating.
Such a system permits the use of a very short flame or heating zone, since
the end of the rod must be molten in order to provide a liquid film that will
separate from the rod and atomize to the desired particle size. Also, a close
control of spraying rate is achieved by the rate of feed of the rod into the flame.
This system probably produces the best possible adherence and uniformity
for the least amount of operating skill and effort. However, limitations do
arise because of the necessity of obtaining the ceramic in rod form, and be-
cause of the relatively low application rate.
Equipment
Guns for the thermal spraying of ceramic rods are available from man-
ufacturers of metallizing equipment. They are not the same as metallizing
To Air Supply
Automatic Air Dryer and Cleaner
Manifold Acetyl.ne Tank•
Fig. 29.12.-Schematic illustration of ceramic rod spray system
guns, but have been developed from them and many of the component parts
are the same or similar.
Because the ceramics of general interest have high melting points and low
thermal conductivity, particular attention must be given to the efficiency of heat
transfer. This has necessitated special design of gas nozzles, better air caps,
and slower and more uniform rod feed systems. In other words, thermal spray-
ing guns for ceramic rods are, as a result, more critical to operate than metal-
lizing guns; and greater attention must be paid to adjustments in order to
achieve optimum results.
Figure 29.12 is a schematic representation of the over-all installation of
a ceramic rod spray system; this system can also be set up as a completely
portable package.
Several available modifications of the basic hand-held gun serve to convert
it into a fully automated multiple-head gun for high deposition. Extension
equipment is available with angular aircaps that allow spraying the inside of
holes down to a minimum diameter of 2 inches. An automatic, high-deposition
combustion gun is shown in Fig. 29.13.
Fig. 29.13.-Automatic high-volume combustion gun for thermal spraying of

ceramic rods
SILICATE CERAMICS I
ALUM IN IDES
SILICIDES
BORIDE CERAMICS I
OXIDE CERAMICS
NITRIDE CERAMICS
CARBIDE CERAMICS I
0 f 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
oc 1650 2200 2750 3300 3900
Fig. 29.14.-Some common ceramic materials and their melting ranges
Materials
The ceramics used in the thermal spraying process are refractory materials
that have been processed at high temperatures. They include metallic oxides,
carbides, borides, aluminides, silicates and silicides, nitrides and combinations
of these materials. As presently applied to thermal spraying of ceramic rods,
the term ceramics usually refers to the oxides of metals, or combinations of
oxides of different metals.
With the rod system and techniques currently available, there is potential
for thermal spraying of almost any ceramic material that melts congruently
(under 5000°F/2760°C) to form a stable liquid, and that can be fabricated
in the form of rods.
Figure 29.14 identifies the more common materials of interest in the general
ceramic category, along with their melting ranges. Knowledge of melting
point alone, however, is not enough to make selection of a refractory ceramic
coating. A later section of this chapter lists other specific property data for
the rod system, and these should be consulted where appropriate.
Each coating material has its own characteristics, economics, advantages and
limitations. The material is usually selected according to the end results
required, with consideration given to the following factors:
Thermal, chemical and electrical characteristics
Melting point
Adherence or bond strength
Density or porosity
Rate of application
Cost of application
Cost of thermal spraying equipment
Rod materials now commercially available are limited to oxide ceramics
singly or in combination, although many other ceramics have been sprayed
experimentally in laboratories and could be produced on special order where
the expense is warranted.
Rods are usually in the form of a pure oxide self-bonded product although
glass-bonded and plastic-bonded are also used to a lesser ex~nt. The plastic-
bonded rods have been introduced recently from Europe. Although they do
spray satisfactorily, their performance is not considered to be equal to that of
the pure oxide self-bonded rods. Sizes of rods range from 1/8 to 5116 in.
diameter by 24 in. long, with current preference for 114 in. diameter. The
necessary steps in applying coatings are the same as those for general metal-
lizing.
Proper control of operating conditions and process variables is necessary
to the production of satisfactory rod sprayed coatings. Thermal gradients built
up in a coating during spraying are detrimental. Thus, too close a spraying
distance is to be avoided; conversely, too great a spraying distance will result
in a particle so cool that it will not plastically deform to produce a coating.
The optimum distance for spraying is determined by experimentation.
Among other factors, it depends on particle velocity, energy input into the gun,
particle size, melting point of the sprayed material, rate of gun traverse and
substrate characteristics.
Safety
Safety in thermal spraying of ceramic rods requires the same precautionary
measures used in standard metallizing practice, which has been discussed
previously.
Structure of Coating
The structure of a rod sprayed ceramic of any material depends pcimarily
on the velocity of the sprayed particle and on its condition as it strikes the
surface being coated. Normally, these particles are completely molten and
spherical in shape. As the particles impinge upon a surface, they flatten, inter-
lock and freeze into laminar or lenticular shapes to form a tight, coherent
coating. The degree of particle deformation depends on a number of factors,
such as: the viscosity of the molten particles, thermal characteristics (specific
heat, heat of fusion, conductivity, superheat), quenching rate, particle velocity
and particle size. Thus, coating porosities vary from only a few open pores to
porosities of 10 to 12%; in general, however, they are below 8 percent.
The coatings with small pores and very low porosity can be expected to
retard transport of gases and liquids. However, since the coatings are not
completely impervious, they will inhibit attack rather than prevent it.
Purpose of Coatings Applied by Rod
The general purpose of rod sprayed ceramic coatings is to protect the sub-
strate materials against environments that will attack them, or to provide
different surface characteristics that will thereby extend the capabilities of
the base material.
To accomplish this, rod coatings can be applied that:
1. Adhere well to a wide variety of substrate materials
2. Are economically applied in controlled thicknesses
3. Have high physical stability
4. Have good chemical stability
5. Have good thermal shock resistance
6. Have lew thermal conductivity
Plame Sprgying I 29.23
7. Have high resistance to wear

8. Are electrical insulators
9. Provide controlled emissivity
10. Can be ground to close tolerances and fine finishes
SELF-FLUXING ALLOYS
General Description
A fused metallized coating is a coating applied by any one of several thermal
spray methods and subsequently fused, thus providing a dense, uniform material
with a metallurgical bond to the base material.
The application of fused metallized coatings generally involves four distinct
operations:
1. Preparation of the surface
2. Spraying the surfacing material
3. Fusing to form a metallurgical bond with the base material
4. Finishing to the required surface and dimensional tolerances
The last operation is not required in all cases, since the fused deposit may
be sufficiently smooth for applications not classified as machine element parts.
Baffles and buffing fixtures are examples of parts not classified as machine
element parts.
Coating Materials
With very few exceptions, the materials available for application as fused
metallized coatings are hard-surfacing alloys and are generally available in
powder form. The mesh size of the powder is usually 100 to 150. However,
the powder may be a medium size of 140 to 325 mesh or a fine grade, 270
mesh to 10 microns.
Most, if not all, of the fusible alloys fall into three general groups: Group 1,
nickel-silicon-boron or nickel-chromium-silicon-boron alloys; Group 2, the co-
balt-chromium-silicon-boron alloys; and Group 3, tungsten carbide composites.
Alloys of Group 1 have coefficients of expansion slightly higher than carbon
and alloy steels, and have a fusing point in the range of 1800 to 2050°F (982
to 1121 °C).
Group 2 alloys have expansion characteristics more nearly matching those
of the carbon and alloy steels used in the manufacture of machinery parts,
and have a fusion point in the range of 1920 to 2080°F (1050 to l140°C).
Important factors to be considered when choosing a coating material are:
(1) fusion temperature and its effect on the base material; (2) coefficient of
expansion in relation to that of the base metal, where considerable fluctuation
will exist in the operating temperature; ( 3) oxidation resistance; ( 4) machin-
ability; (5) corrosion resistance; (6) abrasion resistance; and (7) hardenability
of the base metal. It should be remembered that, if the coefficients of expansion
differ significantly, cracking and failure of the coatings may result. Consult
the manufacturer of the materials for exact data. See Table 29.3 (pp. 29.24-
29.25) for a list of typical materials available.
BASE METALS COATED

Fused metallized coatings may be applied to the SAE steels, whose carbon
'0
..,,.,""
.........
Table 29.3-Nominal compositions for fused metallized coatings
~
Group !-Nickel Base
~
1::1
Composition (Percent) Fusion Temperature -
Type Hardness, ~
Rc ~
Ni Cr B Si Fe c Co Cu Mo w OF oc ~
--- --- ------------ ~·
AMS 4775 65.0- 13.0- 2.75- 3.0- 3.0- - - - - 56-61 1900 1038
- - -
--
75.0 20.0 4.75 5.0 5.0 - - - -
Ni-Cr-Si-B Bal. 13.5 3.00 4.25 4. 75 0. 75 - - - - 56-61 1980 1082
" Bal. 11.5 2.50 3. 75 4.25 0.65 - - - - 45-50 1980 1082
" Bal. 10.0 2.00 2.25 2.50 0.45 - - - - 35-40 1980 1082
" Bal. 5.0 1.25 3.25 1.0 0.25 - - - - 26-31 2050 1121
" Bal. 26.0 3.30 4.0 1.0 0.95 - - - - 54 1950 1066
" Bal. 11.0 2.50 3.25 3.75 0.55 - - - 16.0 51-57 2150 1177
" 73.5 14.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 0.65 - - - - 56-61 - -
" 80.0 10.5 2.3 3.5 3.5 0.30 - - - - 46-51 - -
" Bal. 14.50 3.50 4.50 4.50 0. 75 - - - - 58-63 1850 1010
" 82.0 9.5 1.8 3.2 3.3 0.25 - - - - 37-42 - -
70.0 15.0 3.0 4.5 4.5 - - - - - 59-62 1870 1021
" 77.0 10.0 1.5 4.0 4.0 - - - - - 44-52 1920 1049
" - - 35-42 2010 1099
" 85.0 7.5 1.5 4.0 1.5 - - -
" 82.0 7.0 2.9 4.5 - - - - - - 60 - -
" 81.0 11.0 2.0 2.0 2.0 0.3 1.5 - - - 38 - -
" 78.0 11.5 3.0 3.5 3.5 0.4 - - - - 48 - -
" Bal. 14.0 3.25 4.0 4.0 0. 75 - - - - 60 - -
" Bal. 9.0 2.0 3.0 3. 75 0.45 - - - - 45 - -
" Bal. 17.0 3.30 3.9 2.0 0.95 - - - - 61 - -
" 83.0 10.0 2.5 2.5 2.0 0.10 - - - - 35 1875 1024
" 70.5 17.0 3.5 4.0 4.0 1.0 - - - - 60-63 1875 1024
" 67.0 16.0 4.0 4.0 2.5 0.5 - 3.0 3.0 - 58-61 1875 1024
Ni-~i-B Bal. - 1.5 3.5 1.5 0.25 - - - - 30 1975 1079
93.0 - 1.9 3.5 - - - - - - 38 2000 1093
96.0 - 1.5 2.5 - - - - - - 8-12 2050 1121
" Bal. - 1.35 3.40 3.0 max 0.12 - - - 28-33 1925 1052
" - -
- 17-22 1950 1066
" Bal. 1.25 2.30 1.5 max 0.10 - - -
95.0 - 1.8 3.0 - - - - - - 18-22 2025 1107
" 91.0 - 2.9 4.5 - - - - - - 60 - -
" - 60
" 72.0 3.4 4.4 0.6 0.14 20.0 - - - - -
---- I
Group 2-Cobalt Base
Composition (Percent) Fusion Temperature

Type Hardness,
Rc
Co Cr Ni B Si Fe c w I Mo we OF oc
- - - ---- ------------ ---
Co-C~;Si-B Bal. 21.0 - 2.4 1.6 - 0.07 - - - 54 - -
40.0 19.0 27.0 3.0 4.0 1.0 - - 6.0 - 50 2050 1121
" 45.0 19.0 13.0 2.5 3.0 - 1.0 13.0 - - 54-56 2050 1121
" 50.0 19.0 13.0 1.5 2.5 - 1.0 8.0 - - 43-46 2050 1121
" 52.0 19.0 13.0 1.5 2.5 - 1.0 9.0 - - 48-50 2080 1138
" 42.0 19.0 13.0 3.0 3.0 - 1.5 15.0 - - 60-62 1920 1049
" Bal. 21.0 17.0 3.2 3.0 - 0.30 10.0 - - 55--{)0 2040 1116
I
Group 3-Tungsten Carbide (WC) Composites OF oc
- 8.5 36.0 1.6 2.0 1.5 0.45 - - 50.0 58-60 1950 1066
- 11.0 46.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 0.5 - I - 35.0 62 1875 1024
- 3.5 14.0 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.1 - - 80.0 62 1875 1024
- 8.5 35.5 1.5 2.0 2.0 0.5 - - 50.0 62 1875 1024
I
Miscellaneous
Composition (Percent)
Hardness
-----
Co I Fe I Cr W B Si C I Ni Mo Other Rc OF oc
---------------- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ------ ----- ------------ ~
Bal. - 26.0 9.0 - - - 16.0 - 5.0 max 41-45 2250 1232 ·~
(1>
Bal. - 30.0 14.0 - - - 2.0 - 6.0 max 53-58 2200 1204
70.0 22.0 - - - - - - - 8.0 max 40-44 2000 1093
10.0 Bal. 24.0 - - - - 2.0 8.0 5.0 max 62-67 2200 1204 ·~
...,
70.0 Bal. 5.0 - - - - 2.0 3.0 9.0 max 65-70 2050 1121 •l:l
.'<
~·
-.......
~
'!J
~
Ul
content is below 0.25% and which are included in the 1000, 1300, 4000, 4100,
5000, 5100, 6100, 8600 and 8700 series.
When a preheat of 500 to 700°F (260 to 371 °0) prior to fusing is followed
by slow cooling after fusion, SAE steels having 0.25 to 0.50% carbon may be
coated if they fall in the following series: 1000, 1300, 4000, 4100, 5000, 5100,
5200, 6100, 8600, 8700 and 9200.
Steels with carbon contents above 0.5% may have fused metallized coatings
applied to them. This should not be attempted, however, until considerable
experience has been gained in fusing the lower carbon grades. A careful
analysis of the possible heat effects should also be made.
Fused metallized coatings have been applied satisfactorily to alloy cast
irons, pearlitic malleable irons, nickel and nickel alloys, copper and copper
alloys and refractory alloys. For specific coating procedures regarding the base
materials mentioned, the manufacturer or equipment supplier should be con-
sulted.
When working with any of the austenitic 300 series stainless steels, or other
high-temperature alloys, it is advisable to preheat to 400 to 900°F (204 to
482 °C), depending on section size. This is necessitated by the high coefficient
of expansian of these materials. The preheat will expand the base metal to the
size it would attain during the spraying operation and will help to prevent the
formation of cracks in the sprayed coating before the fusion operation is per-
formed.
Special precautions should be taken when Group 1 (Table 29.3) coatings
are applied to AISI stainless steels in the 403, 410, 416, 420, 440A, 440B and
440C series. Nickel-chromium-boron coatings are generally fused at a tem-
perature of 1900 to 2000°F (1038 to 1093°C). The 400 series stainless steels
should be placed in a furnace and maintained at 1300°·F (704°C) for a period
of at least two hours following the fusing operation. This helps to prevent
cracking in the overlay resulting from the expansion of the base material with
simultaneous shrinking of the coating. This is a characteristic peculiar to the
400 series stainless steels.
In general, Group 2 alloys are more successfully applied to 400 series stain-
less steel base materials, primarily because of a closer match of expansion
characteristics. Controlled slow cooling and stress-relieving procedures should
be followed. Resistance to cracking in either group is a function of alloy duc-
tility. Alloys in either group with hardnesses of less than Rockwell "C" 25
usually will not crack when the martensitic-base metal is hardened. Conversely,
alloys in either group with hardnesses above Rockwell "C" 25 will almost with-
out exception crack when the martensitic-base metal is hardened.
Preparation
Flat parts such as wear pads, strips and baffle plates are prepared by grit
blasting, using SAE 14 to 18 mesh crushed chilled iron grit and 90 to 100 psi
air pressure with suction-type blasting equipment. For parts thinner than 1/8
in. or where surface hardness is below Rockwell "C" 20, SAE 24 to 26 grit
should be used. On thin sections air pressure should be reduced to between
50 and 60 psi to prevent warpage due to the peening effect of the blasting
operation.
In general, the heavier the coating to be applied, and the harder the base
material, the larger the grit used. This is particularly true on flat surfaces,
COMMERCIAL MACHINE
FINISH
Fig. 29.15.-Typical shaft preparation for application of fused metallized coating
where tensile stress in the coating is imposed as a shearing force at the bond
level.
Hardened steel may be annealed before blasting, where practical. Materials
over Rockwell "C" 50 in hardness, which cannot be annealed, can be coated
by blasting with aluminum oxide. After blasting a light preheat is used and a
coating eight or ten mils thick is applied. The work is then heated to 800 to
1000°F (427 to 538°C) and the balance of the coating is sprayed on. Fusing
should follow immediately.
Areas that are not to be coated should be masked prior to blasting. After
blasting, the masking should be removed. The unblasted area will not accept
the sprayed deposit. On machine element parts such as shafts, bearing sleeves
and plungers, outside diameters or worn sections should be undercut to a mini-
mum of 0.010 in. on the radius or as required to clean up the worn area before
blasting.
Typical shaft preparation is illustrated in Fig. 29.15. The preparation is dis-
tinctly different from the usual metallizing preparations. Sharp corners are to
be avoided. After machining, the part should be masked for approximately 1/8
to 1I 4 in. from the undercut area for a distance of several inches so that blast-
ing will not damage adjacent areas. In blasting, the grit sizes and pressures listed
for flat surfaces should be used. Compressed air used in blasting should be
clean and dry. Rust from dirty pipe lines, or rust caused by moisture in the
air line wetting the steel grit, may contaminate the surface and result in bubbles
and flaws after fusion. A correctly blasted surface should present a uniform
appearance with no shiny areas. Once a surface has been blasted it should not
be touched even with supposedly "clean" hands.
If ropes or slings are necessary to handle the part, they should be attached
at other areas. The part should be sealed in a plastic bag or wrapped in kraft
paper and sealed with tape if the spraying operation does not begin within fifteen
minutes after blasting.
Spraying
Flat Parts.-Flat parts should be positioned and sprayed with a back and
forth motion to attain uniform appearance with full coverage. The first de-
posited layer should be from 0.003 to 0.005 in. thick. When the first layer is
deposited, the part or gun should be rotated 90 degrees. This performance and
rotation are repeated after each layer has been applied until the required
thickness has been built up.
Production work can usually be set up so that the operation is completely

mechanized.
Cylindrical Parts.-Cylindrical parts may be chucked in a lathe or holding
fixture or mounted between centers on a lathe and revolved at a surface speed
of 20 to 60 feet per minute. The spray gun or guns are mounted on a carriage
or traveling device to provide a uniform rate of travel. Such a setup can deposit
material to a uniform thickness with variations as low as 0.001 inch.
Traversing mechanisms should be adjusted to provide complete, uniform
coverage. A number of light coats is preferable to a few heavy coats, since
slow traverse and heavy single-pass deposits tend to cause localized overheat-
ing and mechanical bond failure before the part is ready for fusing.
Internal Diameters.-Equipment is available for providing extensions on
spray guns to allow deposition on internal diameters. Shallow holes or inside
diameters to depths equal to the diameter can be sprayed with standard model
guns without extensions.
Deeper holes are sprayed by means of air-cooled or water-cooled extensions,
and are limited by the length of the extension and the skill of the operator.
Coating Thickness.-The thickness of the coating to be deposited is de-
pendent on a number of factors:
1. The thickness required to bring the worn part to size or, in the case of
new parts, the economical thickness, should be the total of the amount
of allowable wear plus approximately 0.010 inch.
2. If the part is to be finish ground, additional material must be left for this
operation, and the amount will vary from a possible low of 0.015 in. on
the diameter of the part to a high of 0.050 in., depending upon the
diameter, the length of the part and the amount of shrinkage to be ex-
pected. This determination is a matter of experience, and is also de-
pendent upon the skill of the operator in applying uniform coatings.
3. Upon fusing, each sprayed particle melts and coalesces with adjacent
particles and welds to the base metal. A shrinkage of approximately 20%
of the sprayed thickness occurs.
Since the as-sprayed coat will shrink by 20%, the proper as-sprayed thick-
ness can be determined by adding 25% to the desired fused thickness. Thus,
if 0.040 in. fused is required, an additional 25% is applied, or a total of 0.050
in. is sprayed; this shrinks 20% and results in 0.040 in. fused.
Average coverages are indicated in Table 29.4, but these do not reflect con-
sideration of deposition efficiency.
Table 29.4--Average coverage in square Deposition efficiency depends upon
inches per pound; Group 1 and 2 alloys the size and shape of the base part,
and ranges from 80 to 92 percent.
Overlay Thickness, in. Sq. in.(lb
Fusing the Sprayed Deposit
107-113 Fusing should be started imme-
53-56
35-37 diately after the spraying operation is
25-26 completed, before the heat developed
during spraying is lost.
Small production parts can be fused in a controlled atmosphere furnace.
The high cost of equipment, however, and limitations on the size and shape
of parts restrict this operation to high-production operations or job shops spe-

cializing in this work.
The most common method of fusing is with an oxyacetylene torch or other
oxy-fuel gas torch using a neutral or reducing flame. An oxy-propane torch
with a multiple-hole tip may also be used. Cylindrical parts are usually fused
by revolving the part in a lathe or fixture at the maximum speed at which an
operator can maintain a sharply focused view of the revolving surface. If the
surface appears to blur and detail becomes hazy, the unit is running too fast.
The operator brings the base metal to a dull red heat in an area adjacent to
the sprayed deposit and slowly moves the torch toward the coating, gradually
bringing the temperature to a point where the coating assumes a glossy or
greasy appearance. When this occurs, the sprayed particles melt and flow to-
gether, bonding to the base metal. The glossy appearance is maintained by
keeping the torch in motion across the surface.
Overheating should be avoided, since overheating will cause the fused ma-
terial to flow (Fig. 29.16). When overheating occurs there is a color change
but this change is difficult for a beginner to recognize. Shortly after the color
change, very fine lines appear in the glossy surface. These lines are breaks in
the plastic metal surface and occur only seconds before the material leaves the
plastic range and becomes fluid. Quick removal of the heat at this point, or
deflection of the heat to another section of the part, prevents the fluid forma-
tion. When the part cools slightly, the torch can be returned and the operation
continued as before.
Fig. 29.16.-Fusing of a coating on 20 feet of nichrome roll, 9 in. diameter
The aforementioned procedure applies to the Group 1 alloys but must be

modified for Group 2 alloys. In fusing Group 2 alloys, where flawless surfaces
are required, only oxyacetylene torches, adjusted to a reducing flame, should

be used.
When discussing fusing with a torch or torches, some uncertainty usually
exists regarding how much heat can be applied and how large a part can be
handled in a lathe or fixture and fused by a hand operation. Parts as large as
24 in. in diameter, 23 feet in length and weighing in the range of 2 to 3 tons
have been successfully sprayed and fused in this manner.
Finishing the Fused Deposit
Because most of the materials sprayed are for hard-surfacing purposes, grind-
ing is usually the most economical method of finishing. Although most alloys
can be cut with the proper grade of carbide tool, close tolerance work is difficult
because of excessive tool wear and the large amount of heat generated. Dry
grinding may be suitable for certain operations, but generated heat and fast
wheel wear make close tolerance work difficult. Wet grinding of Group 1 alloys
with silicon carbide grinding wheels or Group 2 alloys with aluminum oxide
grinding wheels produces close tolerance parts, fine finishes and economical
stock removal mtes. Where necessary, grinding can be followed by superfinish-
ing, which involves a machine honing operation under controlled conditions,
using abrasive stones as fine as 1000 grit.
Finishes as smooth as 2 microinch can be obtained and the operation con-
trolled to produce either highly reflective surfaces or frosty matte finishes as
required.
Operator Safety and Comfort
Routine safety precautions as outlined in Chapter 9, Section 1 of the Weld-
ing Handbook should be observed. No special safety precautions are necessary
during the spraying operations.
Particular attention should be paid to the heat radiating from large areas
during the fusing operation. Temperatures of 195°F (91 °C) have been re-
corded 20 feet away from the actual part. As a result of this high temperature,
oxygen and fuel gas cylinders should not be stored anywhere in this area.
As a routine precaution, all torch hoses and fittings should be inspected regu-
larly and replaced if found defective. The usual jackets, aprons, gloves, face
shields and goggles should be worn. The face shields, helmets or goggles should
be equipped with lenses capable of filtering infrared, ultraviolet and sodium
rays that radiate during the fusing operation.
If the fusing operation is to be done in a confined area sufficient fresh air
should be supplied. This is necessary since the oxygen content of the air can
be lowered with extreme rapidity if several multitip torches -are in use simul-
taneously.
PLASMA SPRAYING
THE NATURE OF PLASMA

Plasma is present in any electrical discharge in a gas; it consists of the
char.ged particles that transport the charge across the gap. Thus, the blinding
light of an arc comes from a plasma; so does the luminous glow of a neon tube.
Plasma Spraying I 29.31
The stream of electrons and ions in a vacuum tube can be considered a plasma;
so can the ionized gas that excites the phosphor in a fluorescent lamp. But
most of these devices operate at comparatively low temperatures. The plasma
domain really begins above 10,000°F (5538°C), where a small percentage
of the atoms begins to be ionized.
The plasma device used in the flame spray process achieves its high tem-
perature by passing a suitable gas through an arc confined in the bore of a
nozzle, thus constricting or pinching the arc to form a plasma jet of very hot,
fast-moving, ionized matter. The arc is struck inside a small, cylindrical cham-
ber usually made of metal. One end of the chamber is, or contains, a front
electrode (anode) , perforated at its center to provide an orifice for the plasma
jet. The other end contains the back or other electrode (cathode), usually of
tungsten. Electrode melting is prevented by circulating water within internal
channels in the front electrode and about the shank portion of the rear elec-
trode. The cooled walls of the front electrode lower the temperature of the
gases in the outer regions of the plasma. Because cooling lowers the ionization
and, hence, the conductivity of the gases in the outer regions, the current in
the discharge tends to concentrate in the hotter central region of the plasma.
This increases the current density and a thermal pinch effect brings a further
increase in temperature and conductivity. When the current density in the
center of the discharge exceeds a certain level, a second pinch effect takes over.
This is the magnetic pinch, where the charged particles flowing in the same
direction are attracted to each other by the self-induced magnetic field. The
particles crowd closer together, and this constriction of the discharge even
further brings the plasma to a still higher density. The combination of electro-
magnetic forces and high pressure now developed in the chamber ejects the
plasma from the orifice in a long beam of highly excited particles too brilliant
to look at with unprotected eyes.
TORCH DESIGN
Several different types of plasma torches have been developed independently
by American firms. In every case, an arc is contained within a water-cooled
tube into which gas is injected. The gas picks up energy from the arc and
issues from the device in a configuration resembling an open welding flame.
The two types of gas-stabilized torches that have been most widely employed
for spraying are the vortex-stabilized jet and the gas sheath stabilized jet.
The Vortex-Stabilized Jet
The electrodes are usually made of tungsten, although carbon or other suit-
able materials may be used. Both electrodes are water cooled. Gas is intro-
duced into the chamber with a swirling motion and produces an intense vortex
at the exit through the front electrode. This causes the arc to travel from the
solid electrode out through the nozzle and back to the face of the front
electrode.
The Gas Sheath Stabilized Jet
Most torches in use today for the application of coatings can be classified
under this heading. It will be noted that the arc path is between a tungsten
cathode in a water-cooled holder and a hollow water-cooled copper anode.
In this type of device, the arc remains within the nozzle and is prevented from
29.32/ Thermal Spraying
striking the wall prematurely by a sheath of gas passing through the nozzle.
The arc, when properly adjusted, strikes through this gas sheath only after
passing a considerable distance down the nozzle. Vortex flow of gas is not
generally used in this torch, although there has been an increasing tendency
to employ some measure of gas rotation. Arc positioning is accomplished by
control of gas flow pattern and control of turbulence.
The rear electrode is fixed and properly aligned with the nozzle or front
electrode during operation. The flow of gas through the orifice is governed by
the gas pressure as determined by the flowmeter setting. Some torch designs
may require an adjustable electrode, but this is uncommon.
Variations in Design of Equipment
Several nozzle configurations can be used to accommodate different plasma
gases and to spray different types of powders. The torch is fitted with a pistol-
grip handle. The handle and outer casing can be removed so that the gun may
be mounted in an extension for doing internal diameters.
A great deal of development work is still being done on torch design and
operation. One important factor in producing deposits reliably is a good sys-
tem for the delivery of powder at the proper rate to the proper point in the
flame. Since the powder particles are in the flame for a length of time on the
order of 2 X 10-5 seconds, slight variations in positioning can cause major
changes in the amount of heat transmitted to the powder. The powder was
injected into the nozzle bores of early equipment through a side port. Although
excellent coatings were produced with good deposit efficiency, production
spraying was often a problem owing to material build-up in the bore. With
improved nozzle design, and injection of powder into the flame beyond the
end of the bore, spraying speeds and deposit efficiency were increased substan-
tially. Thus the problem of build-up in the nozzle bore was eliminated. The
choice of powder injection point is governed by the material being sprayed and
the coating properties desired.
Torches have a handling capacity of about 40 kilowatts. Direct current is
used at 50 to 500 volts and 80 to 800 amperes.
GAS SUPPLY
Gases are utilized for three purposes in plasma spray systems: as the plasma
generating gas, to sustain the arc; as auxiliary gas, mixed in smaller volumes
with the plasma generating gas; and as a powder-carrying gas. The powder-
carrier gas and the plasma generating gas have a common source.
Monatomic gases or diatomic gases can be used in plasma spraying equip-
ment. Argon and helium are the two most frequently used monatomic gases,
and nitrogen is the most generally used diatomic gas. With the monatomic
gases, it is possible to attain temperatures high enough for many purposes.
Polyatomic gases, however, have a greater heat content; they not only release
the energy that is needed for ionization, but also that which is used for dis-
sociation. The choice of the gas determines the qualities of the plasma. The
quality of these gases has an important bearing on nozzle and electrode life
of the plasma torch, high purity being most desirable for maximum life of
these components.
Plasma guns are designed to operate with gases from conventional industrial
gas cylinders or manifold systems. Regulators should be used to provide pres-
sure control between 0 and 100 psig to the plasma gun console. To obtain
the maximum nozzle and cathode life for a given gas, it is extremely impor-
tant that the gases have a very low moisture and oxygen content. Dry gases
are recommended, and the dew point should have a maximum of -76°F
( -60°C). Oxygen content of the gases should not exceed 0.3 percent.
The advantages and disadvantages of each gas used in plasma spraying are
listed below.
Nitrogen.-This gas is widely used because it is inexpensive, diatomic and
permits higher spraying speeds and higher deposit efficiencies. Nozzle life will
be shorter, but this factor is more than offset by the lower cost of the gas.
Argon.-This gas is the most commonly used in the spraying of carbides.
At the present time, higher quality carbide coatings are produced with argon.
Hydrogen.-Hydrogen is used in percentages of 5 to 25% as an auxiliary
gas, mixed with nitrogen or argon. The use of hydrogen raises the voltage of
the arc, permitting the use of higher power levels.
Helium.-Most plasma torches will operate with this gas. It is generally used
as an auxiliary gas, however, seldom as a primary gas.
POWER SUPPLY
Power supplies designed for use in plasma generating systems should have
the following characteristics: 100% duty cycle-constant-current type; opera-
bility with several open-circuit and load voltages; variable current control;
compactness (at least easy movability); reliability (minimum maintenance);
quiet operation.
Of the three major types of direct-current-producing power units, i.e., sele-
nium rectifiers, silicon rectifiers and motor-generator sets, only the first two
mentioned possess all the above features.
Electronic Rectifier Power Units-Selenium and/ or Silicon
The basic power unit of this type is essentially a three-phase current trans-
former in conjunction with a saturable reactor and a bank of selenium or
silicon rectifiers. The power supply generally contains the necessary current
contactor, remote control circuits, overload protection and, in some instances,
the high-frequency oscillator for arc ignition. Most units are available from
stock in ranges from 14 kw to as much as 80 to 100 kw in multiples of 14
kw. Typical units for spray coating applications require 28 to 40 kw. Input
power requirements are generally 240/460 volt 60 cycle three-phase power,
although 380 and 550 volt, 50 or 60 cycle units are also readily available. The
advantages of rectifiers over motor-generator sets are:
Better response time-100 : 1 Higher efficiency-55 to 75%
Higher current density Easy paralleling of units
Simple remote control Lower maintenance costs or effort in-
volved
Less power used-1/7 Reduced noise level
The adoption of the high frequency-high voltage spark to ignite plasma
equipment is a logical one. HF-HV spark generators (more commonly known as
HF oscilLators) have been used for years to ignite both a-c and d-e arcs for
welding.
The HF oscillator system is simple, safe and reliable. It has been utilized to
29.34 j Thermal Spraying
start equipment having power cables in excess of 100 feet as reliably as at

10 feet. Usage of an HF oscillator as an integral component of the power
supply provides foolproof application of the HF spark in the proper power
leg, allows integral HF protection for all system components, meters, rectifiers,
etc., and materially reduces the size of the associated control console without
increasing the size of the power supply.
Another method of igniting the arc in plasma generators requires the dis-
charging of a capacitor, or bank of capacitors, from an auxiliary electrode
located in the proximity of the anode. Although this method requires less
space and fewer components than the above-mentioned HF oscillator, it is
limited in the length of power cables that may be used in the system.
Leads to Ton~h
The torch or spray gun is the heat-producing and spraying device. The torch
has hose and cable connections for d-e power for the arc, for plasma gas and
for the spray powder suspended in the carrier gas. These hoses and cables
should be lightweight and flexible to permit facile operation.
FILLER MATERIAL SUPPLY

Plasma spray materials are usually supplied in powder form. Powder feed
mechanisms are of two general types: aspirator and mechanical metering.
An aspirator-type feeder is composed primarily of powder canister or hopper,
which contains a gas nozzle or orifice that aspirates powder adjacent to the
jet into the discharge line. This type of unit may incorporate vibrators, stirring
mechanisms, etc., to facilitate powder flow to the orifice area. The actual
powder feed rate, however, is determined by the orifice size, spacing and gas
flow rate. Because these units are usually unpressurized, they can be recharged
at any time without interrupting the spraying operation.
The second, and most popular type of feeder is the mechanical metering
type. This type of unit utilizes the metering action of a screw or wheel to
deliver precise, measurable amounts of powder to a carburetor, or mixing
chamber, where the powder is introduced into the carrier gas stream. These
units offer the capability of feeding materials that range from 40 to 50 mesh
to 5 micron size, and with some care, even below 5 micron size. The feed
material is delivered at a constant, predetermined rate regardless of the quan-
tity of material in the canister. Feed rates are variable over a relatively large
range. This range is determined by the specific gravity of the feed material.
For example, alumina can be fed and controlled over a range from 0.10 pound
per hour to approximately 7lh pounds per hour; tungsten feeds range from
1.5 to 25 pounds per hour. In all cases, however, modifications are available
to permit specific feed rate requirements to be attained at little increase in
unit cost.
OPERATING THE SYSTEM

The complete system, including the plasma spray gun, is Qperated from the
control console. The control console permits adjustment of the plasma gas flow
rate, arc current, starting and stopping functions and, in some cases, opera-
tion of the powder feed unit. The major control functions of the console are:
1. Plasma gas ftow control
Plasma Spraying j 29.35
2. Arc current control

3. Start-stop control
4. Mixing or secondary gas control
5. Powder carrier gas control
These control functions are common to all plasma spray systems. Although
the actual circuitry varies from manufacturer to manufacturer, the basic func-
tions remain the same.
In general, pushbuttons in combination with relays, or twist lock switches,
are utilized to control the operating of the gas and water solenoid valves which,
in turn, start and stop the fluid flow. Once the gas and water flows are started,
the flow rates can be adjusted to the proper levels by use of needle valves
incorporated into the flowmetering device (flowmeter or rotometer). Critical
items such as gas and water flow are electrically interlocked to prevent equip-
ment damage in case of loss of flow.
Arc ignition is accomplished by initiating a momentary high-voltage dis-
charge across the arc gap, ionizing the plasma gas, which becomes conductive
enough to allow the applied d-e potential to bridge the gap. Once the d-e arc
is started, the current level is adjusted to the desired point with a rheostat or
powerstat. If desired, a secondary gas can be injected, powder feed started
and regulated, and the spraying operation commenced.
A cutaway view of a typical plasma spray gun is shown in Fig. 29.17. In
operation, the plasma gas passes through the arc in the nozzle bore and is
ionized or partly ionized. The powder may be fed into the nozzle bore or into
the flame just beyond the end of the nozzle. The flame melts the particles and
impels the molten material onto the workpiece. When operating, the gun is
very similar to conventional powder spraying units. Coatings are applied in
the same manner, either by hand-mounted or machine-mounted guns.
Because of the high temperatures involved, the water cooling of nozzle, elec-
trode and gun body is very important. Normally, 50 to 100 pounds of water
pressure is used with a flow of 3 to 5 gallons per minute. The cooling water
to the gun must be clean and pure. Water that is too hard will cause deposits
to form in the cooling passages of the gun and impede the heat transfer.
Impure water, which will act as a good electrolyte, may cause rapid corrosion
in the cooling passages.
Where bad water conditions are encountered, a heat exchanger is used with
a closed circulating system of distilled or demineralized water. The primary
water for the heat exchanger requires a minimum of 12 gallons per minute.
Work Distance
Gun-to-work distance is critical, and should be maintained constant for a
given application. The distance of the gun from the work will, of course, affect
the work temperature. For most jobs, the gun should be held 2 to 6 in. from the
work. Temperature control of the workpiece is usually required.
With some materials, the density of the coating and the deposit efficiency
can be improved by spraying at a distance of less than 4 in. from the area
to be coated.
Surface Speed
Traverse speed should be such that not more than 0.010 in. is applied in
Fig. 29.17.-Cutaway view of a typical plasma spray gun
each pass. This will vary from one part to another and from one coating ma-
terial to another.
Preheating
For most base materials, the part should be preheated to 200 to 300°F (93
to 149°C). This prevents the formation of surface condensate, expands the
substrate and reduces stress in the coating when it subsequently cools.
Cooling
Overheating of the part, the coating, or both can result in low physical
properties. Air cooling is commonly used to prevent this. The air must be
clean and dry to prevent contamination of the coating, which could weaken
the bond or cause layer separation.
With some materials, improved coatings can be produced by using argon,
nitrogen or carbon dioxide for the cooling gas. This is particularly true with
tungsten: its tensile strength can be doubled using the inert gases for cooling
after spraying at a close working distance.
Controlled Atmosphere Spraying
A great deal of test work has been done in laboratories throughout the
country in vacuum and inert atmosphere chambers. The physical properties of
some materials have been improved. In many cases, this has been the result
of higher temperatures during the spraying operation. Many times the same
results can be achieved without a chamber.
As previously mentioned, high-strength tungsten coatings may be produced
by working close to the part and then rapidly cooling the part with inert gas
jets so that the temperature is brought below 600°F (316°C). This prevents
oxidation, which would lower the physical properties of the coating.
Some materials, such as columbium carbide, tantalum and titanium carbide,
decarburize when sprayed in the normal manner, but spraying in a controlled
atmosphere reduces the possibility. This is accomplished in a chamber, or by
shrouding with inert gas cooling.
Although experimental work can be done in chambers, many jobs cannot
be handled ,thus in production because of their size, or the complexity of the
handling equipment. Therefore, every effort should be made to achieve the
desired result without using an inert atmosphere chamber.
In many cases, e.g., tungsten spraying, the problem of controlling the tem-
perature has been confused with the problem of controlling the atmosphere.
Cooling jets using carbon dioxide or other gases may accomplish more than
an inert shroud.
Coatings
Spray Materials and Substrates.-The plasma flame spray system makes it
possible to spray any material that can be melted without decomposing. It
produces useful temperatures in the 10,000 to 30,000°F (5538 to 17,649°C)
temperature range, as compared to the 5600°F (3093°C) generated by oxy-
acetylene spraying equipment. Although it was specifically designed to operate
with the higher melting point refractory materials, it is capable of spraying
lower melting materials as well.
A list of materials suitable for plasma spraying would include all metals,
most oxides, the majority of the carbides, silicides, titanates and cermets. A
few borides and nitrides may be sprayable. By changing electrodes, spraying
temperature and material feed rates, plastics may also be sprayed. Many of
the sprayable materials are enumerated in Table 29.5 (p. 29.38); indeed, almost
any base material or substrate can be coated with the plasma spray process.
Plasma spray coatings can be controlled to permit the matching of coeffi-
cients of thermal expansion of the coatings and substrate materials. This is
achieved by spraying mixtures in various proportions to produce graded coat-
ings of ceramic and metal.
Surface Preparation
The type of bonding between coating and substrate may be mechanical,
metallurgical (diffusion) or chemical. This depends on the substrate and coat-
ing materials. Regardless of the mechanism of bonding, surface preparation
of substrate is all-important. All dust, oil and other foreign matter must be
removed from the surface. Where possible, the surface should be roughened
by blasting or acid etching. Steel grit or ceramic abrasives may be used for
Table 29.5--Commonly used plasma spray materials
Refractory Hard
Metals Metals Oxides Cermets
Tantalum Titanium Carbide Zirconium Oxide Nickel-Magnesia

Molybdenum Tungsten Carbide Cerium Oxide Aluminum Oxide--Nicke
Tungsten
Aluminum Chromium Carbide Aluminum Oxide Zirconium Oxide-Nickel
Copper Molybdenum Disilicide Titanium Oxide Zirconium Oxide--Nickel
Alumlnlde
Nickel Chromium Oxide
Chromium Aluminum Oxide-Nickel
Aluminide
Nickel-chromium
the blasting medium. The former produces less dust. A combination of blast-
ing and solvent cleaning is usually recommended. As with oxyacetylene spray-
ing, grooving methods may be used in conjunction with those previously men-
tioned.
Deposition Rates
In any spray application, the shape of the substrate (flat, round, etc.), the
powder particle size and the nature of the substrate material actually deter-
mine the spray rate for a given powder. Spraying on a flat surface of stainless
steel 2 in. square, certain materials (in the form of dense coatings at high
efficiency and power levels of 40 kw) have been deposited at the spray rates
shown in 11able 29.6. For different substrates and shapes, these rates increase
or decrease depending on the application.
Table 29.6-Comparison of spray rates and deposition efficiencies of various materials
Material Spray Rate Deposition Efficiency
Chromium Carbide 13-15 lbs/hr. 60%

Tungsten Carbide 12-14 lbs/br. 65%
Zirconium Oxide 12-16 lbs/hr. 75%
Aluminum Oxide 7-12 lbs/hr. 85%
Tungsten 16-19 lbs/hr. 60%
The amount of powder used compared to the amount of material deposited

on the workpiece determines the over-all spray rate efficiency. If very high rates
of deposition are desired, a reduction in over-all depositional efficiency occurs.
If expensive powders are being sprayed, they are not deposited at the maxi-
mum rate, but rather 75% of maximum. This increases the over-all deposition
efficiency. With most materials, the spray parameters can be selected to provide
90% efficiency at lower spray rates, or 50 to 60% efficiency at a very high
deposition rate.
In some measure, the mesh size of the powder also determines the spray
rate and efficiency, as well as coating density and surface finish. The maxi-
mum spray deposit rates and deposition efficiency are usually attained with
powders of -200 to +325 mesh sizes. An increase or decrease in particle size
reduces deposit rates and efficiency.
Plasma Spraying 1 29.39
For most powders, a minimum of overspray, maximum efficiency, high den-

sity and good adhesion are obtained when similar sized particles are used. For
example, a mixture of fine, medium and coarse particles may cause trouble.
It has been suggested that ranges of -140 to +270, -200 to +325 and -325
to + 10 microns be used.
Because of their low density, some materials, such as aluminum oxide, must
be sprayed in medium ( -200 to +400) particle size, so that enough momen-
tum can be applied to the particle to convey it to the plasma. On the other
hand, for the more dense materials, such as tungsten, fine (-325 to +10
micron size) particles may be used.
For some of the ceramic materials, such as aluminum oxide and zirconium
oxide, higher deposition rates may be obtained if nitrogen is used as the plasma
gas. However, nitrogen may cause overheating of the substrate. By substituting
argon as the plasma gas, overheating is minimized. Argon is also used for the
spraying of materials that react with nitrogen.
Materials that tend to break down or vaporize should be sprayed at reduced
efficiency. The over-all efficiency ranges from 10 to 90 percent. Usually mate-
rials that are difficult to spray have low deposition rates. Decomposition or
dissociation has been reduced in many cases by spraying in controlled atmos-
pheres.
The selection of proper spray powders is also of great importance. Usually,
crystalline powders spray and feed well. Careful selectivity should be exercised
in the purchasing of powders from producers and vendors. A poor choice may
result in slow deposition rates, porous coatings and weak bonding of coating
to substrate.
Quality Control
Quality control is designed to ensure adequate quality in the sprayed coating.
This may be achieved only by maintaining the quality and constancy of the ntw
materials (spray powders), the spray process itself, the equipment and the
workmanship.
Plasma spray parameters include power, plasma and carrier gases, gas flow
rates, powder size and feed rate, spray rate and standoff distance. These
parameters vary with the plasma spray system used. Altering one or several
of the spray conditions may affect the physical, chemical or mechanical prop-
erties of the coatings produced, as well as the adhesion of coatings to the sub-
strate. Surface preparation and temperature control of the substrate are also
important factors. Defects in the coating may be eliminated or minimized only
by proper control of the variables involved in the processing of coatings. Bond
strength and hardness measurements may be used to evaluate coatings. Such
measurements must be predetermined for each material in any given applica-
tion.
Safety
The plasma flame spray system involves much more electrical equipment
than the usual metallizing equipment, and the consumption of a relatively
large amount of power. The usual safety precautions taken with electrical
equipment should be observed, and the plasma spray equipment itself should
be safe to operate. "Dead-front" panel construction (no electrical connections
on front of console panel), heavy-duty industrial pusbbuttons, pilot lights,
plugs and cables should conform to the highest standards of electrical safety.
Periodic checks of cables and insulation should be made.
Eye Protection.-Helmets, face masks or goggles should be used to protect
the eyes during plasma spraying operations and to shield the eyes from ultra-
violet and infrared (as well as visible light) radiation. The proper shade number
is 9-12.
Ear Protection.-Noise-level measurements taken in the vicinity of the
plasma-flame operation have shown readings in excess of 100 decibels. Ear
protection that will reduce the noise level to below 80 decibels should be worn
for plasma spraying operations.
Protective Clothing.-The intense radiation of plasma spraying has been
known to cause a "sunburn" through normal clothing. Specialized radiation
protective clothing should be worn when plasma spraying is performed. Care
must be taken that radiation reflection from an aluminized bib does not reflect
radiation into the inside of the face shield, causing burns of the face. This can
be done by attaching the bib to the outside of the face shield. Aluminized gloves
should be used in conjunction with dark blue fire-retardant clothing.
ELECTRIC ARC SPRAYING

The absence of a suitable electric power source and the proper control
circuiting, along with a well-designed arc pistol, delayed appreciable progress
in the development of the electric arc process until 1938. At that time Dr.
Schoop publicized an electric arc spraying system that he had developed. How-
ever, the operation of the equipment was considered err~tic in performance
and unsafe to use, and this judgment prevailed until 1945.
As previously mentioned, electric arc spraying has only recently come to
the foreground in the United States. Since its introduction in 1964, it has
become a well-established process for the application of sprayed metals at
extremely high deposition rates.
Since 1945, Soviet Russia, Czechoslovakia and Poland have been increasingly
active in the development of the electric arc spray system. Reports made by
Soviet scientists at the two International Conferences on Metal Spraying, at
Thalle, East Germany in 1956 and at Birmingham, England, in 1958 revealed
that ten different types of electric arc spray equipment were in contemporary
use. Furthermore, a 1956 report by Professor Antoshim of the Moscow Auto-
genous Metals Institute indicated that 90% of the 2000 metal spraying units
produced annually in the Soviet Union were of the electric arc type.
Since 1954, German manufacturers have been developing equipment for the
electric arc spray method; they produced their first operable unirts in 1958.
By 1967 the system had advanced to such a degree that the 150 electric arc
guns then in operation were spraying a much larger amount of steel than the
2000 metallizing guns also being used.
In 1964 the first electric arc spray pistol was manufactured in the United
States. Coupled with a constant-voltage, motor-generator set with a suitable
control panel and wire control unit, it constituted the first electric arc system
offered in this country. This system had a maximum output of 360 amperes at
34 volts. Since then a larger motor-generator set, along with a heavier duty
pistol, has been made available. This system has a maximum output of 650
amperes at 44 volts.
Electric Arc Spraying 1 29.41
In 1967-1968 in the United States, development, design and manufacture

of a commercially practical d-e, solid state power source electric arc system
was completed; such a unit is now available. Power sources are especially
designed with constant-voltage and constant-current characteristics. Although
in the past it has been considered in general necessary to use nothing but a
constant-voltage power source, it has been found more recently that, in certain
applications, a constant-current power source gives more desirable results.
EQUIPMENT
Motor-Generator Power Source Arc Spray Systems
Figure 29.18 illustrates a motor-generator power source arc spray system.
Such a system consists of three main
units: a motor-generator unit, a wire
control unit, and the arc spray gun
itself.
A specially built motor-generator
unit serves as the mounting for a con-
trol system that keeps the preset volt-
age output absolutely constant over
the entire range of current output.
This system also includes a voltmeter,
an ammeter, a voltage rheostat and a
polarity switch, plus the air regula-
tors and gages for the atomizing air
and the air motor.
The wire control unit consists of
two insulated spools or coils of wire.
Each is free to rotate, but each has a
separate adjustable drag control to
prevent overrunning (plus adequate
wire-straightening devices if these are
necessary), and two flexible insulated
conduits through which each wire
passes from the stand to the gun. The
unit can be mounted on the genera- Fig. 29.18.-Typical wire-type electric
tor, directly in the rear of the gun, or arc metallizing gun
standing separately on the floor.
The electric arc spray gun consists of four components:
1. The case, which is made of a very durable, nonconductive material, and
houses the wire guides and the wire feed parts and gearing, the main
electrical conducting parts, the power controls and the atomizing air
passage.
2. The air motor.
3. The electrical wire guides and arc shield.
4. The atomizing air nozzle.
Solid State Power Source Arc Spray Systems
Figure 29.19 illustrates a solid state power source arc spraying system. Such
a system typically consists of a specially designed solid state power source, a

wire feed system and the electric arc spray gun.
Fig. 29.19.-Solid state power source arc spraying system
The solid state power source has either constant-voltage or constant-current

regulation, depending on application. The power source assembly contains a
Electric Arc Spraying j 29.43
voltmeter, an ammeter and an atomizing air control unit consisting of regulator,

filter and air pressure gage.
The wire feed system consists of two insulated spools or coils, supported on
individual spindles with drag control; insulated wire straighteners; insulated
wire drive assemblies driven by a fully enclosed, electronically controlled,
reversible d-e motorized gearhead unit with dynamic braking, and two insulated
conduits through which the wire is fed to the gun.
The electric arc spray gun consists of two insulated wire guides, two elec-
trode tips, insulated body and cover, air atomizing nozzle, arc shield, remote
control pushbutton switches and electrical connecting means.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF THE ELECTRIC ARC SPRAY SYSTEM
The two wires are advanced from the insulated spools or coils, through the
two insulated conduits and the electric arc gun. Here they pass through the elec-
trical wire guides in the front of the gun and become energized. Emerging from
the two electrode tips within the nozzle of the gun, the two wires come into
contact with each other at a low contact pressure, and with a small, pointlike
contact surface. This provides a high current density through the contaot area.
The extreme heat causes an arc to form, and melt the ends of the wires. The
compressed air stream carries the melt away through the nozzle and onto the
workpiece, interrupting the arc briefly. The two ends of the wire are now
glowing and come together once again, reigniting the arc. The electric arc is
now maintained due to thermal emission of electrons and ionization of gases
between the wire ends. The proper conditions for maintaining the arc are
created by adjusting the voltage and current, and by regulating the wire feed
rate. The melting metal particles are ejected from the nozzle with a frequency
of about 100 particles per second. The vibrations of the wire ends as they make
and break contact assist the spraying aotion.
The molten metal is expelled at the maximum amplitude of the wire oscilla-
tions. When this mechanism ensues in resonance with the wire end vibrations,
only particles of equal size are ejected, so that optimum spraying conditions
are obtained.
Motor-Generator System
The motor-generator set and the control system are used to furnish the
correct voltage, current and air pressure to the air motor and air nozzle of the
gun. The gun is designed with the air motor screwed to the case and its drive
shaft integral with a worm. The worm mates with a worm gear inside the case
and is mounted on the drive shaft, which has an insulated serrated feed roll
on each end. The wires pass over the feed rolls and are clamped to them by
the upper idler feed rolls mounted in the idler yokes. Adjustable pressure can
be applied to idler yokes. Curved wire guides extend in the front of the gun
and these are so formed that the two wires are fed through them and con-
sequently meet at a point where the arc is formed. Directly in back of the arc
and at the proper distance from it, is located the atomizing air nozzle. All the
power used in the arc is transferred to the wires as they pass through the wire
guides.
When the system is in operation, the wire guides are energized, the atomizing
air is turned on and the feed rolls in the gun advance the two wires from the
wire oontrol through the electrical wire guides. Moving at the same rate, both
wires meet beyond the guides and create an arc in front of the atomizing air
nozzle. An increase or decrease in the rate of wire feed automatically increases
or decreases the current output of the motor-generator set to take care of the
feoo rate change. The voltage, as mentioned above, remains constant. The air
and electrical parts are so interconnected that the electrical circuit cannot be
energized unless a minimum air pressure of 35 psi is available to the system.
Solid State System
The solid state power source and control system are used to furnish the
correct electrical energy, atomizing air and controlled wire feed to the electric
arc gun. The wires are pulled through wire straighteners by a wire drive unit
having a preset pressure adjustment on the idler roller; then they are pushed
through insulated flexible conduits, through straight wire guides and straight
electrode tips on the electric arc gun to form an included angle of 30 degrees.
The arc is formed where the wires contact. An atomizing air nozzle located
behind the electric arc and in line with it breaks up the melting wire and propels
the particles at high velocity to the work surface.
Wire Guide Adjustment

The positioning of electrical wire guides is one of the most important adjust-
ments of the electric arc spray system. This is true of both the motor-generator
and the solid state types. These guides must be so adjusted that the wires from
each guide meet at the centerline of the main air jet in the atomizing air nozzle
(Fig. 29.20). Both must meet at an equal distance from the nozzle. Also, if
the air nozzle has cooling jets for the electrical wire guides, these must be
pointed at the guides. If these conditions do not exist, in all probability the
spray will contain some very coarse particles, and the major part of it will be
to one side or the other of the centerline of the air nozzle. Furthermore, the
arc could be intermittent in operation; each time the arc breaks under these
circumstances, a large piece of metal is likely to be thrown onto the coating.
TOP VIEW SECTION A-A'
1. Insulated housing for contact piece; 2. Contact piece; 3. Heat resistant protective plate;
4. Wire guid!Js; 5. Atomizing air nozzle; 6. Arc point; 7. Metal particles; 8. Atomizing air
stream; 9. W ues.
Fig. 29.20.-Typical configuration of electric arc spray system
Electric Arc Spraying I 29.45
Such particles must be removed before any more metal is sprayed onto the
surface. The manufacturer's instructions should be followed for proper posi-
tioning of the electrical wire guides.
PERFORMANCE DATA AND ADVANTAGES

Spraying Rates for Motor-Generator Power Source
Spraying rates depend on the rate of wire feed up to the maximum rating
of the power source. With the 360 ampere machine, the following wire sizes
are recommended: 14 B & S gage wires for metals with the melting point of
aluminum or higher; 11 B & S gage wires for metals under this melting point.
With the 650 ampere unit, the 14 B & S gage size is increased to 11 B & S; and
the 11 B & S gage size is increased to 1/8 inch. Table 29.7 gives the deposition
rates for various metals at different currents using a motor generator as a
power source. It has been found that the diameter of the wire, if it is among
the sizes previously mentioned, has little to do with the rate of spray. For ex-
ample, using the 360 ampere machine with 14 B & S gage wire at 26 volts
and 240 ampere output would produce the same rate of spray (pounds per
hour) as the 650 ampere machine with 11 gage B & S wire at 26 volts with
240 amperes. The high deposition rates shown in Table 29.7 constitute one of
several advantages of the electric arc over other spraying methods.
Spraying Rates for Solid State Power Source

As with the motor-generator source, the spraying speeds depend on the
rate of wire feed up to the maximum rating of the power source. Table 29.8
contains data giving deposition rates for various metals using the solid state
power source. It is well to note that although this table stops at 300 amperes,
solid state systems are available with capacities up to a maximum of 650
amperes (500 amperes, 100% duty cycle).
Table 29.7-Deposition rates for various materials using a motor-generator power source
Pounds Per Hour Sprayed At Various Current Outputs

Metal
----- ----- ---
Or Alloy 650 Ampere Generator·
- - -360 Ampere Generator
60 120 180 240• 300 360t 420 480t 540 600 650§
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --- - - -
Aluminum 3.3 6.5 9.7 13 16.3 19.5 22.7 26 29.3 32.5 35.2
Babbitt Metal 20.7 41.3 62 83 103 124 144.7 165 185.7 206
Brass 7.8 15.5 23.3 31 38.8 46.5 54.3 62 69.8 77.5 2~j
Bronze
Aluminum 6.7 13.4 20.2 28.9 35.6 40.3 47 57.8 64.5 71.2 76.8 J
Commercial 8 16.1 24.1 32.2 40.3 48.3 56.3 64.4 72.4 80.5 87.2
Tobin 7.8 15.5 23.3 31 38.8 46.5 54.3 62 69.8 77.5 84
Copper 8.5 17 25.5 34 42.5 51 59.5 68 73.9 85 92
Monel 5.9 11.8 17.8 23.7 29.6 35.5 41.4 47.3 53.2 59.2 64.1
Steels
Carbon 6 12.1 18.1 24.2 30.2 36.3 42.3 48.4 54.4 60.5 65.6
Stainless 6.4 12.8 19.2 25.5 31.9 38.3 44.7 51 57.4 63.8 68.9
Swedes' Iron 65
Zinc 14 28.1 42.2 56.3 70.3 84.4 98.4 112.5 126.5 140.7 152.4
•Maximum output for 360 ampere unit at 100% duty cycle.

tMaximum output for 360 ampere unit.
tMaximum output for 650 ampere unit at 100% duty cycle.
§Maximum output for 650 ampere unit.
Table 29.8--Deposition rates for various materials using a solid state power source
Pounds Per Hour Sprayed At Various Current Outputs •

Metal Or Alloy
50 100 150 200 250 300
Aluminum 5.9 8.1 10.3 12.6 14.9 17.1

Copper 6.8 14.9 23.0 31.0 39.1 47.2
Monel 7.1 12.9 18.7 24.5 30.4 36.3
Nickel 4.5 9.5 14.5 19.5 24.5 29.5
Stainless Steels 6.5 12.6 18.6 24.9 31.0 37.0
Steels (Carbon) 5.0 10.5 16.0 21.5 27.0 32.5
Zinc 10.0 21.0 32.0 43.0 54.0 64.5
•All spray rates shown were obtained using 11 B & S gage wire.
All the spraying rates shown in Table 29.8 were obtained using 11 B & S gage
wire. With this system, one usually uses the 11 B & S size for the higher melting
point metals and 118 in. for the lower melting points. However, smaller diam-
eters can be used for special applications.
It is evident from Tables 29.7 and 29.8 that in some cases solid state power
sources give higher deposition rates than those obtainable with the motor-
generator set; in other cases, however, the reverse is true.
Bonding
Preparation of the Substrate.-It is necessary with electric arc spraying as with
other thermal spray, to prepare the surface to be coated. It must be clean and
rough, although considerably less roughness is required for electric arc spraying.
Sand should never be used and, for maximum bond strength, the use of alu-
minum oxide should be avoided. If rough threading is used, the thread can be
much finer (24 to 36 threads to an inch) and build-ups of 1/4 in. or better
can be obtained.
Theory of Bonding with the Electric Arc.-Because of the higher temperature
of the arc, the metal sprayed particles are hotter than with the flame spray.
Holding the gun so that the arc is only 2 to 3 in. away from the substrate, and
with the atomizing air reduced, it has been shown that the sprayed particles
will actually fuse to the asperities created on the substrate by the surface
roughening. To further increase this action, the arc voltage is raised 4 volts
above normal operating voltage. The bond coat is applied in such a manner
to obtain a uniform thickness of not more than 0.005 in. over the surface to
be sprayed.
Metals Used for Bonding and Typical Bond Strengths.-One of the great
advantages of the electric arc system is that metals such as molybdenum and
the exothermic metals are not required, and yet greater bond strengths are
obtained. Generally speaking, the metal desired for the coating will furnish
more than sufficient bond strength. However, if it is felt that a better bond
strength is necessary, it is recommended that a bond coat of nickel metal, or
a high carbon manganese steel, be applied. For coatings up to 0.030 in. thick
no bond coat is required.
Electric Arc Spraying 1 29.47
Spraying
The spraying operation using the electric arc system is carried out in a
similar manner as the flame spray system. The gun can be hand held or mounted
in a machine tool. The major difference is that the gun must be moved much
more rapidly when using the electric arc unit. This is done to prevent over-
heating the substrate since the electric arc system, generally speaking, applies
metal more rapidly and this applied metal is considerably hotter when it strikes
the surface. On machine-mounted pieces, the surface speed of the work with
relation to the gun should be at least 200 feet per minute. The traverse speed
should be such that the thickness of coating applied per pass would be between
0.005 and 0.010 inches. If the gun is hand held, an attempt must be made to
approximate these conditions.
Finishing the Sprayed Coating.-In general, the same recommendations for
the flame spray process are applicable to the finishing of coatings applied by
the electric arc process. There are, however, certain differences:
1. The surface appears more homogenous and more closely resembles the
original material.
2. When machining an aluminum deposit, 1 to 2 foot chips will be obtained.
For stainless steel, 1 to 2 inch chips will result. All metals will tend to
machine more like the original material.
3. Keyways can be milled and good sharp edges at the top of the keyway
obtained.
Cost of Operation.-The cost of operating an electric arc system is extremely
low. The air consumption is approximately 30 cfm at 60 psi. Most large com-
panies have a power rate of about $0.01 per kwh. However, if a rate of $0.02
per kwh is considered, the maximum cost of operating a 360 ampere electric
arc system would be $0.25 per hour and $0.56 per hour for the 650 ampere
unit. On automatic setups where spraying is intermittent, appreciable energy
is used only when the gun is spraying metal. At other times, the power con-
sumed is almost zero.
Automated Setups.-The electric arc system lends itself very readily to
automated setup. Once the voltage has been set and the atomizing air and the
rate of wire feed established, all that remains to operate the system is to start
and stop the wire feed.
Sprayed "Mixture" Coatings.-In the operation of the electric arc system,
it is possible to feed one kind of wire through one electrical wire guide and a
different one through the other. This gives a mixture of two metals-a "pseudo-
alloy"-in the coating. A good example of this is the use of a Type 420 stainless
steel as one wire, and an aluminum bronze wire as the other. The resultant
coating gives a hard, long-wearing surface that has most of the desirable bearing
characteristics of tbe aluminum bronze.
All systems have some features that might be considered undesirable. In the
electric arc system, for instance, fumes, dust and odor are created. Steels,
Monel, copper, bronzes, zinc, tin and the other low melting temperature metals
are the worst offenders. Some users consider it no worse than the flame spray
per pound of metal sprayed, but since it is so much faster it appears much
worse. In any case, adequate protection must be made available. This protection
can be in the form of a satisfactory exhaust system or health guard masks.
One other feature that has been considered undesirable is the burn-off of
some constituents of some alloys. This was mostly true of the carbon in the high-
carbon steels. However, it has been found to be partially controllable by the
arc itself. The voltage across the arc should be as low as possible, while still
maintaining a steady arc and a consistent spray. The addition of other elements
in some metals is also used to control this burn-off.
Aside from those necessitated by the dust problem, the only other safety
requirements are those needed in electric welding. Leather gloves and leather
aprons are recommended and the arc itself should not be viewed except through
a Number 10 or 12 lens. If the arc shield is in place, a Number 4 or 5 lens is
sufficient, but in all cases a helmet should be used, not just goggles.
DETONATION-GUN PROCESS
The detonation-gun process is a relatively recent development in the thermal
spraying field. It was originally introduced for depositing hard coatings of
tungsten carbide, but now other materials are also used.
This coating process utilizes a uniquely designed gun (Fig. 29.21), into the
chamber of which are metered measured quantities of oxygen, acetylene and
powder particles of coating material suspended in nitrogen. At the rate of
Fig. 29.21.-Detonation gun equipment

Post Treatment of Thermal Sprayed Coatin~s I 29.49
four times per second, a spark detonates the mixture and creates a hot, high-
speed gas stream that heats the particles to a plastic state while traveling at
2500 feet per second from the gun barrel. These molten particles impinge onto
the surface of the workpiece, where microscopic welding action produces a
bond that is both metallurgical and mechanical in nature. Successive detona-
tions build up the coating material to the thickness specified for the particular
application.
The basis of the integrity of detonation-gun applied coatings lies in the high
velocity at which the powder particles strike the substrate. The particles leaving
the detonation gun barrel have a velocity of about 2500 feet per second,
whereas those used with oxy-fuel spraying have a velocity of 200 to 500 feet
per second, and those leaving a plasma torch have a velocity of about 1100
feet per second. Since kinetic energy is a function of the square of velocity,
particles strike the workpiece with at least 25 times the energy of those issuing
from an oxyacetylene spray gun. Coatings with only 0.25 to 1.0% porosity
are common in the tungsten carbide and chromium carbide materials; bond
strengths range from 8000 to above 25,000 psi.
Metallurgical properties of the base material are not changed during the
coating process. Warpage, distortion or other physical change of precision
parts is eliminated because cooling sprays of liquid carbon dioxide maintain
low temperatures in the workpiece. Although temperatures above 6000°F
(3315°C) are reached within the gun, the part being coated remains below
300°F (149°C). Table 29.9 gives typical mechanical and physical properties
of some coatings applied with the detonation-gun process.
POST TREATMENT OF THERMAL

SPRAYED COATINGS
Finishing by machining and grinding is covered in a later section of this
chapter. Fusing of self-fusing alloys is also covered separately.
Sealing
Sealing of sprayed coatings is used to lengthen the life of the coating, to
prevent corrosive attack on the base material, or both. Aluminum and zinc
coatings are widely used to prevent corrosion of iron and steel from the
atmosphere, salt water, fresh water and some chemicals. Examples of systems
used for this purpose listed in Table 29.10 are intended as a guide in arriving
at final coatings for any given job.
Sealing is used also on coatings applied to machine parts, mostly for special
jobs. Where acids may penetrate the pores and attack the base metal, it is
advisable to seal with high melting point wax sealers or phenolics. On high-
pressure hydraulic rams (1500 psi and over), pump shafts and similar parts,
sealing should be done with air-drying phenolics to prevent seepage of the
liquid into the pores and then out again beyond the packing.
Air-cooled engine cylinders are reclaimed by spraying the bore with
molybdenum. Prior to finishing, they are sealed with a baking-type phenolic.
This prevents particles from the grinding wheel from embedding in the pores
and causing premature wear. It also prevents moisture penetration to the
base, which might cause corrosion of the steel, particularly if held in stora.2e
for an extended period in a salt atmosnhera
~
u.0
Table 29.9-Praperties of some coatings applied with the detonation-gun process .........
I I I
Coating 99+% Al.Oa 60% A!,O, 80% Cr,Ca 70% Cr,c, Alloy of Cu + 91% we 87%WC 85%WC 25%WC ~
Composition by Ni +In mixed
Weight 40% Ti02 20% Ni-Cr 30% Ni-Cr 9% Co 13% Co 15% Co W-Cr Carbides
(by volume) (by volume) + 5% NiCr l
Cross-Sectional 950 VPNaoo 700 VPNaoo 625 VPNaoo 300 VPN 300 1300 VPN 30o 1150 VPNsoo 1075 VPNsoo 650 VPNooo Vl
1100 VPNaoo
Hardness(Vickers) • ~
Strength of Bond to ~
Base Metal 10·,000 psi 9000 psi 18,000 + psi 18,000 + psi 11,000 psi 25,000 +psi 25,000 +psi 25,000 +psi 20,000 psi ~-
Porosity 0.5-1% 0.5-1% 0.25-1% 0.25-1% 0.25-{).5% 0.25-0.5% 0.25-{).5% 0.25-{).5% 0.5-1%
Density 3.45 gmjcm' 6.5 gmjcm' 14.2 gm/cm' 13.2 gmjcm' 13.2 gmjcm' 10.1 gm/cm'
Modulus of Rupture 20,000 psi 19,000 psi 70,000 psi 95,000 psi 135,000 psi 80,000 psi 90,000 psi 100,000 psi 40,000 psi
Modulus of
Elasticity 12-16 x 10' psi 11 x 10' psi 18 x 106 psi 21 x 10' psi 30 x 10' psi 31 x 10' psi 31 x 10' psi 31 x 10' psi 8 x 10• psi
Coefficient of 3.8 x 10-•;oF 6.4 x 10-6/"F 4.5 X 10-•;°F 4.5 x 10-6j°F 4. 7 x 10-•;oF 4.6 x 10-o;oF
Thermal (avg. 70- (avg. 70- (avg. 7Q- (avg. 7Q- (avg. 7o- (avg. 7Q-
Expansiont 1800°F) 1800°F) 1000°F) 1000°F) 1000°F) 1400°F)
Maximum Operating
Temperature in an
Oxidizing 1800°F 1300°F 1800°F 1800°F 800°F 1000°F 1000°F 1000°F 1400°F
Atmosphere (982°C) (704°C) (982°C) (982°C) (427°C) (538°C) (538°C) (538°C) (760°C)
Main Features Resistance to Wear Wear Wear Anti-galling Extreme wear Wear Wear Wear
wear. resistance resistance resistance properties resistance resistance resistance resistance
chemical and self- at high and and and at higher
attack and mating temperature increased increased greatest temper-
high properties; or in resistance to resistance to resistance to atures;
t~mperature semi- corrosive mechanical mechanical mechanical improved
deteriora- conductor. media; and thermal and thermal and thermal corrosion
tion. resists shock at shock shock resistance
flame high
impingement tempera.
tures
- I
•VP"" = Vickers Pyramid Number
tEquivalent temperature: 70°F = 21.1 °C.
Post Treatment of Thermal Sprayed Coatings 1 29.51
Epoxies, silicones and other materials may be used for certain corrosive
conditions. For extreme conditions, vacuum impregnation may be us~d.
Diffusing
Thin coatings of aluminum may be diffused into a steel or alloy base to
protect against the corrosive action of hot gases up to 1600°F (871 °C). After
spraying the part is coated with a bituminous aluminum sealer or other suitable
material. This seal coat prevents oxidation of the aluminum surface and gives
it time to diffuse with the base. The part is heat treated at 1450°F (788°C) for
whatever time is required for diffusion. A rule of thumb is one hour for each
Table 29.10-Systems used far sealing spray coatings*
Location of Usage System Employed t
Accessible Areas
Severe marine and industrial atmospheres 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 AV 0.006 in. Zn, 1 PR, 2 AV
Salt-air and urban atmospheres 0.004 in. AI, 1 PR, 1 AV 0.004 in. Zn, 1 PR, 1 A V
Rural atmospheres 0.003 in. AI, 1 PR, 1 A V 0.003 in. Zn, 1 PR, 1 AV
Areas Not Fully Accessible
Rural and urban atmospheres 0.003 in. Zn bare
Salt-air, severe marine and industrial
atmospheres 0.003 in. Zn, 1 PR, 2 A V
Tank Interiors
Salt water under 120° F (49° C) and
cold (Under 60° F /15.6° C) fresh
water of pH less than 6.5 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 CV
Fresh water under 125° F (51.5° C)
and over 6.5 pH 0.010 in. Zn; no subsequent
treatment
Ship, Boat and Barge Hulls
Superstructures where there would
normally be no direct spray, and
where painting is maintained for
appearance 0.004 in. AI, 1 PR, 1 A V 0.004 in. Zn, 1 PR, 1 A V
Above waterline 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 AV 0.006 in. Zn, 1 PR, 2 AV
Steel decks with light traffic 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 A V
As base for effective vinyl and antifouling
system 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR
Below waterline where fouling is not a
problem 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 CV 0.009 in. Zn bare
Fish holds and tanks 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 CV 0.009 in. Zn bare
Bottom interior exposed to bilge water 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 CV 0.009 in. Zn bare
Chain lockers 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 CV
Steel Pilings
From just below mudline to 3 feet above
high-water line 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 CV 0.012 in. Zn bare
Balance of piling above water 0.006 in. AI, 1 PR, 2 A V 0.006 in. Zn, 1 PR, 2 A V
General
Use instead of galvanizing, plating or
baked phenolics 0.003 in. Zn; no subsequent
treatment
High-Temperature Protection
Exposures to atmosphere where
temperatures up to 900° F (482° C)
are continuous or intermittent 0.006 in. AI, 2 SA
•For test results at several sites, see AWS C2.11-67, "Corrosion Tests of Metallized Coated Steel," a 12-
year report.
tAbbreviations used:
AI = Aluminum AV = Aluminum vinyl (aluminum pigmented
Zn .. Zinc vinyl)
PR - Wash primer, low In phosphoric acid CV = Clear vinyl
SA - Silicone aluminum (aluminum pigmented
silicone)
1 in. section thickness. The furnace should be preheated before the parts are
inserted.
SINTERING
Free-standing forms such as venturis are made by building up on a mandrel
and then removing the part. When such parts are made, the density and tensile
strength can be increased by sintering.
FINISHING SPRAYED METALS

Finishing may be accomplished by grinding, machining, wire brushing, hon-
ing, lapping or polishing. Surface roughness depends largely on the type of
metal involved. Tool bit shapes for machining sprayed metal coatings are shown
in Fig. 29 .22. Speeds and feeds for this operation are given in Table 29 .11.
Tools with cemented carbide tips are often used for machining sprayed metal,
and machine finishes of 10 to 16 microinch are attainable. Fine finishes or
close tolerances usually require grinding.
GRINDING OF METALLIZED COATINGS
Because metallized coatings are mechanically bonded, caution must be exer-
cised in grinding operations. Heat generated by contact of the wheel can be
great enough to cause expansion of the coating, failure of the bond, or both;
any of these conditions could result in cracked or loose coatings or complete
loss of coating in overheated areas. If necessary to perform dry grinding opera-
tions, as is done with portable grinders mounted on the lathe, a machine cut
should be taken first to remove the major amount of stock using the grind
operation only to develop finish, close tolerance, or both. Wheels for dry grind-
ing operations are aluminum oxide or silicon carbide depending upon the type
of material to be ground. The basis for making this choice is similar to that
A- NOSE ANGLE
l
B- SIDE RAKE ANGLE
C-SIDE RELIEF ANGLE
D-WORKING RELIEF ANGLE
N-NOSE RADIUS
TOOL 'I A= 80° B= 0° C= 10° N=0.030" D} AS

TOOL~ A=80° B= 10° C= 10° N=0.030" D LITTLE
AS
TOOL#3 A=80° B= 15° C= 10° N=0.040" D POSSIBLE
ALL TOOLS GROUND FOR USE IN ARMSTRONG TYPE HOLDER
Fig. 29.22.-Proper angles for grinding lathe tool bits for machining sprayed metal
coatings
Finishing Sprayed Metals I 29.53
Table 29.11-Chart of recommended tools, speeds and feeds for machining sprayed metals
Tool No. Surface Speed, Feed. in. per

Metal I~.::Fig. 29.22_)_ ~min _ ~olutio_n_ _
Yellow Brass • 2 10Q-125 0. 003-0.005

Commercial Bronze* 3 10Q-125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Aluminum 3 150--200 0 . 003-{) . 005
Aluminum Bronze 3 10Q-125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Babbitt (97% Tin, 3% Copper) 1 150--250 0. 005-{). 007
Phosphor Bronze 1 100-125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Tobin Bronze 3 100--125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Monel 3 100--125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Nickel 3 100--125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Copper 3 10Q-125 0 . 003-{) . 005
Lead 3 150--250 0. 005-{). 010
18-8 Stainless Steel 3 100--125 0 . 003-{) . 005
High-Chromium High-Carbon Stainless Steel Grind
0. 10% Carbon Steel 3 75-100 0 . 003-{) . 005
0.25% Carbon Steel 2 50--75 0 . 003-{) . 005
0. 40% Carbon Steel 2 50--75 0 . 003-{) . 005
0. 80% Carbon Steel Grind
Tin 3 150-250 0 . 005-{) . 007
Zinc 3 150--250 0. 005-0.007
*To improve greatly the machine finish on commercial bronze and brass brush on liberal coat of mixture
of one part cylinder oil plus one part kerosene to the sprayed metal, and allow to stand for 20 to 30 minutes
before machining.
The same treatment applied to copper and aluminum will give a slight improvement to machine finish.
The same treatment applied to steels will not improve the machine finish but will help greatly in pre-
venting the tool from burning, and will permit higher machining speeds. The treatment is especially helpful
in machining any hard sections that may be encountered at the ends of the sprayed section or in corners.
Note: Do not use this treatment on stainless steel, nickel. monel, aluminum bronze, phosphor bronze or
tobin bronze, since a poorer rather than an improved machine finish will result.
for choosing the type used in grinding the same material in solid form. In dry
grinding operations, however, the structure of the wheel should be as open as
possible, and the grit size as coarse as possible, consistent with the finish re-
quired. Wheels should be narrow, rather than wide, infeeds light and traverse
as fast as possible without spiraling. In other words, all possible means of
holding heat build-up or concentration to a minimum should be utilized.
The preferred method of grinding is, of course, wet grinding. Larger, wider
wheels can be used, and the entire amount of stock removal can be accom-
plished in one grinding operation. Wet grinding produces closer tolerances and
finer finishes most economically.
All manufacturers of grinding wheels can give good recommendations of
wheel selection and grinding procedures, provided they are informed that the
surface to be ground is a sprayed coating. Where grinding equipment is not
available, good results can be accomplished by machining metallized coatings
to within 0.002 to 0.006 in. of final finish size and then machine polishing,
using one of many belt polishing units available. By proper selection of abra-
sive type and grit size, close tolerances and fine finishes are possible, often at
a cost below that of grinding.
Finishing Fused Coatings

Because most materials sprayed are for hard-surfacing purposes, grinding
is usually the most economical method of finishing. Although most alloys can
be cut with the proper grade of carbide tool, close tolerance work is difficult
because of excessive tool wear and the large amount of heat generated. Dry
grinding may be suitable for certain operations, but generated heat and fast
wheel wear make close tolerance work difficult. Wet grinding of Group 1 alloys
with silicon carbide grinding wheels, or Group 2 alloys with aluminum oxide
grinding wheels, produces close tolerance parts, fine finishes and economical
stock removal rates. Where necessary, grinding can be followed by superfinish-
ing, which involves a machine-lapping operation under controlled conditions,
using abrasive stones as fine as 1000 grit.
Finishes as smooth as 2 microinch can be obtained and the operation con-
trolled to produce highly reflective surfaces or frosty matte finishes, as required.
Where finishing by machining is necessary, a carbide tool similar to grade
883, ground with a slight negative rake will produce a fine machine finish
and hold close tolerances on relatively short sections. Where large areas are
involved, tool wear is excessive and tolerance work is most difficult. Machining
of fused coatings that contain tungsten carbide should not be attempted.
Manufacturers of grinding wheels can be most helpful in selecting these
components, but only if they have details about coating materials, hardness,
grinding equipment to be used and finish to be obtained. Good practice usually
dictates as coarse a wheel as possible, consistent with finish requirements, an
open structure or friable bond, as large a wheel as possible and good dressing
techniques. Surface finish of fused coatings can often be improved after grind-
ing by belt polishing with machine element units using belts as fine as 400 grit.
Another method of improving surface finish is by superfinishing. Super-
finishing involves an oscillating-type unit using silicon carbide, aluminum oxide
stones or laps of various materials loaded with diamond paste. Stones are
available in grits as fine as 1000 and diamond paste in mesh size to 50,000
(0.2 microns).
Improved finishes are progressively obtained by: (1) increasing work speed,
( 2) decreasing oscillation speed, ( 3) decreasing pressure and ( 4) using finer
and finer abrasive products. An operator with only a few days' training can
feel at home with the process, and can begin to consistently produce excellent
finishes as fine as 2 microinch on the harder fused coatings.
Stock removal is slight, and finish is usually accomplished within the toler-
ance range of the part. In other words, a part ground to the high limit of
tolerance can usually be superfinished and still be above the low limit of
tolerance.
Finishing Ceramic Coatings
The as-coated surface finish resulting from flame spraying of ceramics is, in
general, in excess of 150 microinch rms. Many applications require a better
finish, which can be created by grinding. Although the individual particles
comprising the ceramic coating have extreme hardness, the coating can be
finished by conventional techniques on standard equipment. However, it is
necessary to select the proper grinding wheel, and to follow correct procedure.
General recommendations for grinding ceramic coatings are given in Table
29.12.
Flood coolant should be employed during grinding. Water plus a rust in-
hibitor is best, for water-soluble oil coolants are likely to stain light-colored
ceramic coatings.
Wheel surface speeds between 5000 and 6000 feet per minute can be em-
ployed, but the lower figure is preferable. Feeds should not exceed 1 mil per
pass on the denser coatings if minute cracks or checking are to be avoided.
Crossfeeds up to 125 mils per revolution have been satisfactorily employed for
cylindrical surfaces. Although considered operationally safe for coatings in
Table 29.12--General grinding wheel recommendations, speeds and feed rates for grinding ceramic coatings
Type of Operation
Reciprocating
Operating Table Rotary Table
Conditions Centerless Cylindrical Internal Surface Grinding Surface Grinding
Rough Grinding
Diamond SD100S-N100B56 SD100S-N100B56 SD100S-N100B56 SD100S-N100B56 SD100S-N50B56
Silicon Carbide 37C100-IVK 37Cl00-HVK 37C100-HVK 37C100-IVK 37C80-GVK
Finish Grinding
Diamond D400S-N50B D400S-L50B D400S-L50B D400S-L50B D400S-L50B
Silicon Carbide 37C100-IVK 37C100-HVK 37C100-HVK 37C100-IVK 37C80-GVK
Wheel Speed* 5500SFPM 5500 SFPM 5000SFPM 5500SFPM 4500 SFPM
Work Speed
Rough 29 rpm (on 250SFPM 150SFPM 0.050} Cross- 20rpm
Finish reg. wheel) 150 SFPM 100 SFPM 0.035 feed 10rpm
~
~·
Traverse
Rough 50- 60 in./min. 15 in./min. Medium 500- 600 in./m!n. ~
Finish 40- 50 in./min. 5 in./min. Slow 400- 500 in./min. G'Q
Feed Rate ~
Rough 0.001 - 0.002 in./min. 0.001-0.002 in./min. 0.0005 in./min. 0.001 ln./min. 0.002 - 0.005 ln./min. s::
Finish 0.0005 in./min. 0.0005 in.jmin. 0.0002 in./min. 0.0005 in./min. 0.0002 - 0.0005 ln./min.
•SFPM ~ surface feet per minute

l
~
f.
-.......
~
Ul
Ul
general, these figures should be used only as a starting point in developing the
proper conditions for a specific job.
Lapping does not further improve the surfaces of most flame sprayed coat-
ings beyond 10 to 20 microinch as this degree of roughness can be attributed
to pores inherent in the process. Loose abrasive lapping only serves to fill
these pores and discolor the piece. There is no question that the choice of a
diamond wheel is the more economical one where production work is involved
and the workpieces are either identical or, if varied, are still finished in the
same machine.
In job shop work, where the size and configuration of the workpieces vary
greatly, and a number of machines are involved in handling this range, silicon
carbide wheels should be considered. Stock removal is not as fast as with the
diamond wheel, however, original wheel costs are much lower and original
investment dictates the lower priced wheel. Acturu costs per part produced
will reflect higher labor costs but lower wheel cost where limited volume is
produced. Figure 29.23 shows the precision grinding of a large ceramic coated
roll mounted in a lathe.
Fig. 29.23.-Precision grinding a large ceramic coated roll
Comparative grinding wheel costs (1968 prices) are:

Silicon Carbide 24 in. X 2 in. X 12 in., 37C100-HVK (approximately $100)
Diamond 20 in. X 1 in. X 12 in., D400S-N50B 1/ 8 (approximately $1360)
Where grinding is done by means of silicon carbide wheels, 100 or 120 grit
should normally be used; it will produce a good commercial finish. Improved
Finishing Sprayed Metals/ 29.57
finishes can be obtained by means of superfinishing, and the use of silicon

carbide stones in grit sizes of 320 to 600 or 800. Lubricant should be water,
possibly with 1 to 2% rust inhibitor.
Finishing Plasma Sprayed Coatings

Finishing methods may be classified into two general categories: prec1s1on
finishing and nonprecision finishing. Precision finishing requires diamond grind-
ing or diamond grinding plus lapping. Nonprecision grinding may be accom-
plished by polishing with silicon carbide or diamond abrasives.
Precision Finishing.-The best diamond grinding results have been obtained
with diamond wheels of 100 concentmtion, resinoid-bonded, "L" or "N" hard-
ness, with diamond grit sizes of 100 to 400 mesh. Grit sizes 80, 100 and 120
are used for roughing; 150 to 240 for semifinishing; 320 to 500 for high finish.
Table 29.13 contains the rms finishes that may be obtained when various grit
sizes are used in a 100 concentration, resinoid-bond wheel. Flood coolant con-
taining water with a rust-inhibiting oil (2%) should be used during grinding.
When wheels containing diamond
grit in the 100 to 400 mesh size range
Table 29.13-Rms finishes obtainable in a
are used, infeeds should not exceed I 00 concentration, resinoid-bond wheel
0.0001 to 0.0005 inch. Crossfeeds
from 0.040 to 0.080 in. per pass are Grit Size Finish
recommended for surface grinding, (U.S. Mesh) (Microinches, rms)
and from 0.040 to 0.080 in. traverse 16-24

100
per revolution of the workpiece for 220 8-12
cylindrical grinding. Peripheral wheel 400 4-8
speeds between 3500 and 6500

SFPM may be used. At the higher
speeds, a wheel having "L" hardness behaves similarly to a higher hardness
"N" wheel.
In most cases, finishes better than 6 microinch rms may be obtained with
400 grit diamond wheels by using standard diamond abrasives and lapping
equipment, provided that the coating has low porosity. Table 29.14 shows the
finishes that may be obtained when various sizes of diamond abrasives are
used in the lapping operation.
Nonprecision Finishing.-If high
precision is not required, a thermal Table 29.14-Finishes obtainable in lapping
sprayed surface having a roughness operation
of 150 microinch rms may be readily
Number Diamond Equivalent RMS
improved to a 50 to 75 microinch (Bureau Particle Mesh Finish
rms finish. This may be achieved of Size
Standards) (Microns)
8ize (Micro-
inches)
with a soft rubber bonded 80 grit ----1·----- - - - - - - -
silicon carbide abrasive or a vitrified, 1 D-2 14.000 1
bonded ("H" to "L" hardness) sili- 3
6
1-5
4-8
8000
3 000
2
3-5
con carbide stick (80 to 300 grit) or
diamond stick (80 to 300 grit).
These operations are usually performed dry if the surface speeds used do not
produce excessive heat. It should be noted that thermal sprayed coatings have
some porosity, and that the bonding between particles is not comparable to that
of similar sintered structures. Therefore, it is important that the particles be
clearly sheared during grinding. Otherwise, particles will be pulled out of the
coating or drawn in such a way as to produce "feathers." Because of the po-

rosity, an ideally ground surface may have a matte finish rather than a highly
reflective one.
Whenever the ground surface is to be used for a journal or bearing surface,
it is important that the final surface be clean and uncontaminated with grind-
ing abrasive. In this application, it is often more satisfactory to seal the surface
prior to grinding with wax, phenolic or inorganic sealers.
PROPERTIES OF THERMAL SPRAYED

COATINGS
When discussing the properties of thermal sprayed coatings, it must be re-
membered that the spraying process is more art than science. Manually sprayed
coatings are dependent on operator technique. Only when all the variables
(spray distance, angle of spray, gas flows, etc.) are controlled can identical,
reproducible results be obtained. Therefore, since manual spraying is the most
widely used means of application, this discussion of properties is limited to
that method. However, the structure of automatic sprayed coatings will be
similar to those discussed.
AS-SPRAYED
Thermal sprayed deposits, whether metallic or ceramic, have a matte finish
with surface roughness ranging between 150 and 250 rms. Aside from corro-
sion-resistance applications, coatings are seldom used in this condition.
MICROSTRUCTURE
To understand more easily why the physical and mechanical properties of
thermal sprayed coatings differ from a sample of cast or wrought material of
similar composition, it is necessary to discuss the metallographic structure of
sprayed deposits.
Fig. 29.24.- Thermal sprayed 1080 Fig. 29.25.-Surface appearance of ther-

steel: white areas are steel; grey areas, mal sprayed 1080 steel
oxide inclusions; black areas, voids Dr
pull-out ·
Properties of Thermal Sprayed Coatings I 29.59
A sample suitably prepared for metallographic examination reveals a heter-

ogenous mixture of sprayed material, oxide inclusions and pores (Fig. 29.24).
The deposit is bonded to the substrate by adhesive forces, and to itself by
cohesion.
A sample taken parallel to the surface shows the particles to have an emul-
sified appearance (Fig. 29.25). A transverse section indicates the undulating
contours of the flattened sprayed particles (Fig. 29.26). Within each particle
are columnar grains (Fig. 29.27); and equiaxed structure is rare. Carbon steels
are martensitic-tempered and untempered-in the as-sprayed condition (Fig.
29.28) , and so should not be heat treated for the purpose of improving me-
chanical properties.
Fusible alloy coatings in the as-sprayed condition are similar in appearance
and properties to any typical thermal sprayed coating. It is after the high tern-
Fig. 29.26.-Transverse section of ther- Fig. 29.27. - Columnar grains within

mal sprayed copper: top portion is cop- sprayed molybdenum
per coating; lower portion, substrate
Fig. 29.28. - Martensitic structure of Fig. 29.29.-Microstructure of AMS

sprayed 0.8% carbon steel 4775 steel: top portion is coating; darker
bottom area, substrate
perature (1900 to 2000°F/1038 to 1204°C) fusing treatment that tpey metal-
lurgically bond to their substrates and develop their characteristic properties.
An example of a fused sprayed coating is shown in the photomicrograph in
Fig. 29.29.
HARDNESS
The heterogenous structure of sprayed coatings makes them less hard than
cast or wrought stock. However, the hardness of the individual particles that
compose the coating is much higher than the over-all coating hardness.
Rockwell Hardness
In determining the Rockwell hardness, coating thickness is of the utmost
importance. The following minimum thicknesses (Table 29.15), should be
Table 29.15-Minimum thickness require- Table 29.17-Brinell hardness of sprayed

ments on which to take Rockwell hardnesses metal blocks (0.5 in. X 2 in. X 2 in.)
wire metallized
Rockwell Thickness
Scale (in.) Metal Brinell Hardness
15N 0.015 Aluminum 35

30N 0.025 Brass (70 /30) 85
45N 0.035 Copper 90
A 0.040 Monel 190
B 0.060 Nickel
c 0.070 Steels
195
D 0.050 1010 200
1025 210
1080 325
Type 304 300
Zinc 20
Table 29.16--Rockwell hardnesses for Table 29.18-Microhardness (KHN 50 )

several sprayed metal coatings of sprayed particles of various metals
Rockwell Hardness Knoop Hardness/50 Grams

Metal
Metal
Wire Oxy-fuel/ Wire Oxy-
Metaiiized Powder Plasma Metal- fuel/
Iized Powder Plasma
Aluminum
1100 H-72 H-27 H-47 Aluminum 72 52.5 60
5%Silicon B-64 Bronze
Bronze Aluminum 410
Aluminum B-92 Copper 173 122 142
Tobin B-64 Molybdenum 1550 1448
Copper F-78 H-60 H-85 Monel 325
Molyb- Nickel
denum C-35 C-33 C-38 Aluminide• 50o-7oo 29o-554 32o-685
Monel F-79 Steels
Nickel F-88 1010 450
Nickel 1025 500
Aluminide C-22 B-75 C-25 1080 660
Steels Type 304 380
1010 B-90 Type420 750
1025 B-95 Tantalum 1585
1080 C-39 Tungsten 500
Type420 C-35
Type 304 B-84
Tantalum A-70 * Upon completion of the exothermic reaction,
Tungsten A-50 two intermetaiiic compounds are formed (NiA1
and NiaA1), thus the two hardness values.
used with the indicated Rockwell scale. Typical readings for various sprayed
materials using three common spraying processes are given in Table 29.16.
Diamond indentors, with single-point penetration, are not entirely satisfac-
tory for determining the true hardness of sprayed coatings. Rather, they are
helpful for spot checks and shop guides. For accurate hardness values, the
Brinell tester, with its large carbide ball, is recommended. Typical Brinell
readings are indicated in ~able 29.17. Although useful on homogenous ma-
terials, scratch hardness tests of sprayed material are affected by oxide inclu-
sions, porosity and particle pullout.
The microhardness test is used for measuring the hardness of individual
particles. Since the particles are relatively thin, hardness impressions are takea
through a particle's transverse section. The Knoop indentor, with a 50 gram
load (KHN 50 ) is best suited for this work. Table 29.18 lists microhardness
test results of several sprayed metals.
TENSILE STRENGTH OF THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS

When determining the tensile strength of thermal sprayed coatings, con-
sideration should be given to: (1) adhesion of the coating to its substrate (i.e.,
bond strength) and (2) cohesion of the particles to each other.
Bond strength varies with coating material, substrate and method of surface
preparation. A commonly used test for determining bond strength consists in
first machining two matching bars. These bars, shown in Fig. 29.30, each 2 in.
long and 1 in. diameter, are drilled on one end to a depth of approximately
3/4 inch. A 112 in. diameter hole is drilled and tapped for a 1/2 in.-20 UNF-
2B thread. The opposite end of one specimen half is sprayed to 0.030 in. ±
0.005 inch. The coating is then ground flat to 0.020 in. ± 0.002 inch.
Using a suitable adhesive, the two specimens are bonded together so that
their axes are vertically aligned. When the adhesive has cured, an accurate
tensile testing machine is used to pull the test piece apart. The bond strength
is equal to the breaking load divided by the specimen's cross-sectional area.
The bond strengths of several self-bonding materials are presented in Table
29.19.
Table 29.19-Typical bond strengths of Table 29.2o-Long transverse tensile

self-bonding metals applied to a strengths of sprayed metals
smooth, unprepared surface
Metal Ultimate Tensile Strength, psi
illtimate Bond Strength, psi
Aluminum
Bonding Agent Oxy- 1100 19,500
fuel/ Wire 5% Silicon 37,000
Plasma Powder Metal- Bronze
Sprayed Sprayed Iized Aluminum 29,000
Phosphor 18.000
------1---------- Tobin 26,500
Columbium 2400 Molybdenum 7,500
Molybdenum 3200 3600 3300 Steel
Nickel Aluminide 3000 2750 3150 1010 30.000
Tantalum 2750 1025 34.700
1080 27.500
Type304 30.000
Type 420 40.000
Zinc 13,000
Cohesive strength, i.e., coating tensile strength, can be measured in two di-
rections: long transverse (parallel to gun travel) and short transverse (90° to
gun travel). The former is determined from tensile bars prepared from sprayed
material; typical results are given in Table 29.20. The short transverse tensile
strength is determined utilizing specimens similar to those used for evaluating
the bond strength and using coatings built up to 0.100 inch.
TOLERANCE
FRACTIONS -1/64" T.I.R.- .003" THREAD SIZE
MACHINED SURFACES~ 1/2" - 20 UNF - 28
"A" "A"
L __ __ j
1.000" DIA.
0.990"
THESE SURFACES
MUST BE SQUARE
WITH CENTERLINE
;!!
...
=
c:i
• OF THREAD WITHIN
=
• ~ :I...= 0.003" T.I.R.
... ;;;
5!:.
...
MATERIAL: 1" DIAM. x 2" LG. - PER SPECIFICATION
Fig. 29.30.-Specimen for determining bond or tensile strength
COATING DENSITY AND POROSITY

As previously noted, thermal sprayed coatings are composed of the sprayed
material, oxides and pores; when determining coating density, all three must
be considered. The sprayed material is equal to the density of the original ma-
terial; the oxides are lighter, and the pores increase the volume. Yet, all three
factors influence the final coating density.
Coating density can be easily determined. A measurable volume of the ma-
terial under investigation is fashioned. All surfaces should be fiat, edges 90
degrees. The volume is measured to the nearest thousandth (cu. in.) and
multiplied by 16.387 to change to cubic centimeters (cm3 ). Then the sample
is weighed on a good analytical balance to the nearest thousandth of a gram.

Expressed as an equation, coating density is as follows:
.
D ens1ty = =---='-o---=-c-,-=-----'=--:-c-
Sample Weight (gms)
Sample Volume (cmll)
To determine how coating density compares with the density of the original
material, it is necessary to divide the coating density by the theoretical density
of the original material. Typical
density measurements are presented
in Table 29.21. Table 29.21-Densities (gm/cm 3 ) of several
The porosity of sprayed deposits, sprayed coatings
consisting as it does of isolated and
Oxy-fuel/
interconnected pores, is difficult to Wire Powder Plasma
determine accurately. However, esti- Metal Metallized Sprayed Sprayed
mates can be derived by several
Aluminum
methods. The simplest is to cast the 1100 2.41 2.36 2.48
metallographically polished, magni- Bronze
Tobin 7.46 - -
fied image (1 OOX) onto a grid and Copper 7.535 7.58
-
7.20
Molybdenum 9.05 8.97
count the percentage of grid squares Monel 7.67 - -
occupied by pores. Other methods in- Nickel
Aluminide 6.00 6.00 6.90
clude water or toluene immersion Steel
1025 6.78 - -
and paraffin absorption. Because of 1080 6.356 - -
the lack of total interconnection of Type 420 6.74 - -
Type 304 6.934 - -
the pores, however, no method is Tantalum - - 14.15
Tungsten - - 19.30
perfect. Zinc 6.36 - -
The porous nature of sprayed de-

posits can be used to advantage, es-
pecially for bearing surfaces, since
the porosity permits oil retention and Table 29.22-Shrinkages of various wire
provides an escape for foreign ma- metallized coatings
terial from actively loaded areas.
Shrinkage
Where corrosion is a factor, porosity Metal in./in.
is a disadvantage; and it limits coat-
ings for such applications to those Aluminum
1100 0.0068
that are anodic to the base material 5% Silicon 0.0057
unless special paints or sealants are Bronze
Aluminum 0.0055
used. Manganese 0.0090
Phosphor 0.0100
Molybdenum 0.0030
SHRINKAGE Steels
1010 0.0080
All sprayed metals contract when 1025 0.0060
0.0014
1080
deposited. The amount of contrac- Type 304 0.0120
Type 420 0.0018
tion varies widely with different Zinc 0.0100
materials and processes, and does not
conform to the normal thermal con-
traction for these materials. Con-
traction sets up stresses in the deposit, and should be taken into con-
sideration, since it may be the deciding factor in determining the method
of preparation, and also in the selection of the material to use for spraying.
Metals having a low coefficient of expansion should be used whenever possible,
especially for heavy coatings and inside diameters. Examples of shrinkages en-
countered with various sprayed coatings are presented in Table 29.22.
PROPERTIES AND BOND STRENGTH-

PLASMA SPRAYED COATINGS
Some typical bonds strengths of plasma sprayed coatings using the motor-
generator system are shown in Table 29.23. Physical and mechanical properties
of pLasma sprayed coatings are presented in Table 29.24.
Table 29.23-Typical bond strengths of various coatings sprayed using a motor-generator

power source
Thickness of Average Bond

Coat Strength In
Metal Sprayed (inches) Substrate Tension (psi)
High Carbon Steel Plus

Manganese 0.020 Aluminum 7480•
AISI 1080 Steel 0.020 Aluminum 6460
High Carbon Steel Plus
Manganese 0.020 Cast Iron 5600
High Carbon Steel 0.020 Cast Iron 4400
Nichrome 8D-20 0.020 AISI 1010 Steel 4900
I
Aluminum Bronze 0.020 AISI 1010 Steel 4900
AISI 1080 Steel
I
0.020 I AISI 1010 Steel 4700
AISI 1010 Steel 0.020 AISI 1010 Steel 3400
I I
•All specimens broke at adhesive-bonded interface.
Test pieces were 1 in. diameter bars, blasted with SAE 18 steel grit, using a pressure blast at 80 psi and
sprayed. A matching piece to complete the tensile specimen was bonded to the sprayed coating with suitable
adhesive.
APPLICATIONS OF SPRAYED COATINGS

Coatings applied by thermal spraying techniques find numerous and diversi-
fied applications in industry today. A considerable amount of research is di-
rected toward the development and perfection of such techniques, and an even
wider range of uses is anticipated, concurrent with advances in metallurgy and
space age technology.
THERMAL SPRAYED COATINGS

Corrosion and Oxidation Protection
Thermal sprayed coatings provide excellent protection against all types of
corrosive attack on iron and steel. Heavy coatings can be applied to meet the
most severe corrosion conditions and give long life without further mainte-
nance. Sprayed coatings are also excellent corrosion-resistant undercoatings for
organic materials such as paints and plastic finishes. Organic finishes on iron
and steel usually fail because of corrosion under the coatings, and because of
lack of bonding to the base metal. Thin coatings resist corrosion of the base
metal and provide a strong bond to the organic finish.
The metals most commonly used for corrosion-resistant applications are zinc,
aluminum and cadmium. The porosity of these metals is not important since they
29.24--Properties of some coatings applied with the plasma spray process
Coating Composition by Weight 99+% Al.Oa 75% CrsCa 99+% CrsCa WC +Fe Cr Alloy of Co+ 91%WC
25% Ni-Cr Ni + W + Cr 9% Co
Cross-Sectional Hardness (Vickers) • 900 VPNaoo 480VPNaoo 1300 VPNaoo SOOVPNaoo 360VPNaoo 650 VPNaoo
Strength of Bond to Base Metal 8000 psi 11,000 psi 12,000 psi 12,000 psi 10,000 psi 15,000 psi
Porosity 2-3% 1-3% 0.25-1% 1-2% 0.5-1% 1-2%
Density 3.38 gm/cm' 5.03 gmjcm' 9.9 gm/cm' 7.95 gm/cm'

Modulus of Rupture 20,000 psi 35,000 psi 50,000 psi
Modulus of Elasticity 5.7 x 106 psi 19 x 10• psi 22.5 x 10• psi
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion t 3.9 x 10-• injDF 3.7 x 10-8 injDF 3. 8 x 10-6 injDF
(avg. 7D-1300°F) (avg. 7D-1000°F) (avg. 7D-1000°F) ::.....
Max. Operating Temp. in an Oxidizing ~
Atmosphere 1800°F (982°C) 1600°F (871°C) 1000°F (538°C) 1000°F (538°C) 1600°F (871°C) 1000°F (538°C)
Main Features Resistance to wear, Wear resistance Self-mating and Wear resistance, Wear resistance Wear resistance;
[
chemical attack, at high anti-galling especially under in low-load coating has very
high temperatures or properties; wet abrasion situations at smooth as- ~·
temperature in corrosive resistance to conditions high coated surface
deterioration media; very wear temperatures ~
smooth as-
coated surface ~
~
•VPN =Vickers Pyramid Number
tEquivalent temperatures: 70°F = 21.1 °C; 1300°F - 704°C. l
~
~·
...
.........
w
00
o-
UI
are anodic to iron and protect it by receiving the attack themselves. Sealing
these coatings with paints or plastics gives added life.
Nickel, Monel, stainless steel and bronzes are cathodic to steel and should
be used only if they are made impermeable to the corrosive agent by sealing.
These metals are used very extensively for machine element work, pump
plungers, pump rods, hydraulic rams, packing sections of steam turbine shafts,
boat tailshafts, valves, etc. When sealed, these materials not only resist corro-
sion but also impart added wear resistance to the assembly.
Lead coatings may be used to increase the resistance of a base metal to acid
and other strong reagents. Since lead is cathodic to steel, however, the coating
should be completely sealed. This is accomplished by wire brushing between
successive passes.
Tin coatings are used primarily for the protection of fooo vessels.
Several different coatings may be used to give oxidation resistance, depend-
ing on the operating temperature. For applications to 1600°F (871 °C), the
part can be aluminized by spraying on a coat of aluminum; the aluminum is
then diffused into the surface by suitable heat treatment. (See section on Post
Treatments.) For temperatures above 1600°F, a nickel-chromium alloy may
be used, followed by a coating of aluminum. These coatings may be used for
applications such as: cyanide pots, furnace and kiln parts, furnace conveyors,
damper plates, magnesium superheaters, aircraft exhaust stacks and annealing
boxes.
Tungsten, zirconia and alumina are finding more use as refractory coatings.
Tantalum, columbium, nickel aluminide and molybdenum can be used as re-
fractory bonding coats.
Machine Element Salvage and Repair

In the mechanical field, thermal spraying can be used to combat nearly every
type of wear. The ability of sprayed metal to absorb and maintain a film of
lubricant is a distinct advantage for many types of work. Sprayed surfaces
often give longer life than the original surface, except where severe conditions
of shock loading or abrasion are encountered. The process enables the design
engineer to select low-cost base materials and apply high-quality, wear-resistant
coatings where needed. Unique combinations such as magnesium or aluminum
rolls, surfaced with sprayed metal, present many advantages in machine design.
For applications where extreme wear, corrosion resistance, or both, are re-
quired, the fused metallized coatings may be used. These coatings have found
a wide variety of uses in a number of different fields, as charted in Table
29.25.
Electrical Work
In the electrical field, sprayed metal has found a wide variety of uses. When
employed as a conductor, the resistance is 50 to 100% higher than that of the
same metal in the cast or wrought form. This should be taken into considera-
tion in designing resistance heaters, printed circuits, etc. Ceramics can be
bonded to metals by using a sprayed molybdenum-manganese bonding layer.
Condenser plates have been produced by spraying aluminum on both sides
of a cloth tape. Other production items include copper contacts sprayed on
carbon brushes, and resistance elements and grids sprayed on glass.
Applications of Sprayed Coatings I 29.67
Table 29.25-Machine element salvage and repair applications of thermal spraying
Industrial Area Uses
camshafts
Automotive valve faces and stem ends
water pump shafts
kingpins and brake cams
fan blades
Cement Mills conveyor parts
valves, valve seats and bearings
valves
impellers
Chemical pump shafts
acid pump plungers
valve seats
sleeves and wear rings
pump impellers
Coal and Metal Mining dipper parts
sizing screens and blower parts
plug, ring and thread gages
mandrels
General Industrial grinder parts
packing gland bushings
lathe centers
arbors and extrusion press screws
coal feeder screws
exhaust blowers
Power Plants steam valve disks and conveyor parts
Foundry Work
There are several uses for the thermal spraying process in foundry work.
Slight changes in the contour of expensive patterns and match plates can readily
be accomplished. The abrasion of patterns and molds by sandslingers can be
repaired by thermal spraying. The salvage of castings is a frequent practice.
Brazing and Soldering

Thermal spraying is frequently used for the preplacing of solder brazing
metal. Lead solders, silver and aluminum brazing filler metals and pure copper
can be applied in this manner. The usual practice is to spray the filler metal
in place using ordinary thermal spraying techniques. The assemblies, with the
exception of aluminum, are usually furnace brazed using a hydrogen atmos-
phere furnace.
Aircraft and Missiles

The thermal spraying process has solved some major problems in the aircraft
industry. The process has been used for air seals, oil seals, compressor seals,
compressor blades and turbine buckets. It has also been used in the preparation
of wear-resistant surfaces to prevent fretting and galling at elevated tempera-
tures. Insulation coatings of alumina and zirconia have been deposited by this
method. More and more applications are being discovered for the deposition
of high temperature coatings by the plasma flame spray process for jet engine
work. One engine manufacturer applies thermal sprayed coatings to more than
1200 components. The field has experienced a tremendous expansion in the
past several years.
Fabrication
Unusual shapes or hard-to-machine materials can be fabricated by thermal
spraying. This process is useful with both metals and ceramics. For example,
rocket nozzles have been made of molybdenum and tungsten by spraying a
thick coating on an accurately machined graphite mandrel. Removing the
mandrel leaves a sprayed metal shell. Thermal sprayed coatings and shapes
can be sprayed to dimensional limits of 0.001 inch.
Model designing involves the making of models and mock-ups to represent
the shape and appearance of the finished product. Once the model has been
made, it can be thermal sprayed and the resulting shell used as the working
model for the desired die casting.
Additional Applications
From the great variety of thermal spray applications presented, it may be
inferred that the applications of thermal spraying are almost limitless. Table
29.26 has been compiled to illustrate many of the applications for various
sprayed materials.
PLASMA SPRAYED COATINGS

Plasma sprayed coatings are being utilized for many applications in the
missile, aviation, electronics, chemical and nuclear fields. Metal, ceramic or
cermet coatings, ranging from a few thousandths to one-half in. or more thick,
may be deposited on a variety of substrate materials to provide: thermal re-
sistance, corrosion resistance, abrasion resistance, electrical insulation and nu-
clear shielding.
In many applications, a combination of several of these properties is re-
quired. For example, the nozzle of a solid-propellant rocket engine must be
protected from the very high flame temperatures at the throat, the corrosive
and erosive action of the exhaust gases and solid particles.
The plasma spray process may also be used to fabricate free-standing shapes
from materials that are difficult or impossible to form by other means. These
materials are plasma sprayed onto a mandrel having the desired shape. The
mandrel is subsequently removed by mechanical or chemical means, leaving
the free-standing shape. Rocket nozzles, nose cones, crucibles, vacuum tube
grid cages and many other configurations of metals and ceramics have been
fabricated by this method. It should be noted that the physical and mechanical
properties of these metal and ceramic shapes may be improved significantly
by subsequent sintering.
Typical applications for plasma sprayed coatings and free-standing shapes
are contained in Table 29.27 (p. 29.71).
Applications of Sprayed Coatings I 29.69
Table 29.26--Frequency of use of thermal spraying in selected applications
1• 2t 3t
--- ------
Powder type X
Method Wire type X
Plastic type X
Plasma arc I X
Material Rust Protection
Protection against normal land and sea

atmosphere X
Protection against fresh water X
Protection against sea water X
Examples:
Steel constructions X
Steel bridges X
Pylons X
Steel doors and windows X
Water containers X
Pipe lines X
Banisters X
Zinc--{).003 to 0.015 Mine wagons X
in. thick Gas containers X
Hulls X
Deckhouses X
Holds X
Bathrooms (ship) X
Blowers, fans X
Ducts X
Ship material X
Lock gates X
Pumps X
Transformer houses X
Plants for water treatment X
------
Protection against industrial atmospheres X
Protection against land and sea atmospheres X
Protection against burning of steel X
Examples:
Aluminum- Water containers X
0.005 to 0.020 in. Steel construction in industrial and
thick sulphuric atmospheres X
Containers and equipment for food X
Combustion chambers X
Smoke channels X
------
Other Al-alloys 5% Si Applications and Examples same as for
0.004 to 0.012 in. Aluminum, 0.005 to 0.020 in. thick X
thick
---------
Zinct Paint-0 .003 to Applications and Examples same as Zinc,
0. 006 in. thick 0. 003 to 0. 015 in. thick
---------
Applications
Heavy water X
Cadmium--{).008 in. Examples same as for Aluminum, 0.005 to
thick 0.020 in. thick
Corrosion Protection
Stainless Steel Applications

Cr-Ni- Shafts X
0.008 to 0.090 in. Food containers X
thick Rolls X
-- ------
Nickel- Applications
0.010 to 0.090 in. Carbon packings X
thick Pump X
Rolls X
------
Copper- Applications
0.004 to 0.250 in. Electrical conductor X
thick Decorations X
- I
•Very little use. tUsed to some extent. tUsed a great deal.

Table 29.26-Continued
Material 1• 2t 3t
--- ---
Lead- Applications
0.005 to 0.126 ln. Protection against sulfuric acid X
thick Shielding (radiation) ¥
--- --- ---
Brass- A pplicatlon
0.005 to 0.260 ln. Water tight seats X
thick Electrical discharge machining
electrode X
--- --- ---
Bronze- Application
0.030 to 0.260 ln. Protection of propeller shaft X
thick Small pistons X
--- --- ---
Tin- Application
0.006 to 0.030 in. Food containers and equipment X
thick Reclaiming X
--- ---
Application
Reclaiming machine parts X
Examples:
Shafts X
Propeller shafts X
Steel-Q. 003 to Crank shafts X
0 . 260 ln. thick Bearings X
Rollers X
Parts for automobiles X
Pistons X
Cylinders X
--- --- ---
Stainless Steel- Application
0.006 to 0.250 in. Same as for steel 0 003 to 0. 250 in. thick
-- --- ------
Bn)llze-Brass- Application
0.006 to 0.250 in. Propeller shafts X
------
Monel alloy-Q. 040 ln. thick Carbon packings X
Wear-Resistant Coatings
Spray Type
Stellite type- Application
0.010 to 0.098 ln. Shafts I X
thick Hard surfacing X
Melting temp.- Corrosion resistance X
1800° F (982° C) to
2000° F (1093° C)
------ ---
Ni-Si-B. Ni-Cr, SI-B Application
0.010 to 0.250 in. Machine parts X
thick Pump plungers X
Melting temp.- Corrosion wear X
1850° F (1010° C) to
2050° F (1121 ° C)
---------
Alumina X
------ ---
Zirconia X
---- - - - - - -
Rare earth oxides X
--- ---
Tungsten and chromium
carbides X
--- ---
Refractories blended with
exothermics X
Self-Bonding Coatings
Exothermics X
--- ---
Molybdenum X
--- - - - - - -
Columbium X
--- ---
Tantalum X
•Very little use. tUsed to some extent. lUsed a great deal.

Bibliography j 29.71
Table 29.27-Typical applications for plasma sprayed materials
Material Application
Alumina or Zirconia Protecting working surfaces of tool steel dies used in the hot extrusion
of refractory metals; protecting SAE 1020 steel rocket nozzles used
in test firing of solid-propellant rocket motors against high-tempera-
ture erosion
Aluminum Preparing nickel- and cobalt-base superalloys for diffusion treatment to
produce aluminide coatings for high-temperature oxidation resist-
ance
Aluminum Oxide Nonablative re-entry surfaces
Aluminum Oxide Over Protecting induction heat treating coils to prevent arcing to heat
Nickel-Chromium treated parts
Chromium-Carbide-Nickel- Protecting jet engine components against wear and abrasion
Chromium Blend
Molybdenum Achieving wear resistance for compressor vane ledges
Molybdenum Disilicide Protecting graphite from oxidation at high temperatures
Refractory Oxides High-pressure (5000 psi) pump seals; achieving wear resistance on
guides and capstans of wire-drawing equipment; fabricating campo-
nents of large vacuum tubes such as heaters, grid bars, grid cages,
targets and cathode cups
Tungsten or Beryllium Free-standing shapes for rocket nozzles and other missile applicatiDns
Tungsten Carbide Repairing mechanical seals used in the oil industry; achieving wear re-
sistance on knife blades, gages, jet engine components
Tungsten Over Tantalum Protective shielding against high-temperature erosion of exhaust gases
on graphite rocket nozzles (Polaris)
Zirconia Cladding uranium dioxide fuel elements in nuclear reactors
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Aluminum Flame Sprayed Coating Process for Reinforced Plastic Aircraft Assem-
blies," R. W. Whitfield and V. S. Johnson, Welding Journal, 47 (1), 31-36 (1968).
Recommended Practices for Metallizing, Part 1B, Application of Aluminum and
Zinc for Protection of Iron and Steel, American Welding Society, C2.2 ( 1967).
Corrosion Tests of Metallized Coated Steel, AWS, C2.11 (1967).
"Metallizing Developments Utilizing Stabilized Methylacetylene Propadiene,'' Weld-
ing Journal, R. D. Green, 45 (12), 992-998 (1966).
"Metallurgy of Flame Sprayed Nickel Aluminide Coatings," F. N. Longo, Ibid.,
45 (2), 66s-69s (1966).
"Metallurgical Bonding of Plasma Sprayed Tungsten on Hot Molybdenum Sub-
strates," W. A. Spitzig and S. J. Grisaffe, Ibid., 43 (9), 425s-427s (1964).
Recommended Practices for Metallizing Inside Diameters of Machinery Parts, AWS
C2.10 (1963).
"Metal Spraying and the Flame Deposition of Ceramics and Plastics," W. E. Bal-
lard, C. Griffins and Co., Ltd., London (1963).
"Evaluation of Flame-Sprayed Coatings for Army Weapons Applications," M. Levy,
American Ceramic Society Bulletin 42:498-500 (September 1963).
Metallizing Terms and Their Definitions, A WS, C2.9 ( 1962).
"Flame Ceramics Gives New Life to High Temperature Parts," Iron Age, 190,
53-55 (August 2, 1962). -
"Sprayed Hard Facings Cut Costs of Many Products," Welding Journal 41 (1), 39
(1962).
"Plasma Arc Coatings," C. G. Nessler, Materials in Design Engineering, 55, 109-113
(June 1962).
"Which Metal Spray Coating: Plasma or Metallizing?," G. E. Fischer, Machining,
68, 83-89 (August 1962).
"Multilayer Metal-Ceramic Coatings for High Temperature Protections," W. L.
Aves, Metal Finishing Journal (April 1961).
"Determination of Physical Properties of Flame-Sprayed Ceramic Coatings,'' J. L.
Bliton and H. L. Rector, American Ceramic Society Bulletin, 40: 83-88 (November
15, 1961).
"Metal Spraying for the Protection of Steel Bridges," J. D. Thompson, Chemical
and Industry (November 4, 1961).
"New Coatings from the Plasma-Arc," Material in Design Engineering, 54, 127-128
(November 1961).
Recommended Practices for Metallizing, Part 1A, Metallizing Shafts or Similar
Objects, AWS, C2.1 (1960).
"Modern Flame-Sprayed Ceramic Coatings," N. N. Ault and W. M. Wbeildon,
Modern Materials-Volume 2, Academic Press, New York and London (1960).
"Recent Advances in Arc-Plasma Metallizing,'' M. A. Levinstein, Colloquium on
Metal Spraying, International Institute of Welding, Liege, Belgium (June 1960).
"Sprayed Metal Coatings for Abrasion, Corrosion and Oxidation Resistance," G. R.
Bell, British Welding Journal, 7 (5) (May 1960).
"Metal Spraying Effect of Molybdenum Deposit on Adhesion and on Fatigue of
Ferritic Steels," D. Birchen, Metallurgia, 8 (350) (December 1958).
"Properties of Materials: Sprayed Metal Coatings," Materials in Design Engineer-
ing (265) (October 1958).
"Metallizing and Its Applications in Aircraft Gas Turbine Components," D. E.
Hacker, Welding Journal, 37 (3), 231-236 (1958).
Standard Metallizing Symbols, AWS, C2.6 (1957).
"Properties of Sprayed Zinc Coating,'' E. Gebhardt and H. S. Seghezzi, Electro-
plating and Metal Finishing, 81-85 (March 1957).
"Practical Metallizing of Technical Ceramics," R. C. Steffey, Metal Finishing, 56-61
(November 1957).
"Mechanizations of the Metal Spraying Process," H. J. Plaster, Electroplating and
Metal Finishing (October 1956).
"Developments in Sprayed Metal Coatings,'' H. S. Ingham, Product Engineering,
194-197 (June 1956).
"Alumina Coating on Ramjet Chamber," A. V. Levy, Western Metals, 66-67 (May
1956).
"Sprayed Aluminum and Zinc in Corrosive Environments," R. E. Mansford, Corro-
sion Technology, 314-316 (October 1956).
"Metal Spraying for Protection of Iron and Steel," Electroplating and Metal Finish-
ing, 177-180 (May 1955).
"Fused-in-Place Spray Metallized Coatings," S. Tour, Welding Journal, 34 ( 4), 329-
336 (1955).
"Mould Spraying," H. J. Plaster, Electroplating and Metal Finishing, 354-358 (Octo-
ber 1955).
"Sprayed Metal Coatings in Product Design,'' D. A. Watson, Materials and Meth-
ods, 106-109 (December 1955).
Recommended Practices for Metallizing, Part lC-Application of Metallized Coatings
to Protect Against Heart Corrosion, American Welding Society, C2.3 (1955).
Recommended Practices for Metallizing, Part 1D-Metallizing Flat Surfaces, Ameri-
can Welding Society, C2.4 (1954).
Safety Measures in Metal Spraying Industry,'' W. McDermott, British Journal of
Industrial Safety, 22, 111, 113-114 (Winter 1952), Electroplating (March 1953).
"Modem Electric Arc Pistol," M. U. Schoop, Electroplating, 33-34 (January 1953),
_ _ _ _CHAPTER 30
STUD WELDING
Introduction 30.2
Arc Stud Welding 30.3
Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding 30.24
Process Selection 30.33
Bibliography 30.34
R. K. RITTER E. FAY
K S M Division K S M Division
Omark Industries, Inc.-Chairman Omark Industries, Inc.
F. V. DALY J. JENKINS
Newport News Shipbuilding Nelson Stud Welding
and Drydock Company Division, Gregory Industries
E. DASH R.M.ROOD
Douglas Aircraft Company General Electric Company
R. C. SINGLETON
Nelson Stud Welding
Division, Gregory Industries
_ _ _ _CHAPTER 30
STUD WELDING
INTRODUCTION
STUD WELDING IS A welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heat-
ing with an arc drawn between a metal stud, or similar part, and the other
part until the surfaces to be joined are properly heated, when they are brought
together under pressure. There are two basic types of stud welding: arc stud
welding and capacitor discharge stud welding.
Arc stud welding, still the more widely used of the two basic stud welding
processes, is similar in many respects to manual shielded metal-arc welding. The
heat necessary for end welding of studs is developed by passage of current
through an arc from the stud (electrode) to the plate (work) to which the stud
is to be welded. Determination of the welding time and the final plunging home
of the stud to complete the weld are controlled automatically. The stud, held in
a portable pistol-shaped tool called a stud-gun, is positioned by the operator,
who then actuates the unit by pressing the trigger switch. The weld is completed
quickly, usually in less than one second. This process obtains substantial shield-
ing by use of a ceramic arc shield (ferrule) surrounding the stud, which also
dams the molten metal to form a fillet weld.
Capacitor discharge stud welding, the second basic stud welding process, de--
rives its heat from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of stored electrical
energy with pressure applied during or immediately following the electrical dis-
charge. Like arc stud welding, the heat necessary for end welding of studs is
developed by passage of current through an arc from the stud (electrode) to the
Arc Stud Welding/ 30.3
plate (work) to which the stud is to be welded. The arc is established either by
rapid resistance heating a projection on the stud weld base with a resulting weld
time of 3 to 6 milliseconds, or by drawing the arc in a manner similar to that
of arc stud welding by lifting the stud away from the workpiece. The latter
procedure results in a 6 to 15 millisecond weld time. In either case, this process
does not require a shielding ceramic ferrule and is generally suited for applica-
tions requiring small to medium size studs.
The range of stud styles is wide. It includes threaded fasteners, plain or slotted
pins, internally threaded fasteners, flat fasteners with rectangular cross section
and headed pins with various upsets. Additional machining operations, such as
cross drilling, slotting, bending, swaging, piercing, etc., are available in combina-
tion with many of the studs. Studs may be used as holddowns, standoffs, heat
transfer members, insulation supports and for other applications. All these stud
styles may be rapidly applied by equipment that is readily portable. The joints
are strong and pressure tight, and may be made even if there is no access to the
other side of the base material.
ARC STUD WELDING

The arc stud welding process involves the same basic principles as any of the
other arc welding processes. Application of the process consists of two steps:
1. Developing heat by drawing an arc between the stud and the plate to
which it is to be welded; and
2. Bringing the two pieces into intimate contact when the proper tempera-
ture is reached.
The equipment consists of the stud gun, a control unit (timing device) , studs
and ferrules, and an available source of d-e welding current (Figs. 30.1A and
30.1B). The mechanics of the process is illustrated in Fig. 30.2. The stud is
loaded into the chuck, the ferrule (also known as an arc shield) is placed in
position over the end of the stud, and the gun is properly positioned for weld-
ing (Fig. 30.2A). The trigger is then depressed, starting the automatic welding
cycle (Fig. 30.2B).
A solenoid coil within the body of the gun is energized, lifting the stud, creat-
ing an arc and forming a molten pool on the plate and the stud end. When
the arc period, as preset and maintained by the control unit, is completed, the
welding current is automatically shut off, de-energizing the solenoid, and allow-
ing the mainspring of the gun to plunge the stud into the molten pool on the
plate to complete the weld (Fig. 30.2C). The gun is then lifted from the stud
and the ferrule is knocked off (Fig. 30.2D).
The time required for the complete weld cycle varies with the cross-sectional
area of the stud. The unit of time used is the cycle, or 1160 second; and the
cycle-time typically would be approximately 8 cycles for a 10 gage pin and 55
cycles for a 7I 8 in. diameter stud. Application rates vary with the size of the
stud and such factors as working conditions. An average rate is approximately
six studs per minute, although 15 stud welds per minute is common in many
applications.
The equipment involved in stud welding compares with that of manual
shielded metal-arc welding with regard to portability and ease of operation.
The initial cost of such equipment varies with the size of studs to be welded.
30.4 I Stud Welding
The gun and the control unit are connected to a d-e power source. The con-
trol unit connections shown in Fig. 30.1A and 30.1B are for power sources
designed for secondary interruption, as is the case with motor-generator sets,
battery units and most rectifier-type welding machines.
DESIGNING FOR ARC STUD WELDING
Instead of simply substituting end welded studs for other types of fasteners,
designers are now taking full advantage of the characteristics of the stud weld-
(A)
CONTROL CABLE
(B)
Fig. 30.1.-Schematic of power and control circuit for arc stud welding with (A) d-e
motor-generator power source and (B) rectified a-c power source
CHUCK--
STUD--
FERRULE--
(A) (8) (C) (D)
Fig. 30.2.-Stud welding: (A) gun properly positioned, (B) trigger is depressed and stud
is lifted, creating arc, (C) arcing period is completed and stud is plunged into molten
pool of metal on base plate, (D) gun is withdrawn from the welded stud and ferrule is
removed.
ing process. Utilizing this process, designers can reduce the thickness of plates
and eliminate the heavy bosses and flanges that are normally required to obtain
tap depth needed to secure cover plates and bearing caps. With stud welded de-
signs of lighter weight, not only can material be saved, but the amount of man-
ual welding and machining needed to join parts can be reduced.
The minimum recommended plate thicknesses indicated in Table 30.1 are
sufficient to permit welding without burn-through or excessive distortion. A 1 :5
minimum ratio of plate thickness to stud weld base diameter is the general rule.
However, in order to develop full fastener strength, the plate thickness should
be a minimum of about one third the weld base diameter.
Fasteners can be stud welded anywhere, without regard for bolt hole to edge
distance, or for what may be on the back side of the plate. The absence of drilled
holes and boss or pad weldments assures that the design is leakproof with no
subsequent rework.
Table 30.1-Minimum recommended plate thicknesses for arc stud welding to develop full
strength of the steel fastener
Stud Weld Base Plate Stud Weld Base Plate

Diameter, in. Thickness, in. (gage) Diameter, in. Thickness, in. (gage)
0.187 0.060 (16) 0.500 0.164(8)

0.250 0.075 (14) 0.625 0.209 (5)
0.312 0.104 (12) 0.750 0.250
0.375 0.120 (11) 0.875 0.312
0.437 0.134 (10) 1.000 0.375
STUDS
The weld base diameter of studs being welded commercially today ranges
from 1I 8 to 1 114 in. diameters.
The welding end of many studs is recessed to contain a quantity of welding
flux within, or permanently affixed to the end of the stud (Fig. 30.3). The flux
acts as an arc stabilizer and deoxidizing agent. This fluxing action combines with
the shielding effect of the ferrule to protect the molten metal from oxidation
during welding.
30.6 I Stud Welding
(A) (I) (<) (D)
Fig. 30.3.-Three methods of containing flux on end of a welding stud: (A) granular
flux, (B) flux coating, (C and D) solid flux
Standard stud material is low-carbon steel having a chemical analysis of

0.23% maximum carbon, 0.60% maximum manganese, 0.040% maximum
phosphorus and 0.050% maximum sulfur. Many specifications require 60,000
psi minimum tensile strength, 50,000 psi yield strength and 20% mini-
mum elongation in 2 inches. Where irregularly shaped studs are made by the
cold heading process, a lower carbon steel may be used. It should be noted that
work hardening or drawing of the material will increase the tensile and yield
strengths and lower the ductility. For certain applications, these mechanical
properties may be undesirable and annealing of the studs may be necessary to
increase the ductility.
For design purposes, the smallest cross-sectional area of the stud should be
used for load determination, and adequate safety factors should be considered.
STUD LOCATION
The method of locating studs depends on the intended use of the stud and
the accuracy of location to be maintained. Where extreme accuracy is required,
special locating fixtures and the fixed, or production unit type, stud welding
machine may be used. The extent of tooling will also be a function of the re-
quired production rate as well as total production.
Several methods and procedures have been evolved for positioning the stud
using the portable stud welding gun. The simplest and most common method
used is to lay out and center punch, or to center punch through a template. The
stud is then located by placing the point of the stud in the center punch mark.
Using this method, tolerances of ± 3/64 in. can be held. Cover plates that have
been punched or drilled can be used as templates.
Where a number of pieces are to be stud welded, it is customary to use a
simple template (Fig. 30.4) to locate the ferrules instead of a center punch.
Fig. 30.4.-simple template used to locate studs within tolerances of ± 1 I 32 in.

Arc Stud Welding /30.7
TEMPLATE TUBE
-t------ADAPTOR
Stud Size D L
1/: in. and under I. 2SO 2.000

5/s and 3/" in. 1.562 2 ..500
7/s in. and larger 2. 12!; 2.500
Fig. 30.5.-Hardened and ground bushing with tube adaptor used in conjunction with
a template to locate studs within tolerances of± 0,010 to± 0.015 in.
Owing to the manufacturing tolerances on ferrules, the tolerances on stud loca-

tions using this type of template are usually not closer than ± 1132 inch.
When close stud location and alignment are required, a tube-type template is
used. The stud is centered indirectly by locating a tube adaptor, which is placed
in a locating bushing in the template. The template shown in Fig. 30.5 uses a
hardened and ground bushing with a closely machined brass tube adaptor. With
this type of template, a tolerance of ±0.015 in. can be held on stud location.
This approach also maintains perpendicular alignment of the welded stud.
TENSILE TORQUE RELATIONSIDPS

A tensile-torque chart is presented in order to assist in engineering stud
welded assemblies, and to show specifically the expected ultimate strength of
stud welded assemblies.
Table 30.2 lists the load in tension at which failure may occur for various
diameters of thread and the corresponding weld base. It also gives the wrench
torque (applied to a nut, washer and spacer) to develop this load. This data
is based upon 60,000 psi ultimate strength steel. Information for this chart was
obtained as a result of a leading torque wrench manufacturer's tests and recom-
mendations of several nut and bolt manufacturers, using generally accepted
formulas and la]JOratory tests. However, because of the variables affecting the
torque-tension relation, the chart should be used only as a guide. Steel strength,
thread finish, lubrication, washer type, hardness and many other factors can
cause variations as in any bolted connection. A factor of safety must be applied,
which may vary depending on such factors as the particular application, base
metal thickness, presence of gaskets, etc. This determination is made by the user.
STUD STYLE
The stud stock may be round, square or rectangular. Tests show, however,
that the welding of rectangular studs is difficult and not recommended when
the width of the stud is more than five times its thickness. Figure 30.6 shows
30.8 I Stud Welding
Table 30.2-Tensile-torque* chart-size #10-24 to 11fs in.-12 steel studs
Stud Thread Weld Base Diameter Torque, Ultimate Tensile Load,

Size Min., in. ft lbs lbs
lQ--24 UNC 0.158 3.1 1010
lQ--32 UNF 0.165 3.5 1200
~-20 UNC 0.217 7.8 1885
~-28 UNF 0 .217 8.9 2150
%-18 UNC 0.271 15 .0 3100
'..{,--24 UNF 0.271 16 .5 3450
% -16 UNC 0 .312 28 4600
% -24 UNF 0.312 32 5200
',{,;-14 UNC 0.375 45 6250
;fr20 UNF 0.375 51 7100
~-13 UNC 0 .437 69 8400
~-20 UNF 0.437 79 9500
~-11 UNC 0.500 139 13.500
%-18 UNF 0 .500 157 15,200
~-10 UNC 0 .625 250 20,000
~-16 UNF 0.625 275 22.000
Y.- 9 UNC 0 . 750 390 27.500
Y.-14 UNF 0 .750 440 30 000
1 -8 UNC 0 .875 575 35000
1 -14 UNF 0.87S 650 40000
1~- 7 UNC 1.000 775 46000
1~-12 UNF 1.000 860 50 ,000
• Torque a nd tensile values based on 60,000 psi ultimate strengt h steel.
a wide variety of sizes, shapes and types of stud weld fasteners. Stud designs
are limited in that: (1) welds can be formed on only one end of a stud; (2)
shape must be such that a ferrule can be produced that fits the weld base; (3)
cross-sectional area of the stud weld base must be within the range of available
Fig. 30.6.-Common/y used studs and fastening devices; stud stock may be round,
square or rectangular in cross section
Arc Stud Welding /30.9
stud welding equipment; ( 4) stud must be of a shape that can be chucked or

held for welding purposes.
As illustrated in Fig. 30.6, it is also possible to obtain female, tapped, eye-
bolt, J-bolt, rectangular, square, punched, slotted, grooved, bent and pointed
studs of many varieties in addition to the conventional threaded stud fasteners.
In use, a portion of the stud is burned off during welding; the amount of
bum-off depends upon the diameter of the stud and to some degree upon the
application involved. The finished length after welding ( aHbreviated AW) is
therefore shorter than the original length of the stud by the amount of this
bum-off. Typical values of burn-off for various stud diameters are given in
Table 30.3.
The weld fillet formed around the
base of the stud is closely controlled
dimensionally by the design of the Table 30.3-Typical stud burn-off* vs. stud
diameter
ferrule. The diameter of the fillet is
generally larger than the threaded or Stud Diameter, Approximate Burn-
shank diameter of the stud; there- in. off, in.
fore, some consideration of the fillet ~to~
%to Y11
diameter is required in the design of 1 and over
mating parts. In some cases, allow-
ance should be made for the height * Based on original length.
of the fillet.
Dimensions of standard counterbores and countersinks required to provide
fillet clearance for full diameter and pitch diameter weld base studs are given
Table 30.4--Minimum counterbore and countersink dimensions to accommodate weld Allets
X = COUNTERBORE DIAMETER, Y = COUNTERBORE DEPTH, Z = COUNTERSINK DIAMETER

Stud
Diam, Full Weld Base Threaded Pitch Diameter Weld Standard Studs Having Mean
in. and Unthreaded Studs, in. Base Studs, in. Diameter Weld Base, in.
D X y z X y z X y z
0.325 0.100 0.528

~ 0.437
0.500
0.125
0.125
0.687
0.750
0.375
0.469
0.094
0.109
0.562
0.593
~ 0.593 0.125 0.843 0.531 0.109 0.750 0.500 0.125 0.730
u.
~
0.656
0.750
0.187
0.187
1.031
1.125
0.594
0.656
0.125
0.187
0.844
0.968
0.593
0.656
0.125
0.187
0.844
0.968
% 0.875 0.218 1.312 0.812 0.218 1.250 0.750 0.187 1.125
1.125 0.312 1.687 0.938 0.250 1.437
~1 1.250
1.437
0.375
0.437
1.950
2.250
1.062
1.213
0.312
0.375
1.687
1.968
Note: Dimensions are subject to change due to ferrule or stud design modifications. It is therefore sug-
gested that test welds be made and checked.
30.10 I Stud Welding
Fig. 30.7.-Stud fillets may be accommodated by: (left) use of oversize clearance holes,
(center) use of gasket material, (right) use of a dog or holddown clip
in Table 30.4. Additional methods of accommodating weld fillets are shown in

Fig. 30.7.
FERRULES (ARC SHIELDS)
An individual ceramic ferrule is required for each stud. The ferrule is placed
over the stud and is held in position by a grip or holder suitable for the particu-
lar application. The ferrule performs several important functions during the
welding cycle: (1) concentrates the heat of 'the arc in the weld area during the
weld; (2) reduces oxidation of the molten metal during welding by restricting
passage of air to the weld area; (3) confines the molten metal to the weld area;
( 4) prevents charring of surrounding material and possible contamination of
the weld metal; ( 5) protects the eyes of the operator from the arc, thereby elimi-
nating the need of a welding hood. (Safety glasses are recommended.)
Generally speaking, the standard ferrule is cylindrical in shape and is flat
across the bottom for welding to flat surfaces. The base of the ferrule is ser-
rated to form vents, and its internal shape molds the molten metal around the
base of the stud to form a weld fillet. Special types of ferrules may be used for
particular applications, such as welding at angles, welding to contoured surfaces,
etc. For such applications, the ferrule is designed so that its bottom face matches
the required contour.
WELD ENERGY REQUIREMENTS
The weld time and weld current vary directly according to the stud diameter.
The basic consideration is to obtain the proper heat or watt cycles for a given
stud diameter. It is possible to compensate for too low a weld current by in-
creasing the weld time. Such compensations, however, must be held within cer-
tain limits. The current and time relations possible for the various stud diam-
eters have been determined experimentally and are shown in Fig. 30.8. Straight
polarity (electrode negative, work positive) is used in welding on ferrous
materials.
METALLURGICAL ASPECTS
The metallurgical problems encountered in stud welding are generally the
same as those encountered in any arc welding process where the heat of an
electric arc is used to melt a portion of the base metal and the electrode in the
course of welding.
Good impact and fatigue properties are obtained because of the complete
fusion of base metal, assuming, of course, that the stud and base material are
metallurgically compatible. Satisfactory stud welds are usually characterized by
the absence of inclusions, porosity, cracks and other defects, as shown by
Arc Stud Welding / 30.11
3200
2800
11 /8 .. .;;
vv .. ;
h
/ ~-
v
2400 7/8 11 /4 _
• 0
l:C ::)' ·~
::E 2000 ..
<
,_- 1
a:; 1600
5/8 v:'
v ·-·
a"""" 1200
-0
· y 3/ 4
c /
800 /
~ 3~ v
0
1/ 2
I
_v- v
400
0 ~11/4
0 9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
WELD TIME, CYCLES
Fig. 30.8.-Typical relations between average stud welding current and time for vari-
ous diameter ferrous studs
macroscopic and microscopic examination. A typical stud weld macrosection

(Fig. 30.9) shows the weld metal to be pushed toward the perimeter of the
stud to form a fillet. A fairly large percentage of the end area of the stud
(unmelted stud metal) is almost touching the base metal of the workpiece.
This reduces the thickness of the weld metal (cast structure) in the joint to a
minimum. Because of the short welding cycle, the various heat-affected zones
common to arc welding are present, but to a lesser degree.
Low-Carbon Steel
The restrictions applicable to the metal-arc welding of ferrous materials also
apply to stud welding. The usual carbon limit for carbon steel to be stud welded
without preheat is 0.30 percent. If sections are relatively light, 1/ 8 in. and under,
the carbon limit may be raised somewhat, owing to the decreased cooling effect.
If the section to which the stud is to be welded is heavy, stud welding of higher
than 0.30 % carbon steel with normal techniques and without preheat is a ques-
tionable practice.
It should be noted that for mild
steel, the section thickness is relatively
unimportant with respect to weld-
ability as long as the sections to be
welded are above 25 to 30° F ( -3 .9
to - 3.1 o C). In the case of heavier
sections, it has been found that where
plate temperature is low, additional
welding current and welding time
may be required in order to obtain
satisfactory welds. This is of im-
portance in construction and open
shop work where large studs are
being welded onto comparatively Fig. 30.9.-Macrosection of a typical
heavy sections. As a general rule, stud weld
30.12/ Stud Welding
the most important factor regarding section thickness is that the material
must be heavy enough to permit the welding of studs without burn-through.
Medium and High Carbon Steel
If the medium and higher carbon steels are to be stud welded, it is impera-
tive that preheat be used in order to prevent cracking in the heat-affected zone.
In some instances, a combination of preheating and postheating after welding
has proven satisfactory. In the case of the tougher alloy steels, either preheating
or postheating may be used to obtain satisfactory results. In cases where the
weld assemblies are to be completely heat treated for hardening purposes after
the welding operation, it may be possible to eliminate the preheating or post-
heating operation if care is used in the handling of the parts.
Stainless Steel
Most classes of stainless steel may be welded, the exceptions being the free
machining grades. However, only the austenitic stainless steels are recommended
for general application, since other types are subject to air hardening and tend
to be brittle in the weld area unless annealed after welding. The weldable stain-
less grades include AISI Types 304, 305, 308, 309, 310, 316, 321 and 347.
Types 304 and 305 are most commonly used for stud welding.
Stainless steel studs may be readily welded to stainless steel or to mild steel
as the application may require. The welding setup used is the same as that
recommended for ordinary steel except for an increase of approximately 10%
in power requirement. It should be noted that where stainless steel studs are
welded to mild steel plate, it is essential to control the carbon content of the
base plate. If at all possible, the maximum carbon content should not exceed
0.20 percent. For borderline situations, when welding stainless to mild steel in
the 0.20 to 0.28% carbon range, the use of Type 308 stud material is suggested.
Because of the nature of the weld metal deposit formed when the chrome-nickel
alloys are welded to mild steel, there is often high hardness in the weld zone,
especially if there is more than a moderate carbon content in the base plate. It
is possible to overcome this difficulty by using studs with higher chrome-nickel
content. Some of the difficulties resulting from the hardened weld section may
be overcome by using fully annealed stud material. By reducing the strength of
the stud, stresses in the weld zone may be reduced appreciably.
Low-Alloy Steel
The low-alloy, high-tensile steels are satisfactorily stud welded when the car-
bon content is held to 0.15% maximum. This maximum generally fits the anal-
yses of the aforementioned low-alloy materials where they are supplied for weld-
ing and forming operations. If the carbon content exceeds the noted maximum,
it may be necessary to resort to moderate preheat in order to obtain required
toughness in the weld area. Preheat required for stud welding may be highly
localized. Very satisfactory results may be obtained with an oxy-fuel gas heat-
ing torch.
Heat Treated Structural Steel
Some modern structural steels used in shipbuilding work and in other con-
struction are heat treated. Heat treated steels require that greater attention be
given to the physical characteristics of the heat-affected zone. Some of these
steels are sufficiently hardenable that the heat-affected zone will be martensitic,
quite sensitive to underbead cracking, and lacking in sufficient ductility to carry
shock loads. Therefore, for maximum toughness in these steels, a preheat of
700°F (371 °C) is recommended. Application and end use of the stud will deter-
mine the weld procedure to be followed.
Nonferrous MetaJs
On a moderate scale, arc stud welding is being carried on in industry with the
various brass, bronze, Monel and Inconel alloys. These are usually very special
situations requiring careful study of individual applications.
Nickel, Monel, Inconel and Hastelloy are best stud welded with d-e current
using reverse polarity (electrode positive) . Nickel, Monel and Inconel
stud welds tend to contain porosity and crevices. The mechanical strength, how-
ever, is high enough to meet most requirements. The weld itself should not be
in contact with corrosive materials or corrosive solutions.
Aluminum
The basic approach to aluminum stud welding is similar to that used for mild
steel stud welding. The power sources, stud welding equipment and controls
are the same. The stud welding gun is modified slightly by the addition of a
special adaptor for the control of the high-purity shielding gases (argon or
helium) used during the weld cycle. Reverse polarity is used with electrode
(gun) positive and the ground or work negative. The aluminum stud differs
from the steel stud in that no flux is used on the weld end. The flux is replaced
by a cylindrical or cone-shaped projection on the base of the stud. The tip
dimensions of the welding end are designed for each size stud weld base for
optimum weld performance. The projection serves to initiate the arc and to
help establish the longer arc length required for aluminum welding.
Studs range in weld base size from 1/4 through 11 2 in. diameter and take
on many of the sizes and shapes similar to the steel stud, i.e., pins, internal and
external threaded fasteners and standoffs, etc.
Aluminum studs are commonly made of aluminum-magnesium alloys, includ-
ing 5086 and 5356, having a typical tensile strength of 40,000 psi. These alloys
have high strength and good ductility, and are metallurgically compatible with
the vast majority of other aluminum alloys used in industry. These alloys have
proven to be excellent for stud welding, demonstrating arc stability and good
over-all performance. Aluminum studs may be welded to most commercially
available plate alloys.
In general, all plate alloys of the 1100, 3000 and 5000 series are considered
excellent for stud welding; alloys of the 4000 and 6000 series are considered
passable; the 2000 series is considered poor. Stud weld base diameters of 114
in. may be welded to 1/8 in. minimum
plate thickness without backup or
bum-through. Studs up to 1/2 in. di- Table 30.5-Current-time relations for
ameter may be welded to 114 in. mini- aluminum arc stud welding
mum plate thickness without backup.
Weld Base Weld Current Weld Time
Figure 30.10 illustrates a cross sec- Diameter (Amperes) (Cycles)
tion of a typical aluminum stud weld,
and Table 30.5 indicates the current- J4 in. 250 27
%in. 420 38
time relations for aluminum arc stud ~in. 750 40
welding.
30.14 /Stud Welding
Magnesium
The gas shielded electric arc· stud
welding process produces high-
strength welds in magnesium alloys;
a ceramic ferrule is not used. Helium
shielding gas is preferred for mag-
nesium stud welding. D-C, reverse
polarity should be used. Plunge
dampening is beneficial to magnesi-
um stud welding and should be used
to avoid spattering and the possi-
bility of base metal undercutting.
Tensile loads up to 1500 pounds
for 1/4 in. diameter studs and up to
4500 pounds for 112 in. diameter
studs have been obtained with
AZ31 B studs welded to 11 4 in. thick
AZ31B or ZE10A base metal. Mini-
mum base metal thicknesses, to
which 114 and 1/2 in. diameter studs
Fig. 30.10.-Typical cross section of may be attached without burn-
aluminum stud weld
through or great loss in strength are
118 and 114 in., respectively. If
strength is not a consideration, 1/2 in. diameter studs can be welded to 3/16 in.
plate without bum-through.
WELD QUAUTY ASSURANCE
Weld quality is maintained by precontrol and by close attention to those fac-
tors that may produce variations in the weld. To maintain weld quality and
consistency:
1. Have sufficient welding power for the size of stud being welded.
2. Use straight polarity (electrode negative, ground or work positive).
Note: Reverse polarity is used for aluminum and magnesium welding.
3. Grind off paint or scale at the point of ground connection to ensure a
good clean ground with screw-type clamp.
4. Have welding cables of sufficient size, and be sure connections are good.
5. Use correct accessories and ferrules.
6. Center stud in shield. Adjust so that it extends the proper length beyond
the ferrule. The proper length should be equal to approximately the
burn-off (Table 30.3).
7. Hold the gun properly, and perpendicular to work. Accidental movement
of .t he gun during the weld cycle may cause a defective weld.
8. Clean heavy mill scale, paint and rust from work surface where stud is
to be welded.
9. Keep stud welding equipment properly cleaned and maintained.
10. Make test welds before starting job.
INSPECTION
Welds may be inspected both visually and mechanically. The success of visual
Arc Stud Welding/ 30.1 5
inspection methods is dependent upon the inspector's analysis of the weld fillet
or build-up of the weld metal around the periphery of the stud. Figure 30.11A
indicates a satisfactory stud weld with a good weld fillet formation. In contrast,
Fig. 30.11B shows a stud weld in which the plunge was too short. Prior to weld-
ing, the stud should always project the proper length beyond the bottom of the
shield. (This type of defect may also be caused by arc blow.) Figure 30.12A
illustrates hang-up. This condition may be corrected by realigning the acces-
sories to ensure completely free movement of the stud during lift and return.
Arc length may also require adjustment. Figure 30.12B shows poor alignment,
which may be avoided by positioning the stud gun perpendicular to the work
to assure bottoming of the ferrule. Figures 30.13A and 30.13B show the re-
Fig. 30.JIA.-Satisfactory stud weld Fig. 30.11 B.- Stud weld in which
: with a good weld fillet formation plunge is too short
Fig. 30.12A.-Hang-up
Fi"g. 30.12B.-Poor alignment
~1'--ILJII ......___...
Fig. 30.13A.-Stud weld made with low Fig. 30.13B.-Stud weld made with high
hf!fl, - heat
30.16 /Stud Welding
suits of low heat and high heat, respectively. In the first instance, the ground
and all connections should be checked, and the power setting, the time setting,
or both, should be increased. It may also be necessary to adjust the arc length.
Decreasing the power setting, the time cycle, or both, will ensure that the amount
of heat is not too high.
If, after visual inspection, a questionable weld is evident, the following me-
chanical test is suggested for ferrous metals. Studs are struck with a hammer
and bent away from the centerline of the stud until they are about 10° off ver-
tical. Then they are bent back to vertical. Studs that fail under this test should
be replaced. To avoid damaging the stud, a short length of pipe may be placed
over the stud. A hammer with a soft head may also be used on small diameter
studs. Visual inspection of aluminum stud welds is not practical since the ap-
pearance of the weld fillet is not necessarily an indication of a good or bad
aluminum weld. This inspection method of aluminum stud welds is recom-
mended only to determine complete fusion and absence of undercut around the
periphery of the weld. Mechanical test procedures for inspecting aluminum
alloy studs are:
Bend Test.-The stud to be tested is bent (using a bending tool as shown in
Fig. 30.14) approximately 15° away from its axis before the stud breaks in
the weld shank or the material fails. Aluminum studs should not be bent by
striking with a hammer; a bending tool, as indicated by the arrow in Fig. 30.14,
should always be used.
Fig. 30.14.-Bend test-arrow indicates bending tool used to bend welded stud
Torque Test.-The stud to be tested is torqued in the conventional manner

by applying torque until the stud fails, or a predetermined torque load is reached.
STUD WELDING EQUIPMENT
The necessary equipment for stud welding consists of: ( 1) a stud welding
gun; (2) a control unit to control the time of the current flow; (3) a power
source.
Arc Stud Welding / 30.17
Types of Guns
There are two types of stud welding guns-portable and fixed (production-
type). The principle of operation is the same for both types.
The portable or manual stud welding tool resembles a pistol. It is made ot
a tough plastic material and weighs between 4 1/2 and 9 pounds, depending
upon the type of gun. The smaller tool is used for studs from 1/8 through 1/ 2
in. diameter, whereas the larger tool is used for studs up through 1 114 in.
diameter. The larger gun can be used for the entire stud range; however, in
applications where only the small diameter studs are used, it is advantageous
to use the smaller, lighter-weight tool.
The gun consists basically of body, lifting mechanism, chuck holder, adjust-
able support for ferrule holder, and connecting weld and control cables (Fig.
30.15).
The gun body of the typical portable tool is usually made from a high im-
pact strength plastic. The lifting mechanism consists of a solenoid, a clutch
and a mainspring. The mechanism is actuated by the solenoid to obtain a posi-
tive control of the lift. The mechanism itself is so designed and constructed
that the lift will be consistent over a range of 1/ 32 to 11 8 in. and will be con-
stant regardless of length of stud protrusion (within limits of the tool). An
added feature of newer guns is a cushioning arrangement for controlling the
plunging of the stud at the completion of the weld. This controlled plunge
eliminates the excessive spatter normally associated with welding of larger di-
ameter studs. The adjustable support for the ferrule holder is designed so that
chucks can be readily changed. The welding cable supplies the weld current to
Fig. 30.15.-Typical stud welding guns: (left) for production purposes; (right) for
manual operation
30.18 /Stud Welding
the chuck and the control cable

carries the current for the gun sole-
noid and trigger circuit.
The fixed or production gun is
mounted on an automatic positioning
device and is usually air operated
and electrically controlled. The work-
piece is positioned under the gun
with adequate locating fixtures. Tol-
erances of ± 0.005 in. on location
and± 0.010 in. in height may be ob-
tained when a production gun is used.
In a production unit type of setup,
tained when a production gun is used.
depending upon the nature of the
job, and the production rate required.
A typical production unit is shown in
Fig. 30.16.
Control Unit
The control unit consists funda-
mentally of a contactor suitable for
interruption of the weld current and
Fig. 30.16.-Production stud welding
gun in operation; ferrules shown in po- a timing device with associated elec-
sition on studs following welding trical controls. The weld timer is
ctv I
I
I
Fig. 30.17.--Conventional portable arc stud welding arrangement with automatic feed
equipment
graduated in terms of cycles ( 60 cycles/ sec.) or numbered settings and is easily
adjustable. Once set, the control unit maintains the proper time interval for the
size stud being welded. The time interval may vary from 3 to 120 cycles, de-
pending upon the diameter of the stud.
In certain controllers, the timer controls the exact heat energy required for
the weld regardless of power fluctuations, increasing or decreasing the welding
time in conjunction with a power decrease or increase. The control unit has
two connectors for welding cable. One is for the lead from the negative terminal
of the d-e welding power source, and the other is for the lead to the stud weld-
ing gun. Most control units also have a ground cable for connection to the
workpiece. As is the case with stud welding guns, the control units are of two
sizes. For welding studs up to 112 in. diameter, a small control unit can be
used; a considerably larger control unit must be used for larger diameter studs,
since a much larger welding contactor is required.
In addition to the welding guns and controls just described, there is auto-
matic feed equipment for both portable and fixed welding heads. The studs are
automatically oriented, transferred to the gun through a flexible feed tube and
loaded into the welding gun chuck. An arc shield is hand loaded for each weld.
The maximum stud size can be up to 1/2 in. diameter by 1 1/4 in. in length.
Figure 30.17 illustrates such portable equipment for conventional arc stud weld-
ing. Automated portable equipment using solid state controls for welding 1/4
in. diameter studs and smaller, and requiring no arc shield is also illustrated
in Fig. 30.18.
230/.460 AC
FEEDER
--l: . ====
c==::l ~ c:=:::l
~c:::::::l~c::::::::::l.
I.
c::::::::::::::
====
I ~c:=::::;...c:::::::=J,~
c:::=::::::l ==::::l c:==l
[>
~
I
CJI
c==lc:::::=::;)c:::::::l~
I
I
w q
I
I I I I
j_J
I I D-C POWER SOURCE
I
L-
I
---+---'jI '---
(TRANSFORMER·RECTIFIER)
+
l
Fig. 30.18.-Portable arc stud welding automatic feed system requiring no arc shield
30.20 /Stud Welding
Power Sources
A d-e power source must be used for stud welding. The power source may
be either a generator (motor or engine driven), rectifier or battery unit. The
standard 300, 400 or 600 ampere, d-e, NEMA-rated motor-generator sets or
rectifier-type machines are entirely satisfactory for stud welding. The size of
the machine necessary depends on the stud size and welding conditions. A 400
ampere d-e welding machine, for example, will weld up to 7/16 in. base di-
ameter studs. Since the stud welding power requirements differ from either
manual arc welding or automatic arc welding power requirements, special stud
welding power sources have been designed.
The general characteristics desired in a stud welding power source are:
1. High terminal voltage in the range of 70 to 100 volts, de, open circuit.
2. A drooping-voltage characteristic such that 25 to 35 volts, de appears
across the arc at maximum load.
3. A rapid current rise time.
4. High current capacity for a relatively short time, since the current require-
ments are higher and the duty cycle is much lower in stud welding than
in other types of welding.
Although many conventional welding power sources do function satisfactorily
in stud welding, the points enumerated indicate the advisability of using equip-
ment designed for this type of operation. The special purpose power sources
yield higher efficiency in terms of stud welding current available and provide
ideal volt-ampere curves for this application.
In dealing with weld base diameters greater than 7/16 in., the cost saving
associated with special stud welding power sources becomes evident. A single
special-purpose unit is more economical than the multiple-arc welding machines
required to produce the same current.
The basis for rating the special stud welding power sources is different from
that of the standard welding machine. The fact that stud welding requires a very
high current for a relatively short time means that the current requirements of
a stud welding power source are higher and the duty cycle is much less than
in other types of welding.
The duration of a stud weld cycle is generally less than one second, there-
fore, load ratings and duty cycle ratings are made on the basis of one second.
The rated output of a machine is its average current output at 50 volts for a
period of one second. Thus, a rating of 1000 amperes at 50 volts means that,
during a period of one second, the current output will average 1000 amperes
and the terminal voltage will average 50 volts. Cable voltage drop is higher
with stud welding than arc welding because of the higher current requirements.
It can be seen from oscillographic traces that the current output of a motor-
generator set is higher at the start of welding than at the end. Thus, in order
to determine actual weld current, it is necessary to take the average.
The duty cycle of the special machines designed for stud welding is based
on the following formula.
Number of 1 sec loads*/ min. X 100
Duty Cycle (% )
60
*The one-second loads would be of rated output; i.e., if the rating of the machine is 1000 amperes
at 50 volts, then this would be the load used to determine its duty cycle. Thus, if it were possible to
load the machine six times per minute under these conditions without causing the maximum tem-
perature within the machine to exceed 185° F (85° C), it would have a 10% duty cycle.
Arc Stud Welding I 30.21
The choice between a rectifier type and a motor-generator type power source
depends upon a number of conditions. Both types have advantages and dis-
advantages. Motor-generator sets produce a higher current peak and excellent
current stability at the start of the weld cycle and are relatively insensitive to
low line voltage or line voltage fluctuation.
The welding rectifier is quiet, economical to operate and easy to parallel; it
operates efficiently alone or in parallel, and its no-load power input is negligible.
Battery units have the advantages of mobility in that they can be operated
for reasonable periods with no external power, or can operate on 115 volts ac
at 20 amperes, which can be generated locally.
Other major factors in connection with power sources for stud welding are
the incoming power, and cable size and length (both incoming and welding
cable). Both motor-generator sets and rectifier units operate on 230 or 460 volt
alternating current, three-phase power. Because of the high momentary currents
required for stud welding, line voltage regulation sometimes becomes a prob-
lem. Satisfactory operation of either type of equipment can only be assured
if the lines' capacity is such that line voltage regulation will remain within the
local power company's prescribed limits while welding is in progress.
The welding cable length and cable size are very important in stud welding.
Many times, a power source is penalized by the use of either very small cables
or very long cables. The current output of a generator at a given setting may
vary as much as 50%, depending upon the size and length of welding cables
used. The curves in Fig. 30.19 illustrate the effect of cable size and cable length
on current. The tests made to determine these curves were run with the power
2700 ..........
2600 '-
I'.
"'....w
I.J
>-
u
2500
" ' r--...
..,
0 2400
" '- t'-.....
"" 2300
" " r-.._ ------
..........
., ....z
.....
o~
......
~0
2200 "' [""'-.. ----- ~ 4~~ELDIN9~ABLE
............
<w I
wE 2100 --- F::::::
~3: 2000 """' '- --- I
!'-.. # 2~('-...WELDING CABLE
""""
wo
> ... 1900
<<
.......
zz-"" 1800
" .......
)'....
'
ww ..........
.........._
a<(!)
<><~
::>
1700
#1 WELDING CABLE
-----
u !"-.... ,....._
C> 1600
z ..........
9w 1500 ~
3: 1400
20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

TOTAL CABLE LENGTH, FT
Fig. 30.19.-Efject of cable size on cable length and stud welding current
unit on maximum setting. Only the cable length and cable size were changed.
This shows that the maximum current output of the power unit with 30 feet
of # 1 cable was 2360 amperes, whereas it dropped down to 1450 amperes when
180 feet of # 1 cable was used. On the other hand, when 180 feet of #4/0
cable was used (instead of 180 feet of #1 cable), the current was 2050 amperes.
It should also be noted that cable length is total cable length, including the
ground cable.
APPLICATIONS
Stud welding as a process has been widely accepted by all the metalworking
industries. Specifically, stud welding is now being used extensively in the fol-
lowing fields: automotive, boiler, construction, equipment manufacture, rail-
roads and shipbuilding.
Automotive
Studs are being used in the manufacture of passenger cars, trucks, trailers,
etc., to secure numerous parts and assemblies, including: bumpers and bumper
guards; rub bars, wood liners and wood flooring in trucks; shock absorbers;
rope hooks on various types of trucks and trailers; sway bar attachments on axle
housings. and studded flanges on tank-type trucks.
Boilers
Stud welding is approved for use on low-pressure heating boilers built under
the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code for all applications except stay-
bolts. This includes cover plates, clean-out or access doors and studded boiler
tubing water heater coil openings. Staybolts are being welded on noncode
boilers.
Stud welding is approved for use on nonpressure parts on power boilers and
unfired vessels built to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code.
Construction
During recent years there has been a great increase in the use of studs or
fasteners in this industry, primarily in applications involving stud welded shear
connectors in steel and concrete composite design structures. These structures
include bridges and multistoried buildings. Shear connectors, sometimes called
concrete anchors in the building industry, may be used to secure stair forms,
truck docks, door framing, support elevator shafts, act as column or corner
guards and for bridges and highway curbing and expansion joints.
Additional applications in construction include attaching sprinkler systems,
duct work, supports for suspended ceilings, racks, wire runs and lighting fix-
tures, holding or attaching insulation and reinforcing rod and mesh for concrete
and for the installation of field erected curtain walls.
General Industrial Equipment
Industrial manufacturers have found that stud welding provides design free-
dom that enables manufacturers of all types to reduce costs. Stud welding is
now being used extensively on a wide variety of industrial products, some of
the most important of which are listed below.
Domestic Equipment.-Studs are used in the manufacture of metal furniture,
kitchen equipment, appliances, household furniture and stoves.
Commercial Equipment.--Studs are used on food processing and beverage
equipment; kitchen equipment; ventilating, heating and refrigeration equipment,
and miscellaneous equipment.
Industrial Equipment.-Textile equipment, furnaces of all types, tanks and
pressure vessels and electrical equipment are manufactured using studs.
Industrial Shop Equipment.--Studs are used for installing elevators and
conveyors, and in the manufacture of lift trucks.
Farm Equipment.-The manufacture of combine harvesters, corn shellers,
hay bailers and pickers is facilitated by the use of studs.
Railroads.-In the railroad industry studs are used for: securing wood
liners and furring strips and placard holders in steel boxcars; securing wood
flooring; securing steel liners in automobile cars; fastening cab linings; securing
wire, conduit and cables; installing cover plates, braking resistors and side sheets
on diesel engines; fastening insulation on tank cars and boxcars, and as hatch
cover studs on refrigerator cars.
Shipbuilding.--Stud welding is used under approval of the Army, Navy and
Maritime Commission for securing wood decking, insulation of all types,
electrical wireways and control panels, furniture, magnesite flooring, sheet
metal coverings, piping, gage lines and other practical applications (Fig. 30.20) .
Fig. 30.20.-Cargo batten hooks being

welded in hold of a ship
Other Applications.-Other applications cover ordnance applications where

studs are used in missile containers, jet engine forging blanks, armored vehicles
and tanks.
30.24 /Stud Welding
CAPACITOR DISCHARGE STUD WELDING

Capacitor discharge stud welding may be defined as a welding process
wherein coalescence is produced, simultaneously over the entire area of
abutting surfaces, by the heat obtained from an arc produced by a rapid
discharge of stored electrical energy, with pressure applied during or immedi-
ately following the electrical discharge.
Capacitor discharge stud welding uses a low-voltage electrostatic storage
system as a power source in which the weld energy is stored at a low voltage
in capacitors of high capacitance.
There are, basically, three different capacitor discharge stud welding sys-
tems-initial contact, initial gap and drawn arc. These processes vary primarily
in the manner of arc initiation.
Initial contact and initial gap capacitor discharge stud welding utilize studs
having a small, specially engineered projection or tip on the weld end of the
stud or fastener.
In initial contact capacitor stud welding, the stud is first placed against the
work as shown schematically in Fig. 30.21A. The stored energy is next dis-
charged through the projection at the base of the stud. The small projection
presents a high resistance to the stored energy and rapidly disintegrates,
creating an arc that heats the surfaces to be joined (Fig. 30.21B). During
arcing (Fig. 30.21 C), the pieces to be joined are in the process of being
brought together by action of the spring, weights or air pressure. When the
two surfaces are in contact, fusion takes place, and a weld is produced between
the stud and the workpiece (Fig. 30.21D).
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Fig. 30.21.-Steps in initial contact capacitor discharge stud welding schematically

shown
The sequence of operation in initial gap capacitor stud welding is shown

schematically in Fig. 30.22. Initially the stud is positioned off the work,
leaving a small gap between the projection on the stud and the work. The stud
is next brought in contact with the work (Fig. 30.22B), causing current to
flow, and flashing off the tip. The arc thus formed heats the surfaces of the
stud and work, causing them to become molten (Fig. 30.22C). The stud is
next plunged home, completing the weld (Fig. 30.22D).
Given proper design of the electrical characteristics of the circuit and
size of the projection, it is possible to produce a high-intensity arc of such
short duration (about 0.006 second) that its effect upon the parts being
brought in contact is purely superficial; that is, only a surface layer a few
thousandths of an inch in thickness on each joint reaches a molten state.
Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding/ 30.25
0 (A) (B) (C) (D)
Fig. 30.22.-Steps in initial gap capacitor discharge stud welding schematically shown
In drawn arc capacitor discharge stud welding (Fig. 30.23), the arc initia-
tion is obtained in a manner similar to that of electric arc stud welding,
where the stud is lifted away from the workpiece to establish the arc.
In sequence, the stud is positioned against the work (Fig. 30.23A). The
trigger switch on the stud welding tool is actuated, energizing a solenoid coil
in the tool body. The stud is lifted from the work (Fig. 30.23B), drawing a
low-amperage pilot arc. As the lifting coil is de-energized, the stud starts to
return to the work. The welding capacitors are discharged, creating the
welding arc, melting the end of the stud and the adjacent work surface. The
spring action of the welding tool plunges the stud into the molten metal to
complete the weld (Fig. 30.23C).
lL (A) (B) (C) (D)
Fig. 30.23.-Steps in drawn arc capacitor discharge stud welding schematically shown
DESIGNING FOR CAPACITOR DISCHARGE STUD WELDING

The capacitor discharge system offers versatility in design. Product appear-
ance is improved by elimination of bolt and rivet heads, heavy gage sections,
bosses and flanges. The almost limitless variety of stud sizes, shapes and
materials, plus the inherent speed of application, provide solutions to fastening
or joining problems in product development.
Advantages of the capacitor discharge welding system are many. It is
uniquely suited to fastening light-gage metals, and produces stud welds that
neither mar nor distort thin metals. This type of welding is neither resistance
nor arc welding, but does combine the advantages of both, and therefore also
has use with metals of substantially heavier gages.
As stated previously, a prime advantage of the capacitor discharge system
is its ability to weld to thin metals. Material as thin as 0.030 in. can be
welded without burn-through. Studs have been successfully welded to certain
materials (stainless steel, for example) in thicknesses as low as 0.010 inch.
Another advantage of this system of welding is its ability to weld studs to
dissimilar metals. The depth of melting from the arc is so shallow that there
are normally no metallurgical problems. Steel to stainless steel, brass to steel,
copper to steel, brass to copper and aluminum to die-cast zinc are a few of the
combinations possible. Many unusual metal combinations not normally weldable
may also be possible with this process.
Still another advantage is the elimination of postweld cleaning or finishing
operations on the showing (face) side surface of the base metal; thus, the sys-
tem can be used on parts that have had the face side prefinished (i.e., painted,
plated, polished or coated with ceramic or plastic).
STUDS
Studs for all the capacitor discharge stud welding systems can be of
ferrous or nonferrous materials. Shapes can range from standard to complex
forms for special applications. Usually, the weld base of the fastener is
round, whereas the shank may be of almost any shape or configuration-
threaded, unthreaded, round, square, rectangular, tapered, grooved, bent
configurations, flat stampings, etc. The size range covered is 1/16 through 3/8
in. diameter, with the great bulk of attachments falling in the 118 to 114 in.
diameter range.
Contact or initial gap capacitor discharge studs are designed with a tip
or projection on the weld end of the fasteners. The size and shape of this
tip is important because it is one of the parameters involved to achieve good
quality welds. The standard tip is cylindrical in shape; however, for special
applications, a conical-shaped tip is used. The detailed weld base design is
determined by the stud material, the diameter and sometimes by the par-
ticular application. The weld base is angled slightly to facilitate the expulsion
of the expanding gases that develop during the weld cycle. Usually, the stud
design is such that the weld base diameter is larger than that of the stud
shank. This is done through the use of a flange and is recommended for
maximum fastener strength.
Drawn arc capacitor discharge studs are designed without a tip or projection
on the weld end of the fastener. However, the weld end is pointed or slightly
rounded. As with fasteners for the other capacitor discharge systems, fasteners
for this system are generally designed with an enlarged base in the form of a
flange.
STUD WCATION
The method of locating studs depends on several factors: the accuracy and
consistency of positioning required, the type of welding equipment to be
used (portable or fixed) the required rate of production and to some extent
the physical proportions of the workpiece. In general, the fixed, or production-
type, welding unit affords greater precision in stud location than does the
portable or hand held type unit.
With regard to the portable welding gun, accuracy of location· is usually
dependent upon the care used in laying out the location(s) on the workpiece.
However, with the application of various types of spacers, bushings and tem-
plates, the accuracy range can be narrowed to tolerances of ±0.020 inch.
Standard production-type units will provide tolerance limits of ±0.008 inch.
Special production units employing various types of tooling for locating and
work holding purposes can operate within tolerances of ±0.003 inch. Precision
Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding I 30.27
location requires not only fine welding equipment and tooling, but also ex-
ceptionally precise, high-quality weld fasteners.
TENSILE, TORQUE AND SHEAR RELATIONSHIPS
Table 30.6 is presented to serve as a guide in designing capacitor discharge
welded assemblies.
Given is the maximum fastening torque that may be applied to different
size studs of various materials that will develop tension in the studs slightly
below their yield points. Also shown are data for the ultimate tensile load for
studs of different diameters. The maximum shear load that can be carried
by various diameter studs of different materials is also presented. When de-
signing welded stud assemblies using these data, appropriate safety factors
should be used. Determination of the proper factor of safety should be made
by the user.
Table 30.6-Tensile, torque and shear values
Maximum Ultimate Maximum

Stud Thread Fastening Tensile Shear
Material Size Torque• Load Load
(in.-lbs) (lbs) (lbs)
Low-carbon Steel 6-32 6 500 375

8-32 12 765 575
1o-24 14 960 720
)4-20 43 1750 1300
~-18 72 2900 2200
%-16 106 4300 3250
Stainless Steel 6-32 10 790 590

8-32 20 1260 940
1o-24 23 1530 1150
)4-20 75 2880 2160
'!.iir--18 126 3750 3100
%-16 186 4850 4550
Type 1100 Aluminum 6-32 2.5 200 125
8-32 5 295 185
lo-24 6.5 380 235
)4-20 21.5 670 415
'!.iir--18 36 1125 695
%-16 53 1660 1000
Type 5086 Aluminum 6-32 3.5 375 235
8-ll2 7.5 585 365
1o-24 10 735 460
)4-20 32.5 1360 850
'.1'.--18 54.5 2300 1400
%-16 81 3400 2100
Brass 6-32 8 600 390

8-32 16 860 560
1o-24 18.5 1040 680
)4-20 61 1950 1275
'!.iir--18 102 3280 2140
%-16 150 4800 3160
• These values should develop fastener tension to slightly less than yield point.
STUD STYLES
The weld base of capacitor discharge studs must be round. The stud shank
can be of almost any shape; threads, pins, squares, rectangulars, tapers, grooves,
bent configurations, fiat stampings, etc. Figure 30.24 illustrates some ()f the
more common designs.
30.28 /Stud Welding
I 1 cs
- l
--•
I
--.. I
t-0
'
-
.,._ •J
.I I •
' I
1
-
1
-J - &
I
.,..._ 1
Fig. 30.24.-Various designs of stud shanks
WELD ENERGY REQUIREMENTS

Since capacitor discharge stud welding is an arc welding process utilizing
direct current, the power used to make the weld is extracted from charged
capacitors. Depending upon stud size and type of equipment used, the welding
current can vary from 3000 to 20,000 amperes peak. The total time to make
a weld is in the neighborhood of 6 milliseconds for contact and gap welding,
and is somewhat longer for drawn arc. In most cases, the power required to
charge the capacitors is single phase, 115 volts, alternating current. High-
production units require three-phase 230/460 volts, alternating current. Figure
30.25 illustrates the current-time relationships.
METALLURGICAL ASPECTS
The metallurgical problems encountered in capacitor discharge stud welding
are somewhat the same as those encountered in any arc welding process where
the heat of an arc is used to melt the electrode and a portion of the base metal
in the course of welding.
Because the weld penetration is slight, thin metals may be welded without
burn-through, and many dissimilar metals can be welded with acceptable metal-
lurgical results. For example, carbon steel to stainless steel, different grades of
aluminum to aluminum, brass to brass, copper to copper and some other com-
binations of the aforementioned materials can be welded. Stud and plate com-
binations appear in Table 30.7. It makes little difference what the electrical
6000
CONTACT OR GAP CAPACITOR DISCHARGE
"'"'w 4000
~,!.
zw
"'
"':::> DRAWN ARC CAPACITOR DISCHARGE
u
9
~ 2000
0 I
I
I 4to6MS I
f-- Weld Time ----i
I 6to 15MS
[---weld Time --j
I
Fig. 30.25.-Typical current-time curves for contact, gap and drawn arc capacitor
discharge systems
resistivity or the melting temperature of the part to be joined is, as long as it

is a reasonably good conductor of electricity.
Because of the short welding time involved, neither flux nor shielding of any
kind is required for the prevention of oxidation and contamination of the weld
Table 30.7-Capacitor discharge stud and base metal combinations
Stud Material
Base Metal
Mild Steel, Stainless
C-1008, Steel, Aluminum, Brass,
C-1010 304,305 1100, 5086 65--35, 7D-30
Mild Steel (C-1008 To C-1030) Excellent Excellent Excellent
Medium Carbon Steel (C-1030 to
C-1050) Limited Limited Limited
Galvanized Steel (Duct-"Q'' Decking) Excellent Excellent
Structural Steel Excellent Excellent Excellent
Stainless Steel (300 Series except 303;
Types 405, 410, 430) Excellent Excellent Excellent
Lead-free Brass, Electrolytic Copper,
Lead-free Rolled Copper Excellent Excellent Excellent
Most Aluminum Alloys of the 1000,
3000, 5000 and 6000 Series Excellent
Zinc Alloys (Die-cast) Limited Limited Excellent Limited
metal. The one exception to this is that when welding in the drawn arc mode,
for critical applications on aluminum, shielding gas should be used for maxi-
mum reproducibility.
WELD QUALITY ASSURANCE
Quality control of a capacitor discharge stud weld is more difficult than
other stud welds because of the absence of a steady welding arc and a weld
fillet. The absence of these does not allow the operator to hear and see the
welding arc, nor observe the characteristics of the weld fillet in order to dis-
tinguish a sound weld from a poor weld.
The best method of quality control for capacitor discharge stud welding is
to test to destruction studs that have been welded to material similar to that
to be used in the actual production run. The destructive test should be a bend,
torque or tensile test. Once satisfactory welds are achieved, the production run
can begin. It is best to check welds at regular intervals to ascertain that good
welding conditions have not changed.
Some points to consider for producing and maintaining good capacitor
discharge stud welds are:
1. Power source unit sufficient for stud size being welded.
2. Properly maintained and operating equipment.
3. Tight cable connections.
4. Proper handling of studs and stud gun during the welding process.
5. Welding surface cleanliness. The surface should be free from excessive
oils, grease and other lubricants, and from rust, mill scale and other
oxides; these conditions contribute to high electrical resistance in areas
of welding and grounding.
6. Welding surface imperfections such as porosity, extreme roughness and
other distortions. These are not conducive to complete fusion in the weld
area.
7. Perpendicularity of stud weld base to welded surface on parent material.
This is also important for complete fusion.
8. Proper weld end design of fastener. The tip size, face angle and weld
base diameter to be correct for the application.
INSPECTION
Capacitor discharge stud welds may be inspected both visually and mechani-
cally. The success of visual inspection methods is dependent on the inter-
pretation of the appearance of the weld. Proper and uniform analysis is required.
Figure 30.26 illustrates good and bad capacitor discharge stud welds.
Fig. 30.26.-Capacitor discharge welds: (left) good, (center) too hot, (right) too cold
If, after the welds have been visually inspected, a questionable weld is evident,
the weld should be tested. The bend test and the torque test are mechanical
methods suggested for this purpose.
Bend Test.-The stud to be tested is bent 90° away from its axis, or until
failure. Failure should occur in the stud proper or, on thin plate, a plug of
base metal tears out.
Torque Test.-The stud is torqued until a prespecified loading is attained or
until the stud fails or, on thin plate, a plug of base material tears out.
CAPACITOR DISCHARGE STUD WELDING EQUIPMENT AND

POWER SOURCES
Portable Equipment
In portable capacitor discharge stud welding there are basically two pieces
of equipment with associated interconnecting cables. One is the stud gun, and
the other is the control and power source.
The stud gun is a manual tool usually made of high impact strength plastic.
The gun holds and positions the stud for welding and, with its trigger and
control cable, controls the power source for discharging and charging of the
capacitors. By changing the chuck that holds the stud, various diameters and
shapes of studs can be welded.
The control and power source unit provides the welding current and con-
tains the necessary circuitry for charging the capacitors. Variable discharge
currents are obtained by varying the voltage on the capacitors. Control of the
charging and discharging currents is done automatically by the stud welding
machine.
Typical portable capacitor discharge equipment is illustrated in Fig. 30.27.
The stored energy of such a unit would be in the neighborhood of 70,000 micro-
farads charged to 170 volts, and it would be capable of welding 1I 4 in. diameter
studs at a rate of 8 to 10 per minute.
Stationary Production Equipment

This type of equipment consists of an air-actuated, electrically actuated, or
gravity drop stud gun, or guns mounted above a work surface. The electrical
Fig. 30.27.-Portable capacitor discharge equipment: (left) stud gun, (right) control
unit and power source
30.32 /Stud Welding
controls for the air systems and for charging of the capacitors are usually
located under the work surface.
With this type of equipment, high production rates can be obtained de-
pending upon the amount of automation in the fixturing and feeding of studs
and parts to be welded. Up to 45 welds per minute have been made with a
single gun. Stud locations of ±0.003 in. are possible when a production unit is
used. Figure 30.28 illustra~s a typical single-head, air-actuated unit. Figure
30.29 illustrates a unit with automatic stud feeding and automatic tooling.
APPLICATIONS
Some of the fields using capacitor discharge stud welding are: aircraft and
aerospace, appliances, building construction, maritime construction, metal fur-
niture, stainless steel equipment and transportation.
Aircraft and Aerospace.-Applications of studs in the aircraft and aerospace
industries include: fastening of insulation, attaching wire and cable straps,
mounting of components and nameplates, decorative trim and interior panels,
cargo handling assemblies, grounding wire fasteners, honeycomb panel struc-
tures, and tong holders for jet engine blade manufacturing.
Appliances.-In the manufacture of appliances, studs are used for attaching
plastic handles, legs and drawer pulls. They are used for positioning toaster
and coffeemaker grids, fastening indicator dials, electric iron sole plates, and
radio and television chassis mountings. Insulation for dryers, water heaters, air
conditioners and space heaters is attached by the use of studs.
Building Construction.-Industrial building curtain walls are installed using
studs. Insulation of galvanized heat and air conditioning ducts is applied by
use of studs. Stainless and enameled sheet spandrels are installed with studs.
Studs are used to attach aluminum sheet and window fastenings. Cold storage
cork and glass wool insulation is installed using studs.
Maritime Construction.-Applications of studs in marine construction include:
attaching cable hangers, brackets,
strip heaters, nameplates, furniture
and galley equipment; fastening in-
sulation to overheads, bulkheads and
ductwork, and as waterline markers
on hull exteriors.
Fig. 30.29.- Production-type welding

Fig. 30.28.-Typical hand-feed, produc- machine with tooling and automatic
tion-type stud welding machine stud feeder
Process Selection/ 30.33
Metal Furniture.---Studs are used for attaching trim, vinyl-covered and

enameled sheet to framing for desks, cabinets and office equipment. They are
also used for attaching modular electronic cabinet labels and shelf anchor
mountings. Business machine components are assembled using studs.
Stainless Steel Equipment.---Studs are applied for all fastenings where leak-
proof attachment is needed. Their use eliminates all buffing, polishing and
regraining operations, because there is no bum-through, marking or dis-
coloration. Studs are used on many kitchen, restaurant, hospital and chemical
equipment applications.
Transportation.---Studs are widely used on transportation equipment for
attaching: automotive trim and license plate inserts; dash panel gage mountings;
hydraulic line fastenings; fire wall insulation; truck emblems, and semitrailer
nameplates.
PROCESS SELECTION
Process selection for any given application can be extremely important in
obtaining optimum results. There are many applications where the two basic
processes overlap as far as performance is concerned. However, there are
many areas where one process should be specifically selected. Table 30.8 sets
forth these recommendations.
Table 30.8-Process selection chart
Electric Arc Capacitor Discharge

Stud Welding Stud Welding
Fastener Shape
Round A A
Square A A
Rectangular A A
Irregular A A
Fastener Diameter
'>16 to 711 in. c A
711 to~ in. A A
~to~in. A B
}li to 1 in. A D
Fastener Material
Low-carbon steels A A
Stainless steels A A
Alloy steels B B
Aluminum B A
Brass c A
Plate Material
Low-carbon steels A A
Stainless steels A A
Alloy steels B B
Aluminum B A
Brass c A
Plate Thickness
Under 0.015 in. D B
0.015 to 0.062 in. c A
0.062 to 0.125 in. B A
Over 0.125 in. A A
Other Criteria
Heat effect on exposed surfaces B A
Weld fillet clearance B A
--
A-Applicable without special procedures, equipment, etc.
B-Applicable with special techniques, or on specific applications that justify pre-
liminary trials or testing to develop welding procedure and weld technique.
C-Limlted application.
D-Not recommended. Welding methods not developed at this time.
30.34 /Stud Welding
BIBLIOGRAPHY
"Stud Welding-A Versatile Assembly Technique," Assembly Engineering (Octo-
ber, 1967).
"Gas Shielded Stud Welding of Magnesium," L. F. Lockwood, Welding Journal, 46,
168s-174s (April, 1967).
"Drawn Arc Capacitor Discharge-A Major New Production Tool," R. C. Single-
ton, Ibid., 45, 918-923 (November, 1966).
"Stud Welding: Its Uses in Electronic Packaging," Electronic Packaging and Pro-
duction (September, 1965).
"Welded Studs Solve Transformer Problems," Welding Engineer (February, 1965).
"Stud Welding Drives Fasteners Onto Zinc Die Castings," Iron Age (November
1964).
"Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding is Fast, Economical and Dependable," Welding
Design and Fabrication (May, 1964).
"Threaded Anchors Speed Panel Setting," Construction Methods and Equipment
(June, 1964).
"Railroad Prefabricates Bridge Span," Engineering News-Record (May, 1964).
"Stud Welding for Highway Safety," Public Works (December, 1963).
"Headed Concrete Anchors," Journal of the American Concrete Institute (Septem-
ber, 1963).
"Growth of Stud Welding," Welding Engineer (July, 1963).
"Arc Welded Fasteners," Machine Design (March, 1963).
"Stud Welding Assures Accuracy for World's Largest Radio Telescope," Canadian
Welder and Fabricator (November, 1962).
"Cut Composite Construction Costs," Engineering News-Record (June, 1962).
"Railroad Car Linings Installed Faster With Welded Studs," Welding Engineer (July,
1961).
"Composite Construction Beefs Up Old Floors," Architectural Record (March,
1961).
"How the Pot Got a Better Handle," Steel (December, 1960).
"New Composite Deck Upgrades Old Bridge," Roads and Streets, (September,
1960).
"Composite Design Strengthens Floors," Engineering News-Record (August, 1960).
"Stud Welding Cuts Construction Costs for New Mexico Public Service," Power
Engineering (November, 1959).
"Composite Design Cuts Steel 20%," A. Garfinkle, Engineering News-Record (Au-
gust 20, 1959).
"Stud Welding Design and $80,000," J. E. Thornton, Canadian Machinery & Manu-
facturing News (August, 1959).
"Welded Stud Shear Connectors for South Dakota Bridge," K. R. Scurr, Civil Engi-
neering (June, 1956).
"Composite Construction Makes Sense," C. Fish, Consulting Engineer (May, 1956).
"Investigation of Stud Shear Connectors for Composite Concrete and Steel T
Beams," I. M. Viest, Proceedings, American Concrete Institute, Vol. 52 (1956).
"The Gun That Shoots Handles," Steelways (December, 1953).
"An Investigation of End Welded Deck Studs," Report of Welding Test No. 151,
Navy Dept., Bur. of Construction & Repair, Washington, D. C. (July, 1937).
_________ APPENDIX
WELDING AND CUTTING

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
PREPARED BY A COMMIITEE CONSISTING OF:
M.D. THOMAS T. C. HACKER

General Motors Institute The Boeing Co.
Chairman J. R. HARRISON
W.G. MORGAN* North American Rockwell Corp.
Arvin Industries, Inc. E. A. HARWART
Chairman Atomics International
W. E. McKENZIE J. R. HENRY
U.S. Naval Weapons Laboratory Haveg Industries, Inc.
Vice-Chairman
R. K. LEE
R. NESPECO Alloy Rods Co.
American Welding Society
Secretary A. W. MARNER
Union Carbide Corp.
S. A. AGNEW
J. MIKULAK
Airco Welding Products Div. Worthington Corp.
I. M. BARTA NAVAL SHIP ENGINEERING CENTER
CVI Corporation U.S. Navy Department
I. G. BETZ J. M. PAYNE
Frankford Arsenal Butler Manufacturing Co.
NAVAL ORDNANCE COMMAND R. L. PEASLEE
U. S. Navy Department Wall Colmonoy Corp.
H. C. CAMPBELL H. E. SCHULTZ
Arcos Corp. General Electric Co.
J. CAPRAROLA W. SCOTT
Airco Welding Products Div. Westinghouse Electric Corp.
H. B. CARY C. S. SHIRA
Hobart Brothers Co. North American Rockwell Corp.
R. J. CHRISTOFFEL P.R. WHITE
General Electric Co. Bell Telephone Laboratories, Inc.
J. F. DEFFENBAUGH R. E. THIEMER
McKay Machine Co. Alternate
T. F. ELLIS D. E. WOODLING
Kaiser Jeep Corp. U.S. Coast Guard
*Term Expired May 1968

INTRODUCTION
A wide variety of welding processes, methods, techniques and applica-

tions have been developed since 1961, when the preceding edition of this
publication was issued.
The A WS Committee on Definitions and Symbols has been working

for many years preparing this edition, and has greatly increased the scope.
It now includes all terms in all previous editions that still find any use
today.
Five categories of definitions are found in this edition:
(1) Terms that are in current industrial use
(2) Terms that are frequently used in the industry, but for which
a preferred term is defined. These will be indicated by the
phrase "See preferred term." An example of this is:
Hard Surfacing: See preferred term "Surfacing."
(3) Terms that are used erroneously to indicate a specific operation,

process, etc. in the welding field will be indicated by the phrase,
"A term erroneously used to denote ... " An example of this is:
Lead Burning: A term erroneously used to denote the weld-
ing of lead.
(4) Terms whose use is no longer significant in the industry. These

will be indicated by the phrase, "A term of limited use, no
longer of industrial significance, last defined in 19__ as
follows:" An example of this is:
Block Brazing (BB): A term of limited use, no longer of in-
dustrial significance, last defined in 1961 as follows:
A brazing process wherein coalescence is produced by the
heat obtained from heated blocks applied to the parts to
be joined and by using a nonferrous filler metal having a
melting point above 800°F but below that of the base
metals. The filler metal is distributed in the joint by capil-
lary attraction.
Terms and Definitions / 3
(5) Terms that are obsolete. These will be indicated by the ~hrase,
"An obsolete term last defined in 19_ _ as follows:" An
example of this is:
Fusion Welding: An obsolete term, last defined in 1942 as
follows: A group of processes in which metals are welded
together by bringing them to the molten state at the surfaces
to be joined, with or without the addition of filler metal,
without the application of mechanical pressure or blows.
Categories 2, 3, 4 and 5 will also be distinguished from Category 1

by use of a different typeface for Categories 2, 3, 4 and 5.
The definitions attempt to indicate when a term applies only to one

or two of the processes. Terms not so identified are generally applicable to
all of the welding processes included here.
4 I Appendix
*The following are letter designations for fuel gas: A-Acetylene, H-Hydrogen,
N-Natural Gas, P-Propane, T-Proprietary Gas Mixtures
The fuel gas must be specified in the letter designation of the process: (Example:
OFC-A)
Terms and Defin itions / 5
6/ Appendix
Table A-Designation of Welding Processes by Letters*
Letter
Welding Process Designation
Infrared Brazing .......................................... IRB

Torch Brazing .............................................. TB
Furnace Brazing .......................................... FB
Induction Brazing ...................................... IB
Brazing Resistance Brazing ...................................... RB
Dip Brazing .................................................. DB
tTwin-Carbon Arc Brazing .......................... TCABt
tBiock Brazing .............................................. BBt
tFiow Brazing ................................................ FLBt
Oxyacetylene Welding ................................ OAW
Gas Welding Oxyhydrogen Welding ................................ OHW
Pressure Gas Welding ................................ PGW
tAir-Acetylene Welding ................................ AAWt
Resistance-Spot Welding ............................ RSW
Resistance-Seam Welding .......................... RSEW
Resistance Welding Projection Welding ...................................... RPW
Flash Welding ............................................ FW
Upset Welding ............................................ UW
Percussion Welding .................................... PEW
Stud Welding .............................................. SW
Plasma-Arc Welding .................................... PAW
Submerged Arc Welding ............................ SAW
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding ........................ GTAW
Gas Metal-Arc Welding .............................. GMAW
Flux Cored Arc Welding ............................ FCAW
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding ...................... SMAW
Arc Welding Carbon-Arc Welding .................................. CAW
tBare Metal-Arc Welding ............................ BMAWt
tGas-Shielded Stud Welding ........................ GSSWt
tAtomic Hydrogen Welding ........................ AHWt
tTwin-Carbon Arc Welding .......................... TCAWt
tGas Carbon-Arc Welding ............................ GCAWt
tShielded Carbon-Arc Welding ................... SCAWt
Thermit Welding .......................................... TW
Laser Beam Welding .................................. LBW
Induction Welding .................................... IW
Other Processes Electraslag Welding ................................... EW
Electron Beam Welding .............................. EBW
tNonpressure Thermit Welding ............... NTWt
tPressure Thermit Welding ............. PTWt
tFiow Welding .................... .. .......... FLOWt
Ultrasonic Welding ............ .. ........ USW
Friction Welding ......................................... FRW
Forge Welding ........................................... FOW
Explosion Welding ..................................... EXW
Solid State Welding Diffusion Welding ........................................ DFW
Cold Welding ....................... .. ............. CW
tRoll Welding ............................................. RWt
tDie Welding .............................................. DWt
tHammer Welding ..... .. ........ HWt
tProcesses included in the previous edition of the AWS Master Chart of Welding Proc-
esses. These wlll not be included in this edition of the Master Chart. Their definitions have
been relegated to obsolete status, non-preferred status, or from processes to methods.
Terms and Definitions/ 7
Table A-t-Alphabetical Cross-Reference to Table A*
letter Designation Welding Process
tAAW ............... .............. ..Air-Acetylene Weldingt

tAHW ... Atomic Hydrogen Weldingt
tBB .. .............................. Block Brazingt
tBMAW ................................. Bare Metal-Arc Weldingt
CAW ... .................. .... Carbon-Arc Welding
CW ............. . ....... Cold Welding
DB ....................................... Dip Brazing
DFW .............................. Diffusion Welding
tDW . . ....................... Die Weldingt
EBW . ........ Electron Beam Welding
EW ...................................... Electroslag Welding
EXW .. Explosion Welding
FB . Furnace Brazing
FCAW Flux Cored Arc Welding
tFlB . Flow Brazingt
tFlOW .... . ........... Flow Weldingt
FOW ..... . ....... Forge Welding
FRW .. ............. Friction Welding
FW .. . Flash Welding
tGCAW .......... Gas Carbon-Arc Weldingt
GMAW .. Gas Metal-Arc Welding
tGSSW .. ................ Gas-Shielded Stud Weldingt
GTAW .......... Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding
tHW ...... ...... Hammer Weldingt
IB ........... . ........ Induction Brazing
IRB ........ . ........................ Infrared Brazing
IW .................................... Induction Welding
lBW . . ............................... laser Beam Welding
tNTW .. Non pressure Thermit Weldingt
OAW ................................... Oxyacetylene Welding
OHW ......................... ....... Oxyhydrogen Welding
PAW .................................. Plasma-Arc Welding
PEW................ . .............. Percussion Welding
PGW ............. Pressure Gas Welding
tPTW ................................. Pressure Thermit Weldingt
RB .............. Resistance Brazing
RPW ................................ Projection Welding
RSEW .................... Resistance-Seam Welding
RSW .................................... Resistance-Spot Welding
tRW ...................................... Roll Weldingt
SAW ................... Submerged Arc Welding
tSCAW ................................. Shielded Carbon-Arc Weldingt
SMAW ................................ Shielded Metal-Arc Welding
SW ...... .......... Stud Welding
TB .. ... .... ... ... . . ....... Torch Brazing
tTCAB ........ .. ..... ........... Twin-Carbon Arc Brazingt
tTCAW ................ Twin-Carbon Arc Weldingt
TW ................................... Thermit Welding
USW .... Ultrasonic Welding
UW ...................................... Upset Welding
*The following suffixes may be used if desired to indicate the methods of applying the
above processes:
AU - Automatic Welding
ME - Machine Welding
MA- Manual Welding
SA - Semi-Automatic Welding
8/ Appendix
Table a-Designation of Cutting Processes by Letters*
Cutting Process letter Designation
Arc Cutting .......................................................... AC

Air Carbon-Arc Cutting .................................. AAC
Carbon-Arc Cutting ........................................ CAC
Gas Tungsten Arc Cutting .............................. GTAC
Metal-Arc Cutting ............................................ MAC
Plasma-Arc Cuttir~g ........................................ PAC
Oxygen Cutting .................................................. OC
Chemical Flux Cutting .................................... FOC
Metal Powder Cutting .................................... POC
Oxygen-Arc Cutting ................. ............ AOC
Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting ...................................... OFC-**
Oxygen lance Cutting .................................... lOC
laser Beam Cutting ........................................ lBC
Table B-1-Aiphabetical Cross-Reference to Table B
letter Designation Cutting Process
AAC ........................................ Air Carbon-Arc Cutting

AC .......................................... Arc Cutting
AOC ...................................... Oxygen-Arc Cutting
CAC ...................................... Carbon-Arc Cutting
FOC ........................................ Chemical Flux Cutting
GTAC ...................................... Gas Tungsten-Arc Cutting
lBC ........................................ laser Beom Cutting
lOC ........................................ Oxygen lance Cutting
MAC ...................................... Metal-Arc Cutting
OC .......................................... Oxygen Cutting
OFC-** ................................ Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting
PAC ........................................ Plasma-Arc Cutting
POC ....................................... Metal Powder Cutting
*The following suffixes may be used if desired to indicate the methods of applying the
above processes:
AU - Automatic Cutting
ME -Machine Cutting
MA -Manual Cutting
SA - Semi-Automatic Cutting
**The following are letter designotions for fuel gas:
A - Acetylene
H- Hydrogen
N - Natural Gas
P- Propane
T - Proprietary Gas Mixtures
The fuel gas must be specified in the letter designation G>f the process: (Example: OFC-A)
Terms and Definitions I 9
Table C-Designation of Soldering Processes by Letters
Soldering Process Letter Designation
Torch Soldering .......................................................... TS

Resistance Soldering .................................................. RS
Oven Soldering .......................................................... OS
Induction Soldering .................................................... IS
Dip Soldering .............................................................. DS
Table C-1-Aiphabetical Cross Reference to Table C
Letter Designation Soldering Process
DS .................................................... Dip Soldering

IS .................................................... Induction Soldering
OS .................................................... Oven Soldering
RS .................................................... Resistance Soldering
TS .................................................... Torch Soldering
10 / Appendix
TERMS AND DEFINITIONS
Abrasion Soldering: A soldering method in which the surface of the base

metal is mechanically abraded during soldering.
Accelerating Potential: In electron beam welding the potential that imparts
the velocity to the electrons, thus, giving them energy.
Acid Core Solder: See preferred term Cored Solder.
Activated Rosin Flux: A rosin or resin base flux containing an additive
which increases wetting by the solder.
Actual Throat: See Throat of a Fillet Weld.
Air-Acetylene Welding (AAW): A term of limited use, no longer of in-
A gas-welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating
with a gas flame or flames obtained from the combustion of
acetylene with air, without the application of pressure and with
or without the use of filler metal.
Air Carbon-Arc Cutting (AAC): An arc-cutting process wherein the sever-
ing of metals is effected by melting with the heat of an arc between an
electrode and the base metal and an air stream is used to facilitate cut-
ting.
All-Weld-Metal Test Specimen: A test specimen wherein the portion being
tested is composed wholly of weld metal.
Alternate Polarity Operation: A mode of operation of a resistance-welding
machine in which succeeding welds are made with pulses of alternating
polarity.
Angle of Bevel: See preferred term Bevel Angle.
Arc Blow: The deflection of an electric arc from its normal path because
of magnetic forces.
Arc Brazing: A term of limited use, no longer of industrial significance,

last defined in 1961 as follows:
A brazing process wherein coalescence is produced by heating
with an electric arc and by using a nonferrous filler metal, having
a melting point above 800°F. (427°() but below that of the base
metals. The filler metal is distributed in the joint by capillary at-
traction. Also see Twin-Carbon Arc Brazing.
Arc Cutting (AC): A group of cutting processes wherein the severing or

removing of metals is effected by melting with the heat of an arc between
an electrode and the base metal. See Carbon-Arc Cutting, Metal-Arc
Cutting, Gas Metal-Arc Cutting, Gas Tungsten-Arc Cutting, Plasma-Arc
Cutting and Air Carbon-Arc Cutting. Compare with Oxygen-Arc Cut-
ting.
Arc Force: The pressure developed on the surface of the molten metal by
the Arc Plasma.
Arc Gouging: An application of arc cutting wherein a bevel or groove is
formed.
Arc Oxygen Cutting: See preferred term Oxygen-Arc Cutting.
Arc-Seam Weld: A seam weld made by an arc welding process.

Arc-Seam Welding: A term erroneously used to describe a seam weld
made by an arc-welding process; last defined in 1961 as follows:
An arc-welding process wherein coalescence at the faying surfaces
is produced continuously by heating with an electric arc between
an electrode and the work. The weld is made without preparing
a hole in either member. Filler metal or a shielding gas or flux
may or may not be used.
Arc-Spot Weld: A spot weld made by an arc welding process.
Arc-Spot Welding: A term erroneously used to describe a spot weld
made by an arc-welding process; last defined in 1961 as follows:
An arc-welding process wherein coalescence at the faying surfaces
is produced in one spot by heating with an electric arc between
an electrode and the work. The weld is made without preparing
a hole in either member. Filler metal or a shielding gas or flux
may or may not be used.
Arc-Time: The length of time the arc is maintained in making an arc weld.
Arc Voltage: The voltage across the welding arc.
Arc Welding: A group of welding processes wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by heating with an arc or arcs, with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
12 /Appendix
Arm: A projecting beam extending from the frame of a resistance-welding

machine, which transmits the electrode force and may conduct the
welding current.
As-Brazed: The condition of brazements after brazing, but prior to any
subsequent aging, thermal, mechanical or chemical treatments.
As-Welded: The condition of weld metal, welded joints and weldments
after welding prior to any subsequent aging, thermal, mechanical or
chemical treatments.
Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW): A term of limited use, no longer of
industrial significance, last defined in 1961 as follows:
An arc-welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heat-
ing with an electric arc maintained between two metal electrodes
in an atmosphere of hydrogen. Shielding is obtained from the
hydrogen. Pressure may or may not be used and filler metal may
or may not be used.
Automatic Brazing: Brazing with equipment which performs the entire
brazing operation without constant observation and adjustment of the
controls by an operator. The equipment may or may not perform the
loading and unloading of the work. See Machine Brazing.
Automatic Gas Cutting: See preferred term Automatic Oxygen Cutting.
Automatic Oxygen Cutting: Oxygen cutting with equipment which per-
forms the cutting operation without constant observation and adjust-
ment of the controls by an operator. The equipment may or may not
perform loading and unloading of the work. See Machine Oxygen
Cutting.
Automatic Welding: Welding with equipment which performs the entire
welding operation without constant observation and adjustment of the
controls by an operator. The equipment may or may not perform the
loading and unloading of the work. See Machine Welding.
Axis of a Weld: A line through the length of a weld, perpendicular to the
cross-section at its center of gravity. See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
B
Back Bead: See preferred term Back Weld.
Back Gouging: The forming of a bevel or groove on the other side of a

partially welded joint to assure complete penetration upon subsequent
welding from that side.
Backfire: The momentary recession of the flame into the torch tip followed
by immediate reappearance or complete extinguishment of the flame.
Backhand Welding: A welding technique wherein the welding torch or gun
is directed opposite to the progress of welding. See Fig. 5.
Backing: Material (metal, weld metal, asbestos, carbon, granular flux, gas,
etc.) backing up the joint during welding.
Backing Bead: See preferred term Backing Weld.
Backing Filler Metal: Filler metal in the form of a ring, strip or consumable
insert, fused in a single-welded joint.
Backing Pass: A pass made to deposit a backing weld.
Backing Ring: Backing in the form of a ring, generally used in the welding
of piping.
Backing Strap: See preferred term Backing Strip.
Backing Strip: Backing in the form of a strip.
Backing Weld: Backing in the form of a weld. See Fig. 7.
Backing Pass: A pass made to deposit a back weld.
Back Weld: A weld deposited at the back of a single-groove weld. See
Fig. 8.
Backstep Sequence: A longitudinal sequence wherein the weld bead incre-
ments are deposited in the direction opposite to the progress of welding
the joint. See Fig. 9. See Block Sequence, Longitudinal Sequence, etc.
Backup: A locator used in flash or upset welding to transmit all or a por-
tion of the upsetting force to the work pieces.
Balling Up: The formation of globules of molten brazing filler metal or
flux by failure to adequately wet the base metal.
Bare Electrode: See Electrode.
Bare Metal-Arc Welding {BMAW): A term of limited use, no longer of
ing with an electric arc between a bare or lightly-coated metal
electrode and the work and no shielding is used. Pressure is not
used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode.
Base Metal: The metal to be welded, soldered or cut.
Base-Metal Test Specimen: A test sre<vi.men composed wholly of base
metal.
14 I Appendix
Bead: See preferred term Weld Bead.

Bead Weld: See preferred term Surfacing Weld.
Bevel: An angular type of edge preparation. See Fig. 26.
Bevel Angle: The angle formed between the prepared edge of a member
and a plane perpendicular to the surface of the member. See Fig. 26.
Bit: That part of the soldering iron, usually made of copper, which actually
transfers heat and solder to the joint.
Blacksmith Welding: See preferred term Forge Welding.
Blind Joint: A joint, no portion of which is visible.
Block Brazing (BB): A term of limited use, no longer of industrial sig-
nificance, last defined in 1961 as follows:
A brazing process wherein coalescence is produced by the heat
obtained from heated blocks applied to the parts to be joined and
by using a nonferrous filler metal having a melting point above
800°F. but below that of the base metals. The filler metal is dis-
tributed in the joint by capillary attraction.
Block Sequence: A combined longitudinal and buildup sequence for a con-
tinuous multiple-pass weld wherein separated lengths are completely or
partially built up in cross-section before intervening lengths are de-
posited. See Backstep Sequence, Longitudinal Sequence, etc. See Fig. 10.
Blowhole: See preferred term Gas Pocket.
Blowpipe:
a) Welding and Cutting-See preferred term Welding Torch or Cut-
ting Torch.
b) Brazing and Soldering-A means of obtaining a small, accurately
directed flame, for fine work, such as in the dental and jewelry trades.
Any flame may be used, a portion of it being blown to the desired
location for the required time by the blowpipe which is usually mouth-
operated.
Bond Line: The junction of the weld metal and the base metal or the
junction of the base metal parts when weld metal is not present. See
Fig. 28.
Bottle: See preferred term Cylinder.
Boxing: The operation of continuing a fillet weld around a comer of a
member as an extension of the principal weld. See Fig. 36.
Brazability: The capacity of a metal to be brazed under the fabrication
conditions imposed into a specific suitably designed structure and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
Braze: A weld wherein coalescence is produced by heating to suitable

temperatures and by using a filler metal, having a liquidus above 800°F
(427°C) and below the solidus of the base metals. The filler metal is dis-
tributed between the closely fitted surfaces of the joint by capillary at-
traction.
Brazement: An assembly whose component parts are joined by brazing.
Brazer: One who is capable of performing a manual or semi-automatic
brazing operation.
Braze Welding: A method of welding whereby a weld is made using a filler
metal, having a liquidus above 800°F (427°C) and below the solidus of
the base metals. The filler metal is not distributed in the joint by capil-
lary attraction.
Brazing (noun): A group of welding processes wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by heating to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal,
having a liquidus above 800°F (427°C) and below the solidus of the
base metals. The filler metal is distributed between the closely fitted
surfaces of the joint by capillary attraction.
Brazing Alloy: See preferred term Brazing Filler Metal.
Brazing Filler Metal: The metal which fills the capillary gap and has a
liquidUS abOVe 800°F (427°C) but belOW the SOlidUS Of the base metalS.
Brazing Operator: One who operates machine or automatic brazing equip-
ment.
Brazing Procedure: The detailed methods and practices including all joint
brazing procedures involved in the production of a brazement. See Joint
Brazing Procedure.
Brazing Sheet: Brazing filler metal in sheet form.
Brazing Technique: The details of a brazing operation which, within the
limitations of the prescribed brazing procedure, are controlled by the
brazer or the brazing operator.
Brazing Temperature: The temperature to which the base metals are heated
to enable the filler metal to wet the base metals and form a joint.
Brazing Temperature Range: The range of temperature where brazing can
be conducted in order to obtain a desired result.
Bronze Welding: A term erroneously used to denote Braze Welding.
See preferred term Braze Welding.
Buildup Sequence: The order in which the weld beads of a multiple-pass
well are deposited with respect to the cross-section of the joint. See
Block Sequence, Longitudinal Sequence, etc: See Fig. 11.
16 /Appendix
Burner: See preferred term Oxygen-Cutter.

Burning: See preferred term Oxygen Cutting.
Burning In: See preferred term Flow Welding.
Burnoff Rate: See preferred term Melting Rate.
Burn-Thru: A term erroneously used to denote excessive Melt-Thru or a
hole. See Melt-Thru.
Burn-Thru Weld: A term erroneously used to denote a Seam Weld and
Spot Weld.
Buttering: See preferred term Surfacing.
Butt Joint: A joint between two members lying approximately in the same
plane. See Fig. 23.
Butt Weld: A weld in a butt joint.
Button: That part of a weld, including all or part of the nugget, which
tears out in the destructive testing of spot, seam, or projection-welded
specimens.
c
Carbon-Arc Cutting (CAC): An arc-cutting process wherein the severing
of metals is effected by melting with the heat of an arc between a
carbon electrode and the base metal.
Carbon-Arc Welding (CAW): An arc-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with an arc between a carbon electrode and the
work and no shielding is used. Pressure may or may not be used and
filler metal may or may not be used.
Carbon Electrode: See Electrode.
Carbon-Electrode Arc Welding: A term of limited use, no longer of in-
A group of arc-welding processes wherein carbon electrodes are
used. See Shielded Carbon-Arc Welding, Gas Carbon-Arc Welding,
Carbon-Arc Welding and Twin-Carbon Arc Welding.
Carbonizing Flame: See preferred term Reducing Flame.
Carburizing Flame: See preferred term Reducing Flame.
Cascade Sequence: A combined longitudinal and buildup sequence wherein
weld beads are deposited in overlapping layers. (In manual shielded
metal arc welding a backstep sequence is normally used.) See Block
Sequence, Buildup Sequence, Longitudinal Sequence, etc. See Fig. 12.
Caulk Weld: See preferred term Seal Weld.

Chain Intermittent Fillet Welding: Two lines of intermittent fillet welding
on a joint wherein the fillet weld increments in one line are approxi-
mately opposite to those in the other line. See Fig. 3 7.
Chamfer: See preferred term Bevel.
Chemical Flux Cutting (FOC): An oxygen-cutting process wherein the
severing of metals is effected by the use of a chemical flux to facilitate
cutting.
Chill Ring: See preferred term Backing Ring.
Chill Time: See preferred term Quench Time.
Circular Electrode: A rotating resistance welding electrode with the con-
tacting surface at the periphery.
Circular Resistance-Seam Welding: See preferred term, Transverse Re-
sistance-Seam Welding.
Circumferential Resistance-Seam Welding: See preferred term Trans-
verse Resistance-Seam Welding.
Clad Brazing Sheet: A metal sheet on which one or both sides are clad
with brazing filler metal.
Cladding: See preferred term Surfacing.
Closed Joint: A term erroneously used to indicate a zero root opening.
Coalescence: The growing together or growth into one body, of the base
metal parts.
Coated Electrode: See preferred terms Covered Electrode and lightly-
Coated Electrode.
Coil without Support: A filler metal package type consisting of a contin-
uous length of electrode in coil form without an internal support. It is
appropriately bound to maintain its shape.
Coil with Support: A filler metal package type consisting of a continuous
length of electrode in coil form wound on an internal support which is a
simple cylindrical section without flanges. See Fig. 71. (A previous name
for this package type was Rim.)
Cold Soldered Joint: A joint with incomplete bonding caused by insufficient
application of heat to the base metal during soldering.
Cold Welding (CW): A solid state welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by the external application of mechanical force alone. Com-
pare Forge Welding and Diffusion Welding.
18/ Appendix
Collar: The reinforcing metal of a nonpressure thermit weld.

Commutator-Controlled Welding: The making of a number of spot or pro-
jection welds by resistance welding wherein several electrodes, in simul-
taneous contact with the work, progressively function under the control
of an electrical commutating device.
Complete Fusion: Fusion which has occurred over the entire base-metal
surfaces exposed for welding, and between all layers and passes. See
Fig. 30.
Complete Joint Penetration: Joint penetration which extends completely
through the joint. See Joint Penetration. See Fig. 33.
Complete Penetration: See preferred term Complete Joint Penetration.
Composite Electrode: See Electrode.
Composite Joint: A joint wherein welding is used in conjunction with a
joining process other than welding.
Concave Fillet Weld: A fillet weld having a concave face. See Fig. 39.
Concave Root Snrface: A root surface which is concave. See Fig. 74.
Concavity: The maximum distance from the face of a concave fillet weld
perpendicular to a line joining the toes. See Fig. 39.
Concurrent Heating: The application of supplemental heat to a structure
during a welding or cutting operation.
Cone: The conical part of a gas flame next to the orifice of the tip. See
Figs. 46, 4 7 and 48.
Consumable Guide Electroslag Welding: See Electroslag Welding.
Consumable Insert: See preferred term Backing Filler Metal.
Contactor: A device for repeatedly establishing and interrupting an electric

power circuit.
Contact Tube: A device which transfers current to a continuous electrode.
Continuous Sequence: A longitudinal sequence wherein each pass is made
continuously from one end of the joint to the other. See Backstep
Sequence, Longitudinal Sequence, etc.
Continuous Weld: A weld which extends continuously from one end of a
joint to the other. Where the joint is essentially circular, it extends com-
pletely around the joint.
Convex Fillet Weld: A fillet weld having a convex face. See Fig. 40.
Convexity: The maximum distance from the face of a convex fillet weld
perpendicular to a line joining the toes. See Fig. 40.
Cool Time: The time interval between successive heat times in multiple-
impulse welding or in the making of seam welds by resistance welding.
See Figs. 64, 65 and 66.
Copper Brazing: A term erroneously used to denote brazing with a
copper filler metal. See preferred terms Furnace Brazing and Braze
Welding.
Cored Solder: A solder wire or bar containing flux as a core.
Comer-Flange Weld: A flange weld with only one member flanged at the
location of welding. See Fig. 20.
Comer Joint: A joint between two members located approximately at right
angles to each other in the form of an L. See Fig. 23.
Corona: The area sometimes surrounding the nugget of a spot weld at the
faying surfaces, which provides a degree of bonding.
Corrosive Flux: A flux with a residue that chemically attacks the base
metal. It may be composed of inorganic salts and acids, organic salts
and acids or activated rosins or resins.
Cover Glass: A clear transparent material used in goggles, hand shields
and helmets to protect the filter lens from spattering material.
Covered Electrode: See Electrode.
C02 Welding: See preferred term Gas Metal-Arc Welding.
Crater: In arc welding, a depression at the termination of a weld bead or
in the weld pool beneath the electrode.
Crater Crack: A crack in the crater of a weld bead.
Cross Wire Weld: A weld made between crossed wires or bars.
Cup: See preferred term Nozzle.
Cutting Attachment: A device which is attached to a gas-welding torch to

convert it into an oxygen-cutting torch.
Cutting Nozzle: See preferred term Cutting Tip.
Cutting Process: A process wherein the severing or removing of metals is

effected. See Arc Cutting and Oxygen Cutting.
Cutting Tip: That part of an oxygen-cutting torch from which the gases
issue.
20 / Appendix
Cutting Torch: A device used in oxygen cutting for controlling and direct-
ing the gases used for preheating and the oxygen used for cutting the
metal.
Cylinder: A portable cylindrical container used for transportation and
storage of a compressed gas.
Cylinder Manifold: See preferred term Manifold.
D
Deposit Sequence: See preferred term Deposition Sequence.
Deposited Metal: Filler metal that has been added during a welding opera-
tion.
Deposition Efficiency: The ratio of the weight of deposited metal to the
net weight of electrodes consumed, exclusive of stubs.
Deposition Rate: The weight of metal deposited in a unit of time.
Deposition Sequence: The order in which the increments of weld metal
are deposited. See Longitudinal Sequence and Buildup Sequence.
Depth of Fusion: The distance that fusion extends into the base metal or
previous pass from the surface melted during welding. See Fig. 29.
Die:
Resistance W elding.-A member usually shaped to the work contour
to clamp the parts being welded and conduct the welding current.
Forge Welding.-A device used in forge welding primarily to form
the work while hot and apply the necessary pressure.
Die Welding (OW): See preferred terms Forge Welding and Cold Weld-
ing.
Diffusion Aid: A solid filler metal applied to the faying surfaces to assist
in diffusion welding.
Diffusion Bonding: See preferred term Diffusion Welding.
Diffusion Welding (DFW): A solid state welding process wherein coales-
cence of the faying surfaces is produced by the application of pressure
and elevated temperatures. The process does not involve macroscopic
deformation or relative motion of the parts. A solid filler metal may or
may not be inserted. Compare Forge Welding and Cold Welding.
Dip Brazing (DB): A brazing process in which the heat required is fur-
nished by a molten chemical or metal bath. When a molten chemical
bath is used, the bath may act as a flux. When a molten metal bath is
used, the bath provides the filler metal.
Dip Soldering (DS): A soldering process in which the heat required is
furnished by a molten metal bath which provides the solder.
Dissociated Ammonia Brazing: A term erroneously used to denote vari-
ous brazing processes which take place in an atmosphere produced
from liquid ammonia by separating NH 3 into 75% H2 (hydrogen) and
25% N 2 (nitrogen).
Doped Solder: A solder containing a small amount of an intentionally

added element to insure retention of the characteristics of the materials
on which it is used.
Double-Bevel-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Double-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Double-Flare-Vee-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Double-J-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Double-U-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Double-Vee-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Double-Welded Joint: In arc and gas welding, any joint welded from both
sides. See Fig. 24.
Downhand: See preferred term Flat Position.
Downslope Time: The time during which the welding current is continu-
ously decreased. See Figs. 65 and 66.
Drag: The distance between the point of exit of the cutting oxygen stream
and the projection, on the exit surface, of the point of entrance. See Fig.
41.
Drop-Thru: An undesirable sagging or surface irregularity, usually en-
countered when brazing or welding near the solidus of the base metal
caused by overheating with rapid diffusion or alloying between the filler
metal and the base metal.
Drum: A filler metal package type consisting of a continuous length of
electrode wound or coiled within an enclosed cylindrical container.
Duty: A statement of operating conditions to which the machine or ap-
paratus is subjected, their representative durations and their sequence
in time.
Dynamic Electrode Force: See preferred term Electrode Force.
22 /Appendix
E
Electrode:
a) Arc W elding.-A component of the welding circuit through which
current is conducted between the electrode holder and the arc.
Bare Electrode-A filler-metal electrode, used in arc welding, con-

sisting of a metal wire with no coating other than that incidental to
its manufacture or preservation.
Carbon Electrode-A non-filler-metal electrode, used in welding or
cutting consisting of a carbon or graphite rod. The electrode may
or may not be coated with copper.
Composite Electrode-A filler-metal electrode, used in arc welding,
consisting of more than one metal component combined mechani-
cally. It may or may not include materials which protect the molten
metal from the atmosphere, improve the properties of the weld
metal or stabilize the arc.
Covered Electrode-A filler-metal electrode, used in arc welding,
consisting of a metal core wire with a relatively thick covering
which provides protection for the molten metal from the atmos-
phere, improves the properties of the weld metal and stabilizes the
arc.
Emissive Electrode-A filler metal electrode used in Gas Metal-
Arc Welding consisting of a metal wire with a very light coating
applied during manufacture.
Flux Cored Electrode-A continuous filler metal electrode consist-
ing of a metal tube containing flux. Additional ingredients may be
included.
Lightly-coated Electrode-A filler-metal electrode, used in arc
welding, consisting of a metal wire with a light coating applied
subsequent to the drawing operation, primarily for stabilizing the
arc.
Metal Electrode-A filler- or non-filler-metal electrode, used in arc
welding, consisting of a metal wire, with or without a covering or
coating.
Tungsten Electrode-A non-filler-metal electrode, used in arc weld-
ing, made principally of tungsten.
b) Resistance Welding.-The part or parts of a resistance-welding

machine through which the welding current and, in most cases, pres-
sure are applied directly to the work. The electrode may be in the
form of a rotating wheel, rotating roll, bar, cylinder, plate, clamp,
chuck or modification thereof.
Edge-Flange Weld: A flange weld with two members flanged at the loca-
tion of welding. See Fig. 21.
Edge Joint: A joint between the edges of two or more parallel or nearly
parallel members. See Fig. 23.
Edge Preparation: The contour prepared on the edge of a member for
welding.
Edge Weld: A term erroneously used to denote a weld in an edge
joint.
Effective Length of Weld: The length of weld throughout which the cor-
rectly proportioned cross-section exists. In a curved weld, it shall be
measured along the centerline of the throat.
Electric Brazing: An obsolete term, last defined in 1942 as follows:
A group of brazing processes wherein the heat is obtained from
electric current.
Electrode Force:
Dynamic-The force (pounds) between the electrodes during the
actual welding cycle in making spot, seam or projection welds by re-
sistance welding.
Theoretical-The force, neglecting friction and inertia, in making
spot, seam or projection welds by resistance welding, available at the
electrodes of a resistance-welding machine by virtue of the initial force
application and the theoretical mechanical advantage of the system.
Static-The force between the electrodes in making spot, seam or pro-
jection welds by resistance welding under welding conditions, but with
no current flowing and no movement in the welding machine.
Electrode Holder: A device used for mechanically holding the electrode
and conducting current to it.
Electrode Lead: The electrical conductor between the source of arc-welding
current and the electrode holder. See Figs. 42 and 43.
Electrode Skid: The sliding of an electrode along the surface of the work
during the making of spot, seam or projection welds by resistance weld-
ing.
Electrogas Welding: A method of Gas Metal-Arc Welding or Flux Cored
Arc Welding wherein an external gas is supplied and molding shoes con-
fine the molten weld metal for vertical position welding.
Electron Beam Welding (EBW): A welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by the heat obtained from a concentrated beam composed
primarily of high velocity electrons impinging upon the surfaces to be
joined.
24 /Appendix
Electronic Heat Control: A device for adjusting the heating value (rms
value) of the current in making a resistance weld by controlling the igni-
tion or firing of the tubes in an electronic contactor. The current is
initiated each half-cycle at an adjustable time with respect to the zero
point on the voltage wave.
Electroslag Welding (EW): A welding process wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by molten slag which melts the filler metal and the surfaces of the
work to be welded. The weld pool is shielded by this slag which moves
along the full cross-section of the joint as welding progresses. The con-
ductive slag is maintained molten by its resistance to electric current
passing between the electrode and the work.
Consumable Guide Electroslag W elding.-A method of electroslag
welding wherein filler metal is supplied by an electrode and its guiding
member.
Emissive Electrode: See Electrode.
End Return: See preferred term Boxing.
Erosion: A condition caused by dissolution of the base metal by molten
filler metal resulting in a postbraze reduction in base metal thickness.
Explosion Welding (EXW): A solid state welding process wherein coales-
cence is effected by high velocity movement produced by a controlled
detonation.
F
Face Feed: The application of filler metal to the joint, usually by hand,
during brazing and soldering.
Face Reinforcement: Reinforcement of weld at the side of the joint from
which welding was done. See Fig. 52.
Face of Weld: The exposed surface of a weld on the side from which
welding was done. See Fig. 35.
Face Shield: See preferred term Hand Shield and Helmet.
Faying Surface: That surface of a member which is in contact or in close
proximity with another member to which it is to be joined.
Filler Metal: The metal to be added in making a welded, brazed or soldered
joint. See Electrode, Welding Rod, Backing Filler Metal, Brazing Filler
Metal and Solder.
Fillet Weld: A weld of approximately triangular cross-section joining two

surfaces approximately at right angles to each other in a lap joint, tee
joint or corner joint. See Figs. 39, 40 and 56.
Fillet Weld Size: See preferred term Size of Weld.
Filter Glass: See preferred term Filter Lens.
Filter Lens: A filter, usually colored glass, used in goggles, helmets and
handshields to exclude harmful light rays.
Fixtnre: A device designed to hold parts to be joined in proper relation
to each other.
Flame Cutting: See preferred term Oxygen Cutting.
Flame Gouging: See preferred term Oxygen Gouging.
Flange Weld: A weld made on the edges of two or more members to be

joined, at least one of which is flanged. See Figs. 20 and 21.
Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld: See Single-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld and Double-
Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld. See Fig. 13.
Flare-Vee-Groove Weld: See Single-Flare-Vee-Groove Weld and Double-
Flare-Vee-Groove Weld. See Fig. 13.
Flash: The molten metal which is expelled, or which is squeezed out by
the application of pressure, and solidifies around the weld.
Flashback: A recession of the flame into or back of the mixing chamber
of the torch.
Flash-Butt Welding: See preferred term Flash Welding.
Flashing Time: The time during which the flashing action is taking place in
flash welding.
Flash-Off Time: See preferred term Flashing Time.
Flash Weld: A weld made by flash welding. See Fig. 17.
Flash Welding (FW): A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is
produced, simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces, by the
heat obtained from resistance to electric current between the two sur-
faces, and by the application of pressure after heating is substantially
completed. Flashing and upsetting are accompanied by expulsion of
metal from the joint.
Flat Position: The position of welding wherein welding is performed from
the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately
horizontal. See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
Flowability: The ability of molten filler metal to flow or spread over a
metal surface.
26 I Appendix
Flow Brazing (FLB): A term of limited use, no longer of industrial sig-

with molten nonferrous filler metal poured over the joint until
brazing temperature is attained. The filler metal has a melting
point above 800°F (427°C) but below that of the base metals and
is distributed in the joint by capillary attraction.
Flow Point: A term erroneously used to denote the temperature at which
the filler metal will flow.
Flow Welding (FLOW): A term of limited use, no longer of industrial
significance, last defined in 1961 as follows:
A welding process wherein coalescence is produced by heating
with molten filler metal, poured over the surfaces to be welded
until the welding temperature is attained and until the required
filler metal has been added. The filler metal is not distributed in
the joint by capillary attraction. (Burning In, formerly used, is a
misnomer for this term.)
Flux: Material used to prevent, dissolve or facilitate removal of oxides and
other undesirable substances.
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW): An arc welding process wherein coa-
lescence is produced by heating with an arc, between a continuous filler
metal (consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from
a flux contained within the electrode. Additional shielding may or may
not be obtained from an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
Flux Cored Electrode: See Electrode.
Flux Cover: In metal bath dip brazing and soldering a cover of flux over
the molten filler metal bath.
Flux-Oxygen Cutting: See preferred term, Chemical Flux Cutting.
Focal Point: The point of minimum diameter in electron beam welding
where the electrons cross from one side of the beam to the other.
Forehand Welding: A welding technique wherein the welding torch or gun
is directed toward the progress of welding. See Fig. 6.
Forge-Delay Time: The time elapsing between the beginning of weld time
or weld interval and the instant of application of forging force to the
electrodes in resistance welding.
Forge Welding (FOW): A solid state welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating and by applying pressure or blows sufficient to
cause permanent deformation at the interface. Compare Cold Welding
and Diffusion Welding.
Terms and Definitions (27
Freezing Point: See preferred terms Liquidus and Solidus.

Friction Soldering: See preferred term Abrasion Soldering.
Friction Welding (FRW): A solid state welding process wherein coales-
cence is produced by the heat obtained from mechanically induced
sliding motion between rubbing surfaces. The work parts are held
together under pressure.
Full Fillet Weld: A fillet weld whose size is equal to the thickness of the
thinner member joined.
Furnace Brazing (FB): A brazing process in which the heat required is
obtained from a furnace.
Fused Zone: See preferred terms Fusion Zone, Nugget and Bond Line.
Fusible Solders: Alloys, usually containing bismuth, having a solidus be tow
that of the tin-lead solders (361 °F) (183°C).
Fusion: The melting together of filler metal and base metal, or of base
metal only, which results in coalescence. See Depth of Fusion.
Fusion Welding: An obsolete term, last defined in 1942 as follows:
A group of processes in which metals are welded together by
bringing them to the molten state at the surfaces to be joined,
with or without the addition of filler metal, without the applica-
tion of mechanical pressure or blows.
Fusion Zone: The area of base metal melted as determined on the cross-
section of a weld. See Fig. 28.
G
Gas Brazing: See preferred term Torch Brazing.
Gas Carbon-Arc Welding (GCAW): A term of limited use, no longer of
ing with an electric arc between a single carbon electrode and the
work. Shielding is obtained from a gas or gas mixture (which may
contain an inert gas).
Gas Cutter: See preferred term Oxygen Cutter.
Gas Cutting: See preferred term Oxygen Cutting.
Gas Gouging: See preferred term Oxygen Gouging.
28 /Appendix
Gas Metal Arc Cutting: Method of metal-arc cutting wherein the severing
of metals is effected by melting with an arc between a continuous metal
(consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained entirely from
an externally supplied gas or gas mixture.
Gas Metal-Arc Welding (GMAW): An arc welding process wherein coales-
cence is produced by heating with an arc between a continuous filler
metal (consumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained en-
tirely from an externally supplied gas, or gas mixture. Some methods
of this process are called MIG or C0 2 welding.
Gas Pocket: A cavity caused by entrapped gas.
Gas Regulator: See preferred term Regulator.
Gas-Shielded Arc Welding: A general term used to describe Gas Metal-Arc

Welding and Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding.
Gas-Shielded Stud Welding (GSSW): A stud welding method wherein
coalescence is produced by heating with an arc drawn between a metal
stud or similar part, and the other work part, until the surfaces to be
joined are properly heated, when they are brought together under pres-
sure. Shielding is obtained from an inert gas such as helium or argon.
Gas Torch: See preferred terms Welding Torch and Cutting Torch.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Cutting (GTAC): An arc-cutting process wherein the

severing of metals is effected by melting with an arc between a single
tungsten (nonconsumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained
from a gas or gas mixture.
Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding (GTAW): An arc-welding process wherein
coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between a single tung-
sten (nonconsumable) electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained
from a gas or gas mixture. Pressure may or may not be used and filler
metal may or may not be used. (This process has sometimes been called
TIG welding.)
Gas Welding: A group of welding processes wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by heating with a gas flame or flames, with or without the applica-
tion of pressure, and with or without the use of filler metal.
Globular Transfer: A mode of metal transfer in gas metal-arc welding in
which the consumable electrode is transferred across the arc in large
droplets. See Fig. 70.
Goggles: See preferred term Welding Goggles.
Gouging: The forming of a bevel or groove by material removal. See also
Back Gouging, Arc Gouging, Oxygen Gouging.
Groove: The opening provided for a groove weld.
Groove Angle: The total included angle of the groove between parts to be
joined by a groove weld. See Fig. 26.
Groove Face: That surface of a member included in the groove. See Fig.
27.
Groove Radius: The radius of a J- or D-Groove. See Fig. 26.
Groove Weld: A weld made in the groove between two members to be
joined. The standard types of groove welds (Fig. 13) are as follows:
Square-Groove Weld
Single-Vee-Groove Weld
Single-Bevel-Groove Weld
Single-D-Groove Weld
Single-J-Groove Weld
Single-Flare-Vee-Groove Weld
Single-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld
Double-Vee-Groove Weld
Double-Bevel-Groove Weld
Double-D-Groove Weld
Double-J-Groove Weld
Double-Flare-Vee-Groove Weld
Double-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld
Ground Connection: An electrical connection of the welding machine
frame to the earth for safety. (See also Work Connection and Work
Lead). See Figs. 42 and 43.
Ground Lead: A term erroneously used to denote Work Lead.
Gun:
a) Arc W elding.-In semiautomatic, machine and automatic welding,
a manipulating device to transfer current and guide the electrode into
the arc. It may include provisions for shielding and arc initiation.
b) Resistance W elding.-A manipulating device to transfer current
and provide electrode force to the weld area.
H
Hammer Welding (HW): See preferred terms Forge Welding and Cold
Welding.
Hand Shield: A protective device, used in arc welding, for shielding the
face and neck. A hand shield is equipped with a suitable filter lens
and is desisned to be held by hand.
'30 I Appendix
Hard Solder: A term erroneously used to denote silver-base brazing

filler metals.
Hard Surfacing: See preferred term Surfacing.
Heat-Affected Zone: That portion of the base metal which has not been
melted, but whose mechanical properties or microstructure have been
altered by the heat of welding, brazing, soldering or cutting. See Fig. 51.
Heat Time: The time that current occurs during any one impulse in
multiple-impulse welding or when making welds by resistance welding.
See Figs. 64, 65 and 66.
Heating Gate: The opening in a thermit mold through which the parts to
be welded are preheated.
Helmet: A protective device, used in arc welding, for shielding the face
and neck. A helmet is equipped with a suitable filter lens and is de-
signed to be worn on the head.
Hold Time: The time during which force is applied at the point of welding
after the last impulse of current ceases in resistance welding.
Holding Time: The length of time a joint is held within a specified tem-
perature range as part of the brazing or soldering process.
Horizontal Fixed Position:
Pipe Welding.-The position of a pipe joint wherein the axis of the
pipe is approximately horizontal and the pipe is not rotated during
welding. See Figs. 1 and 4.
Horizontal Position:
Fillet Weld.-The position of welding wherein welding is performed
on the upper side of an approximately horizontal surface and against
an approximately vertical surface. See Figs. 1 and 3.
Groove Weld.-The position of welding wherein the axis of the weld
lies in an approximately horizontal plane and the face of the weld lies
in an approximately vertical plane. See Figs. 1 and 2.
Horizontal Rolled Position:
Pipe Welding.-The position of a pipe joint wherein welding is per-
formed in the flat position by rotating the pipe. See Figs. 1 and 4.
Horn: An essentially cylindrical arm or extension of an arm of a resistance-
welding machine which transmits the electrode force and usually con-
ducts the welding current. See Arm.
Hom Spacing: The distance between adjacent surfaces of the horns of a
resistance-welding machine.
Hydrogen Brazing: A term erroneously used to denote various brazing

processes which take place in a protective atmosphere consisting of
essentially 100% hydrogen gas.
Hydromatic Welding: See preferred term Pressure-Controlled Welding.
I
Impregnated-Tape Metal-Arc Welding: A term of limited use, no longer
of industrial significance, last defined in 1949 as follows:
ing with an electric arc between a metal electrode and the work.
Shielding is obtained from decomposition of an impregnated tape
wrapped around the electrode as it is fed to the arc. Pressure is
not used and filler metal is obtained from the electrode.
Impulse: An essentially continuous welding current. An impulse consists
of a single pYlse or a series of pulses, separated only by an interpulse
time. See Figs. 65 and 66.
Inadequate Joint Penetration: Joint penetration which is less than that
specified.
Included Angle: See preferred term Groove Angle.
Incomplete Fusion: Fusion which is less than complete. See Fig. 31.
Indentation: In a spot, seam or projection weld the depression on the ex-
terior surface or surfaces of the base metal.
Induction Brazing (IB): A brazing process in which the heat required is
obtained from the resistance of the work to induced electric current.
Induction Soldering (IS): A soldering process in which the heat required
is obtained from the resistance of the work to induced electric current.
Induction Welding (IW): A welding process wherein coalescence is pro-
duced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to induced elec-
tric current, with or without the application of pressure.
Induction Work Coil: See preferred term Work Coil.
Inert Gas: A gas which does not normally combine chemically with the
base metal or filler metal. (See also protective atmosphere.)
Inert-Gas Metal-Arc Welding: See preferred term Gas Metal-Arc Weld-
ing.
32 /Appendix
Inert-Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding: See preferred term Gas Tungsten-Arc

Welding.
Infrared Brazing (IRB): A brazing process in which the heat required is
furnished by infrared radiation.
Intergranular Penetration: The penetration of a brazing filler metal along
the grain boundaries of a base metal.
Intermediate Flux: A soldering flux with a residue that generally does not
attack the base metal. The original composition may be corrosive.
Intermittent Weld: A weld wherein the continuity of the weld is broken
by recurring unwelded spaces. See Figs. 37 and 38.
Interpass Temperature: In a multiple-pass weld, the temperature (minimum
or maximum as specified) of the deposited weld metal before the next
pass is started.
Interpulse Time: The time between successive pulses of current within the
same impulse. See Fig. 65.
Interrupted Spot Welding: See preferred term Multiple Impulse Welding.
J
Joint: The location where two or more members are to be joined.
Joint Brazing Procedure: The materials, detailed methods and practices
employed in the brazing of a particular joint.
Joint Clearance: The distance between the faying surfaces of a joint. (In
brazing this distance is usually referred to as that which is present before
brazing, at the brazing temperature, or after brazing is completed.)
Joint Design: The joint geometry together with the required dimensions of
the welded joint.
Joint Efficiency: The ratio of the strength of a joint to the strength of the
base metal (expressed in percent).
Joint Geometry: The shape and dimensions of a joint in cross-section prior
to welding.
Joint Penetration: The minimum depth a groove or flange weld extends
from its face into a joint, exclusive of reinforcement. See Fig. 32.
Joint Welding Procedure: The materials, detailed methods and practices
employed in the welding of a particular joint.
Joint Welding Sequence: See preferred term Buildup Sequence.
K
Kerf: The space from which metal has been removed by a cutting process.
See Fig. 41.
Knee: The lower arm supporting structure in a resistance-welding machine.
L
Lack of Fusion: See preferred term Incomplete Fusion.
Lack of Joint Penetration: See preferred term Inadequate Joint Pene-
tration.
Lap Joint: A joint between two overlapping members. See Fig. 23.
Land: See preferred term Root Face.
Laser Beam Cutting (LBC): A cutting process wherein the severing of
metals is effected by the heat obtained from the impingement upon the
workpiece of a concentrated coherent light beam emitted from a laser,
with or without an externally supplied gas.
Laser Beam Welding (LBW): A welding process wherein coalescence is
produced by the heat obtained from the application of a concentrated
coherent light beam impinging upon the surfaces to be joined.
Layer: A stratum of weld metal, consisting of one or more weld beads.
See Fig. 44.
Lead Angle: The angle that the electrode makes in advance of a line
perpendicular to the weld axis at the point of welding, taken in a
longitudinal plane. See Fig. 45.
Lead Burning: A term erroneously used to denote the welding of lead.
Leg of a Fillet Weld: The distance from the root of the joint to the toe of
the fillet weld. See Figs. 39 and 40.
Lens: See preferred term Filter Lens.
Lightly Coated Electrode: See Electrode.
Liquation: The separation of a low melting constituent of an alloy from
the remaining constituents, usually apparent in alloys having a wide
melting range.
Liquidus: The lowest temperature at which a metal or an alloy is com-
pletely liquid.
34 I Appendix
Local Preheating: Preheating a specific portion of a structure.

Local Stress-Relief Heat Treatment: Stress-relief heat treatment of a spe-
cific portion of a structure.
Locked-Up Stress: See preferred term Residual Stress.
Longitudinal Resistance-Seam Welding: The making of a resistance-seam
weld in a direction essentially parallel to the throat depth of a resistance-
welding machine.
Longitudinal Sequence: The order in which the increments of a continu-
ous weld are deposited with respect to its length. See Backstep Sequence,
Block Sequence, etc.
Low Frequency Cycle: One positive and one negative pulse of current, in
resistance welding, within the same weld or heat time at a frequency
lower than the power supply frequency from which it is obtained.
M
Machine Brazing: Brazing with equipment which performs the brazing
operation under the constant observation and control of an operator.
The equipment may or may not perform the loading and unloading of
the work. See Automatic Brazing.
Machine Oxygen Cutting: Oxygen cutting with equipment which performs
the cutting operation under the constant observation and control of an
operator. The equipment may or may not perform the loading and un-
loading of the work .. See Automatic Oxygen Cutting.
Machine Welding: Welding with equipment which performs the welding
operation under the constant observation and control of an operator.
The equipment may or may not perform the loading and unloading of
the work. See Automatic Welding.
Manifold: A multiple header for interconnection of gas or fluid sources with
distribution points.
Manual Brazing: Brazing wherein the entire brazing operation is performed
and controlled by hand. See Automatic Brazing and Machine Brazing.
Manual Oxygen Cutting: Oxygen cutting wherein the entire cutting opera-
tion is performed and controlled by hand. See Automatic Oxygen
Cutting and Machine Oxygen Cutting.
Manual Welding: Welding wherein the entire welding operation is per-
formed and controlled by hand. See Automatic Welding and Machine
Welding.
Terms and Definitions /35
Mash Resistance-Seam Weld: A resistance-seam weld made in a lap joint

wherein the thickness at the lap is reduced plastically to approximately
the thickness of one of the lapped parts.
Melting Range: The temperature range between solidus and liquidus.
Melting Rate: The weight or length of electrode melted in a unit of time.
Melting Ratio: An obsolete term, last defined in 1940 as follows:
The ratio of the volume of weld metal below the original surface
of the base metal to the total volume of the weld metal.
Melt-Thru: Complete joint penetration of weld metal in a joint welded
from one side, with visible root reinforcement. See Fig. 22.
Metal-Arc Cutting (MAC): An arc-cutting process wherein the severing
of metals is effected by melting with the heat of an arc between a metal
electrode and the base metal. See Shielded Metal-Arc Cutting and Gas
Metal-Arc Cutting.
Metal-Arc Welding: See Shielded Metal-Arc Welding, Flux Cored-Arc
Welding, Gas Metal-Arc Welding, Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, Sub-
merged Arc Welding, Plasma-Arc Welding and Stud Welding.
Metal Electrode: See Electrode.
Metal-Electrode Arc Welding: An obsolete term, last defined in 1961 as
follows:
A group of arc-welding processes wherein metal electrodes are
used. See Shielded Metal-Arc Welding, Atomic Hydrogen Welding,
Gas Metal-Arc Welding, Submerged Arc Welding, Gas-Shielded
Stud Welding, Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding, Arc-Spot Welding, Arc-
Seam Welding, Stud Welding and Bare Metal-Arc Welding.
Metal Powder Cutting (POC): An oxygen-cutting process wherein the
severing of metals is effected by the use of powder, such as iron, to
facilitate cutting.
Method: An orderly arrangement, or definite system, of proceeding in a
certain manner to accomplish a particular type of result.
MIG Welding: See preferred term Gas Metal-Arc Welding.
Mixing Chamber: That part of a gas-welding or oxygen-cutting torch
wherein the gases are mixed.
Molten Chemical-Bath Dip Brazing: A method of Dip Brazing.
Molten Metal-Bath Dip Brazing: A method of Dip Brazing.
Multiple-Impulse Welding: The making of welds by more than one impulse
of current.
Multiple-Impulse Weld Timer: A device for multiple-impulse welding which
controls only the heat time, the cool time, and either the weld interval
or the number of heat times.
36 I Appendix
N
Neutral Flame: A gas flame wherein the portion used is neither oxidizing
nor reducing. See Fig. 46.
Noncorrosive Flux: A soldering flux which in itself does not, and with a
residue that does not, chemically attack the base metal. It usually is
composed of rosin or resin base materials.
Nonpressure Thermit Welding (NTW): A thermit-welding method wherein
coalescence is produced by heating with superheated liquid metal result-
ing from the chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum,
without the application of pressure. Filler metal is obtained from the
liquid metal.
Nonpressure Welding: An obsolete term, last defined in 1942 as fol-
lows:
A group of welding processes wherein the weld is made without
pressure.
Nonsynchronous Initiation: The initiation or termination of the welding
transformer primary current at any random time with respect to the
voltage wave in resistance welding.
Nonsynchronous Timing: See preferred term Nonsynchronous Initiation.
Nozzle: A device which directs shielding media.
Nugget: The weld metal joining the parts in spot, seam or projection welds.
Nugget Size: The diameter or width of the nugget measured in the plane
of the interface between the pieces joined. See Fig. 49.
0
Off Time: The time during which the electrodes are off the work in re-
sistance welding. This term is generally applied where the welding cycle
is repetitive. See Fig. 64.
Open-Circuit Voltage: The voltage between the output terminals of the
welding machine when no current is in the welding circuit.
Open Joint: An obsolete term, last defined in 1940 as follows:
See Root Opening.
Oven Soldering (OS): A soldering process in which the heat required is
obtained from an oven.
Overhead Position: The position of welding wherein welding is performed

from the underside of the joint. See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
Overlap: Protrusion of weld metal beyond the toe or root of the weld. See
Fig. 50.
Overlaying: See preferred term Surfacing.
Oxidizing Flame: A flame having an oxidizing effect (excess oxygen). See
Fig. 47.
Oxyacetylene Cutting: An oxygen-cutting method wherein the severing of
metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen with the
base metal at elevated temperatures, the necessary temperature being
maintained by means of gas flames obtained from the combustion of
acetylene with oxygen.
Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW): A gas-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with a gas flame or flames obtained from the
combustion of acetylene with oxygen, with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting (OFC-): An oxygen cutting process wherein the
severing of metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of
oxygen with the base metal at elevated temperatures, the necessary
temperature being maintained by means of gas flames obtained from
the combustion of a specified fuel gas and oxygen. See Oxyacetylene
Cutting, Oxyhydrogen Cutting, Oxy-Natural Gas Cutting, Oxypropane
Cutting.
Oxy-Fuel Gas Welding: See preferred term Gas Welding.
Oxy-Gas Cutting: See preferred term Oxygen Cutting.
Oxygen-Arc Cutting (AOC): An oxygen-cutting process wherein the sever-

ing of metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen
with the base metal at elevated temperatures, the necessary temperature
being maintained by means of an arc between a consumable tubular
electrode and the base metal.
Oxygen Cutter: One who is capable of performing a manual oxygen-cutting
operation.
Oxygen Cutting (OC): A group of cutting processes wherein the severing
or removing of metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of
oxygen with the base metal at elevated temperatures. In the case of
oxidation-resistant metals the reaction is facilitated by the use of a
chemical flux or metal powder. See Oxygen-Arc Cutting, Oxy-Fuel Gas
Cutting, Oxygen-Lance Cutting, Chemical Flux Cutting and Metal
Powder Cutting.
38 I Appendix
Oxygen-Cutting Operator: One who operates machine or automatic oxy-

gen-cutting equipment.
Oxygen Gouging: An application of oxygen cutting wherein a bevel of
groove is formed.
Oxygen Grooving: See preferred term, Oxygen Gouging.
Oxygen Lance: A length of pipe used to convey oxygen to the point of
cutting in oxygen-lance cutting.
Oxygen-Lance Cutting (LOC): An oxygen-cutting process wherein the
severing of metals is effected by oxygen supplied through a consumable
lance and the preheat is obtained by other means.
Oxygen Lancing: See preferred term Oxygen-Lance Cutting.
Oxygen Machining: An obsolete term, last defined in 1942 as follows:
A process of shaping ferrous metals by oxygen cutting or oxygen
grooving.
Oxyhydrogen Cutting: An oxygen-cutting method wherein the severing of
metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen with the
base metal at elevated temperatures, the necessary temperature being
hydrogen with oxygen.
Oxyhydrogen Welding (OHW): A gas-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with a gas flame or flames obtained from the
combustion of hydrogen with oxygen, without the application of pres-
sure and with or without the use of filler metal.
Oxy-Natural Gas Cutting: An oxygen-cutting method wherein the severing
of metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen with
the base metal at elevated temperatures, the necessary temperature being
natural gas with oxygen.
Oxypropane Cutting: An oxygen-cutting method wherein the severing of
metals is effected by means of the chemical reaction of oxygen with
the base metal at elevated temperatures, the necessary temperature
being maintained by means of gas flames obtained from the combustion
of propane with oxygen.
p
Parent Metal: See preferred term Base Metal.
Partial Joint Penetration: Joint penetration which is less than complete.
See Fig. 34.
Pass: A single longitudinal progression of a welding operation along a

joint or weld deposit. The result of a pass is a weld bead.
Pass Sequence: The order of deposition of passes in a joint.
Paste Brazing Filler Metal: A mixture of finely divided brazing filler metal
with an organic or inorganic flux and/or neutral vehicle or carrier.
Paste Solder: A mixture of finely divided metallic solder with an organic
or inorganic flux and/or neutral vehicle or carrier.
Pasty Range: A range between the solidus and liquidus where the filler
metal is in a plastic state, usually applied in soldering and brazing.
Peel Test: A destructive method of inspection where a lap joint is mechani-
ically separated by peeling.
Peening: The mechanical working of metals by means of impact blows.
Penetration: See preferred terms Joint Penetration and Root Penetration.
Percussion Weld: A weld by percussion welding.
Percussion Welding (PEW): A resistance welding process wherein coales-
cence is produced simultaneously over the entire abutting surfaces by
the heat obtained from an arc produced by a rapid discharge of electrical
energy with pressure percussively applied during or immediately follow-
ing the electrical discharge.
Plasma-Arc Cutting (PAC): An arc cutting process wherein severing of the
metal is obtained by melting a localized area with a constricted arc and
removing the molten material with a high velocity jet of hot, ionized
gas issuing from the orifice.
Plasma-Arc Welding (PAW): An arc welding process wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with a constricted arc between an electrode and
the work piece (transferred arc) or the electrode and the constricting
nozzle (non-transferred arc). Shielding is obtained from the hot, ionized
gas issuing from the orifice which may be supplemented by an auxiliary
source of shielding gas. Shielding gas may be an inert gas or a mixture
of gases. Pressure may or may not be used, and filler metal may or may
not be supplied.
Platen: A member with a substantially flat surface to which dies, fixtures,
backups or electrode holders are attached, and which transmits the
electrode force or upsetting force in a resistance-welding machine.
Platen Force: The force available at the movable platen to cause upsetting
in flash or upset welding. This force may be dynamic, theoretical or
static.
Platen Spacing: The distance between adjacent surfaces of the platens in
a resistance-welding machine.
40 /Appendix
Plug Weld: A circular weld made through a hole in one member of a lav
or tee joint joining that member to the other. The walls of the hole may
or may not be parallel and the hole may be partially or completely filled
with weld metal. (A fillet-welded hole or a spot weld should not be
construed as conforming to this definition.) See Fig. 15.
Poke Weld: See preferred term Push Weld.
Poke Welding: See preferred term Push Welding.
Porosity: Gas pockets or voids in metal.

Positioned Weld: A weld made in a joint which has been so placed as to
facilitate making the weld.
Position of Welding: See Flat, Horizontal, Vertical and Overhead Positions
and Horizontal Rolled, Horizontal Fixed and Vertical Pipe Welding
Positions.
Postheating: The application of heat to an assembly after a welding, braz-
ing, soldering or cutting operation.
Postheat Current: The current through the welding circuit during postheat
time in resistance welding. See Fig. 66.
Postheat Time: The time from the end of weld heat time to the end of
weld time in resistance welding. See Figs. 65 and 66.
Postweld Interval: The total time elapsing between the end of welding
current and the start of hold time in resistance welding. See Fig. 64.
Powder CuHing: See preferred terms Chemical Flux Cutting and Metal
Powder Cutting.
Precoating: Coating the base metal in the joint by dipping, electroplating
or other applicable means prior to soldering or brazing.
Preform: Brazing filler metal or solder fabricated in a shape or form for a
specific application.
Preheat: See preferred term Preheat Temperature.
Preheating: The application of heat to the base metal immediately before
welding, brazing, soldering or cutting.
Preheat Current: An impulse or series of impulses of current which occurs
prior to and separated from welding current in resistance welding. See
Fig. 64.
Preheat Temperature: The temperature specified that the base metal must
attain in the welding, brazing, soldering or cutting area immediately
before these operations are performed.
Preheat Time: A portion of the preweld interval during which preheat

current occurs in resistance welding. See Fig. 64.
Pressure-Controlled Welding: The making of a number of spot or projec-
tion welds by resistance welding wherein several electrodes progressively
function under the control of a pressure-sequencing device.
Pressure Gas Welding (PGW): A gas-welding process wherein coalescence
is produced, simultaneously, over the entire area of abutting surfaces,
by heating with gas flames obtained from the combustion of a fuel gas
with oxygen and by the application of pressure, without the use of filler
metal.
Pressure Thermit Welding (PTW): A thermit-welding method wherein
coalescence is produced by heating with superheated liquid metal and
slag resulting from the chemical reaction between iron oxide and
aluminum, and by applying pressure. The liquid metal from the reaction
is not used as filler metal.
Pressure Welding: A term of limited use, no longer of industrial· sig-
Any welding process or method wherein pressure is used to com-
plete the weld.
Pretinning: See preferred term Precoating.
Preweld Interval: The time elapsing between the end of squeeze time
and the beginning of welding current in making spot welds by resistance
welding, and in projection or upset welding. In flash welding, it is the
time during which the material is preheated. See Fig. 64.
Procedure: The detailed elements (with prescribed values or ranges of
values) of a process or method used to produce a specific result.
Procedure Qualification: The demonstration that welds made by a specific
procedure can meet prescribed standards.
Process: A distinctive progressive action, or series of actions, involved in
the course of producing a basic type of result.
Progressive Block Sequence: A block sequence wherein successive blocks
are completed progressively along the joint, either from one end to the
other or from the center of the joint toward either end.
Projection Weld: A weld made by projection welding.
Projection Welding (RPW): A resistance-welding process wherein coales-
cence is produced by the heat obtained from resistance to electric cur-
rent through the work parts held together under pressure by electrodes.
The resulting welds are localized at predetermined points by projec~
tions, embossments or intersections.
42 I Appendix
Protective Atmosphere: A gas envelope surrounding the part to be brazed

or welded where the gas composition is controlled with respect to
chemical composition, dew point, pressure, flow rate, etc. Examples are
inert gases, combusted fuel gases, hydrogen, vacuum.
Pulsation Welding: See preferred term Multiple-Impulse Welding.
Pulsation Weld Timer: See preferred term Multiple-Impulse Weld Timer.
Pulse: A unidirectional current of controlled duration through a welding
circuit. See Figs. 65 and 66.
Pulse TIDle: The duration of a pulse. See Fig. 65.
Pulsed Power Welding: Any arc welding method in which the power is
cyclically programmed to pulse to utilize effective, but short duration,
values of a parameter. Such short duration values are significantly dif-
ferent from the average value of the parameter. Equivalent terms are
Pulsed Voltage or Pulsed Current Welding; see also Pulsed Spray Weld-
ing.
Pulsed Spray Welding: An arc welding method in which the current is
pulsed to utilize the advantages of the spray mode of metal transfer at
average currents equal to or less than the globular to spray transition
current.
Push Weld: A spot or projection weld made by push welding.
Push Welding: The making of a spot weld by resistance welding or a pro-
jection weld wherein the force is applied manually to one electrode and
the work or a backing bar takes the place of the other electrode.
Q
Qualifications See preferred terms Welder Qualification and Procedure
Qualification.
Quench 1ime: The time from the end of weld time to the beginning of
temper time in resistance welding. See Fig. 64.
R
Random Sequence: See preferred term Wandering Sequence.
Rate of Deposition: See preferred term Deposition Rate.
Rate of Flame Propagation: The speed at which a flame travels through a
mixture of gases.
Reaction Flux: A flux composition in which one or more of the ingredients
reacts with a base metal upon heating to deposit one or more metals.
Reaction Soldering: A soldering method in which a reaction flux is used.

Reaction Stress: The residual stress which could not otherwise exist if the
members or parts being welded were isolated as free bodies without
connection to other parts of the structure.
Reactor: A device used in arc-welding circuits for the purpose of mini-
mizing irregularities in the flow of welding current.
Reducing Atmosphere: A chemically active protective atmosphere which
at elevated temperature will reduce metal oxides to their metallic state.
(Reducing Atmosphere is a relative term and such an atmosphere may
be reducing to one oxide but oxidizing to another oxide.)
Reducing Flame: A gas flame having a reducing effect. (Excess fuel gas.)
(See Fig. 48).
Regulator: A device for controlling the delivery of gas at some substantially
constant pressure regardless of variation in the higher pressure at the
source.
Reinforcement of Weld: Weld metal in excess of the specified weld size.
See Fig. 52 and 55.
Residual Stress: Stress remaining in a structure or member as a result .of
thermal or mechanical treatment or both.
Resistance Brazing (RB): A brazing process in which the heat required is
obtained from the resistance to electric current in a circuit of which the
work is a part.
Resistance Butt Weld: See preferred terms Upset Weld and Flash Weld.
Resistance Butt Welding: See preferred terms Upset Welding and Flash
Welding.
Resistance-Seam Weld Timer: In resistance-seam welding, a device which
controls the heat times and the cool times.
Resistance-Seam Welding (RSEW): A resistance-welding process, wherein
coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced by the heat obtained from
resistance to electric current through the work parts held together utider
pressure by electrodes. The resulting weld is a series of overlapping re-
sistance-spot welds made progressively along a joint by rotating. the
electrodes. See Fig. 18. ·
Resistance-Spot Welding (RSW): A resistance-welding process wherein
coalescence at the faying surfaces is produced in one spot by the heat
obtained from the resistance to electric current through the work parts
held together under pressure by· electrodes. The size and shape of the
individually-formed welds are limited primarily by the size and contour
of the electrodes. See Fig. 19.
44 I Appendix
Resistance Soldering (RS): A soldering process in which the heat required

is obtained from the resistance to electric current in a circuit of which
the work is a part.
Resistance Welding: A group of welding processes wherein coalescence is
produced by the heat obtained from resistance of the work to electric
current in a circuit of which the work is a part, and by the application
of pressure.
Resistance Welding Electrode: See Electrode.
Reverse Polarity: The arrangement of direct current arc-welding leads
wherein the work is the negative pole and the electrode is the positive
pole of the welding arc. See Fig. 42.
Rim: A filler metal package type consisting of a continuous length of
electrode wound in a circular channel. (This package type is a proposed
standard of the International Organization for Standardization and is
not currently used by U. S. industry. See Fig. 73.) This term was pre-
viously used to denote coil with support.
Roll Resistance-Spot Welding: The making of separated resistance-spot
welds with one or more rotating circular electrodes. The rotation of
the electrodes may or may not be stopped during the making of a weld.
Roll Welding (RW): See preferred terms Forge Welding and Cold Weld-
ing.
Root: See preferred terms Root of Joint and Root of Weld.
Root Crack: A crack in the weld or heat-affected zone occurring at the
root of a weld.
Root Edge: A root face of zero width. See Root Face. See Fig. 27.
Root Face: That portion of the groove face adjacent to the root of the
joint. See Fig. 27.
Root Gap: See preferred term Root Opening.
Root of Joint: That portion of a joint to be welded where the members
approach closest to each other. In cross-section the root of the joint may
be either a point, a line or an area. See Fig. 53.
Root of Weld: The points, as shown in cross-section, at which the back of
the weld intersects the base metal surfaces. See Fig. 54.
Root Opening: The separation between the members to be joined, at the
root of the joint. See Fig. 26.
Root Penetration: The depth a groove weld extends into the root of a
joint measured on the centerline of the root cross-section. See Fig.. 32.
Root Radius: See preferred term Groove Radius.

Root Reinforcement: Reinforcement of weld at the side other than that
from which welding was done. See Fig. 52.
Root Surface: The exposed surface of a weld on the side other than that
from which welding was done. See Fig. 35.
s
Salt-Bath Dip Brazing: See preferred term Molten Chemical-Bath Dip
Brazing.
Sandwich Braze: A brazed assembly of dissimilar materials using a pre-
placed shim, other than the filler metal, as a transition layer to minimize
thermal stresses.
Scarf: See preferred term Edge Preparation.
Scarf Joint: A form of butt joint. See Fig. 67.
Seal Weld: Any weld designed primarily to provide a specific degree of
tightness against leakage.
Seam Weld: A continuous weld made between or upon overlapping mem-
bers, wherein coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces, or
may have proceeded from the surface of one member. The continuous
weld may consist of a single weld bead or a series of overlapping spot
welds. See Fig. 18.
Seam Welding: The making of seam welds.
Secondary Circuit: That portion of a welding machine which conducts the
secondary current between the secondary terminals of the welding trans-
former and the electrodes, or electrode and work.
Selective Block Sequence: A block sequence wherein successive blocks are
completed in a certain order selected to create a predetermined stress
pattern.
Semiautomatic Arc Welding: Arc welding with equipment which controls
only the filler metal feed. The advance of the welding is manually con-
trolled.
Semiautomatic Brazing: Brazing with equipment which controls only the
brazing filler metal feed. The advance of the brazing is manually con-
trolled.
Semiblind Joint: A joint in which one extremity of the joint is not visible.
46 I Appendix
Sequence Timer: A device for controlling the sequence and duration of

any or all of the elements of a complete welding cycle except weld time
or heat time.
Sequence Weld Timer: A device which performs the functions of a se-
quence timer and the functions of either a weld timer or a multiple-
impulse weld timer.
Series Welding: The making of two spot or seam welds by resistance weld-
ing or two or more projection welds simultaneously with three electrodes
forming a series circuit. See Fig. 58.
Sheet Separation: The gap surrounding the weld, between faying surfaces,
after the joint has been welded in spot, seam or projection welding.
Shielded Carbon-Arc Welding (SCAW): A term of limited use, no longer
of industrial significance, last defined in 1961 as follows:
ing with an electric arc between a carbon electrode and the work.
Shielding is obtained from the combustion of a solid material fed
into the arc or from a blanket of flux on the work or both. Pressure
may or may not be used and filler metal may or may not be used.
Shielded Metal-Arc Cutting: A method of metal-arc cutting wherein the
severing of metals is effected by melting with the heat of an arc between
a covered metal electrode and the base metal.
Shielded Metal-Arc Welding (SMAW): An arc-welding process wherein
coalescence is produced by heating with an arc between a covered metal
electrode and the work. Shielding is obtained from decomposition of the
electrode covering. Pressure is not used and filler metal is obtained
from the electrode.
Short Circuiting Arc Welding: A method of gas metal-arc welding using
short circuiting transfer.
Short Circuiting Transfer: A mode of metal transfer in Gas Metal-Arc
Welding in which the consumable electrode is deposited during repeated
short circuits. See Fig. 68.
Shoulder: See preferred term Root Face.
Shrinkage Stress: See preferred term Residual Stress.
Silver Alloy Brazing (Silver Soldering): An obsolete term, last defined

in 1940 as follows:
A brazing process wherein a silver alloy is used as a filler metal.
Silver Solder: A term erroneously used to denote silver-base brazing

filler metals.
Single-Bevel-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.

Single-Flare-Bevel-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Single-Flare-Vee-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Single-Impulse Welding: The making of spot, projection or upset welds by
a single impulse of current. When alternating current is used, an im-
pulse may consist of a fraction of a cycle or a number of cycles.
Single-J-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Single-U-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Single-Vee-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.
Single-Welded Joint: In arc and gas welding, any joint welded from one
side only. See Fig. 25.
Size of Weld:
Groove Weld.-The joint penetration (depth of chamfering plus the
root penetration when specified). See Fig. 55.
Fillet Weld.-
For equal leg fillet welds, the leg length of the largest isosceles right-
triangle which can be inscribed within the fillet-weld cross-section.
See Fig. 56.
For unequal leg fillet welds, the leg length of the largest right-
triangle which can be inscribed within the fillet-weld cross-section.
See Fig. 56.
Flange Weld.-The weld metal thickness measured at the root of the
weld. See Fig. 57.
Skip Sequence: See preferred term Wandering Sequence.
Skull: The unmelted residue from a liquated filler metal.
Slag Inclusion: Non-metallic solid material entrapped in weld metal or

between weld metal and base metal.
Slot Weld: A weld made in an elongated hole in one member of a lap or
tee joint joining that member to that portion of the surface of the other
member which is exposed through the hole. The hole may be open at
one end and may be partially or completely filled with weld metal. (A
fillet-welded slot should not be construed as conforming to this defini-
tion.) See Fig. 16.
Slugging: The act of adding a separate piece or pieces of material in a
joint before or during welding resulting in a welded joint which does
not comply with design, drawing or specification requirements.
Soft Solder: A term erroneoUsly used to denote solder.
48 I Appendix
Solder: A filler metal used in soldering which has a liquidus not exceeding
800°F (427°C).
Solderability: The capacity of a metal to be soldered under the fabrication
conditions imposed upon a specific, suitably designed structure.
Soldering: A group of joining processes wherein coalescence is produced
by heating to a suitable temperature and by using a filler metal having a
liquidus not exceeding 800°F (427°C) and below the solidus of the
base metals.
Soldering Gun: An electrical soldering iron with a pistol grip and a quick
heating, relatively small, bit.
Soldering Iron: A soldering tool having an internally or externally heated
metal bit, which is usually made of copper.
Solid State Welding: A group of welding processes wherein coalescence is
produced essentially at temperatures below the melting point of the base
metals being joined, without the addition of a brazing filler metal. Pres-
sure may or may not be used.
Solidus: The highest temperature at which a metal or alloy is completely
solid.
Spacer Strip: A metal strip or bar inserted in the root of a joint prepared
for a groove weld to serve as a backing and to maintain root opening
during welding. See Fig. 59.
Spatter: In arc and gas welding, the metal particles expelled during welding
and which do not form a part of the weld.
Spatter Loss: Metal lost due to spatter.
Spit: See preferred term Flash.
Spool: A filler metal package type cons1stmg of a continuous length of
electrode wound on a cylinder (called the barrel) which is flanged at
both ends. The flange extends below the inside diameter of the barrel
and contains a spindle hole. See Fig. 72.
Spot Weld: A weld made between or upon overlapping members wherein

coalescence may start and occur on the faying surfaces or may have
proceeded from the surface of one member. The weld cross section
(plan view) is approximately circular. See Fig. 19.
Spot Welding: The making of spot welds:
Spray Transfer: A mode of metal transfer in gas metal-arc welding m

which the consumable electrode is propelled axially across the arc in
small droplets. See Fig. 69.
Terms and /)e{inition.\' / 49
Square-Groove Weld: A type of groove weld. See Fig. 13.

Squeeze Time: The time interval between the initial application of the
electrode force on the work and the first application of current in mak-
ing spot and seam welds by resistance welding and in projection or
upset welding. See Fig. 64.
Stack Cutting: Oxygen cutting of stacked metal plates arranged so that all
the plates are severed by a single cut.
Staggered Intermittent Fillet Welding: Two lines of intermittent fillet weld-
ing on a joint wherein the fillet weld increments in one line are stag-
gered with respect to those in the other line. See Fig. 38.
Static Electrode Force: See preferred term Electrode Force.
Step Brazing: The brazing of successive joints on a given part with filler
metals of successively lower brazing temperatures so as to accomplish
the joining without disturbing the joints previously brazed. A similar
result can be achieved at a single brazing temperature if the remelt
temperature of prior joints is increased by metallurgical interaction.
Step Soldering: The soldering of successive joints on a given part with
solders of successively lower soldering temperatures so as to accomplish
the joining without disturbing the joints previously soldered.
Stepback Sequence: See preferred term Backstep Sequence.
Stick Electrode: See preferred term Covered Electrode.
Stitch Welding: The use of intermittent welds to join two or more parts.
Stopoff: A material used on the surfaces adjacent to the joint to limit the
spread of solder or brazing filler metal.
Stored Energy Welding: The making of a weld with electrical energy ac-
cumulated electrostatically, electromagnetically or electrochemically at
a relatively low rate and made available at the required welding rate.
Straight Polarity: The arrangement of direct current arc-welding leads
wherein the work is the positive pole and the electrode is the negative
pole of the welding arc. See Fig. 43.
Strength Weld: An obsolete term, last defined in 1929 as follows:
A weld intended to develop a predetermined strength.
Stress-Corrosion Cracking: Spontaneous failure of metals by cracking

under combined action of corrosion and stress, residual or applied. In
brazing, applied to cracking of stressed base metal by the presence of a
liquid filler metal.
50 /Appendix
Stress-Relief Heat Treatment: Uniform heating of a structure or portion

thereof to a sufficient temperature, below the critical range, to relieve
the major portion of the residual stresses, followed by uniform cooling.
(Note: Terms Normalizing, Annealing, etc., are misnomers for this appli-
cation.)
Stress Cracking: Cracking of a weld or base metal containing residual
stresses.
Stringer Bead: A type of weld bead made without appreciable transverse
oscillation. See Fig. 60.
Stud Welding (SW): An arc-welding process wherein coalescence is pro-

duced by heating with an arc drawn between a metal stud, or similar
part, and the other work part until the surfaces to be joined are properly
heated, when they are brought together under pressure. Partial shielding
may be obtained by the use of a ceramic ferrule surrounding the stud.
Shielding gas or flux may or may not be used.
Submerged Arc Welding (SAW): An arc-welding process wherein coales-

cence is produced by heating with an arc or arcs between a bare metal
electrode or electrodes and the work. The arc is shielded by a blanket
of granular, fusible material on the work. Pressure is not used and filler
metal is obtained from the electrode and sometimes from a supple-
mentary welding rod.
Suck-Back: See preferred term Concave Root Surface.

Surfacing: The deposition of filler metal on a metal surface to obtain de-
sired properties or dimensions.
Surfacing Weld: A type of weld composed of one or more stringer or
weave beads deposited on an unbroken surface to obtain desired prop-
erties or dimensions. See Fig. 14.
Sweat Soldering: A soldering method in which two or more parts which

have been precoated with solder are reheated and assembled into a joint
without the use of additional solder.
Synchronous Initiation: The initiation and termination of each half-cycle
of welding-trainsformer primary current so that all half-cycles of such
current are identical in making spot and seam welds by resistance weld-
ing or in making projection welds.
Synchronous Timing: See preferred term Synchronous Initiation.
T
Tack Weld: A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment
until the final welds are made.
Taps: A means for controlling welding voltage and current by varying the
welding transformer turns ratio.
Tee Joint: A joint between two members located approximately at right
angles to each other in the form of a T. See Fig. 23.
Temper Time: That part of the postweld interval following quench time
to the beginning of hold time in resistance welding. See Fig. 64.
Temporary Weld: A weld made to attach a piece or pieces to a weldment
for temporary use in handling, shipping or working on the weldment.
Theoretical Electrode Force: See preferred term Electrode Force.
Theoretical Throat: See Throat of a Fillet Weld.

Thermal Stresses: Stresses set up within a metal or joint caused by dif-
ferential heating or cooling.
Thermit Crucible: The vessel in which the thermit reaction takes place.
Thermit Mixture: A mixture of metal oxide and finely divided aluminum
with the addition of alloying metals as required.
Thermit Mold: A mold formed around the parts to be welded to receive
the molten metal.
Thermit Reaction: The chemical reaction between metal oxide and alu-
minum which produces superheated molten metal and aluminum oxide
slag.
Thermit Welding (TW): A group of welding processes wherein coalescence
is produced by heating with superheated liquid metal and slag resulting
from a chemical reaction between a metal oxide and aluminum, with
or without the application of pressure. Filler metal, when used, is ob-
tained from the liquid metal.
Throat Depth: The distance from the center line of the electrodes or
platens to the nearest point of interference for flat sheets in a resistance-
welding machine. In the case of a resistance seam welding machine with
a universal head, the throat depth is measured with the machine ar-
ranged for transverse welding.
Throat Height: The unobstructed dimension between arms throughout the
throat depth in a resistance-welding machine.
52 /Appendix
Throat of a Fillet Weld:

Theoretical.-The distance from the beginning of the root of the joint
perpendicular to the hypotenuse of the largest right-triangle that can
be inscribed within the fillet-weld cross-section. See Figs. 39 and 40.
Actual.-The shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld to its
face. See Figs. 39 and 40.
Throat of a Groove Weld: See preferred term Size of Weld.
Throat Opening: See preferred term Horn Spacing.
TIG Welding: See preferred term Gas Tungsten-Arc Welding.
Tinning: See preferred term Precoating.
Tip Skid: See preferred term Electrode Skid.
Toe Crack: A crack in the base metal occurring at the toe of a weld. See
Fig. 62.
Toe of Weld: The junction between the face of a weld and the base metal.
See Fig. 35.
Torch: See preferred terms Welding Torch or Cutting Torch.
Torch Brazing (TB): A brazing process in which the heat required is fur-
nished by a gas flame.
Torch Soldering (TS): A soldering process in which the heat required is
furnished by a gas flame.
Torch Tip: See preferred terms Welding Tip or Cutting Tip.
Transverse Resistance-Seam Welding: The making of a resistance-seam
weld in a direction essentially at right angles to the throat depth of a
resistance-seam welding machine.
Tungsten Electrode: See Electrode.
Twin-Carbon Arc Brazing (TCAB): A term of limited use, no longer of
with an electric arc maintained between two carbon electrodes
and by using a nonferrous filler metal, having a melting point
above 800°F (427°C) but below that of the base metals. The filler
metal is distributed in the joint by capillary attraction.
Twin-Carbon Arc Welding (TCAW): A term of limited use, no longer of
ing with an electric arc maintained between two carbon electrodes
and no shielding is used. Pressure is not used and filler metal may
or may not be used.
Terms and Definitions j 53
u
Ultrasonic Coupler: Elements through which ultrasonic vibration is trans-
mitted from the transducer to the tip.
Ultrasonic Soldering: A soldering method in which high frequency vibratory
energy is transmitted through molten solder to remove undesirable sur-
face films and thereby promote wetting of the base metal. This opera-
tion is usually accomplished without a flux.
Ultrasonic Souotrode: The element of the ultrasonic machine through
which the vibratory energy and pressure are applied directly to the
work.
Ultrasonic Welding (USW): A solid state welding process wherein coales-
cence is produced by the local application of high frequency vibratory
energy as the work parts are held together under pressure.
Ultra-Speed Welding: See preferred term Commutator-Controlled Weld-
ing.
Underbead Crack: A crack in the heat-affected zone generally not extend-
ing to the surface of the base metal. See Fig. 63.
Undercut: A groove melted into the base metal adjacent to the toe or root
of a weld and left unfilled by weld metal. See Fig. 50.
Underfill: A depression on the face of weld or root surface extending below
the surface of the adjacent base metal. See Fig. 75.
Unipolarity Operation: A mode of operation of a resistance-welding ma-
chine in which succeeding welds are made with pulses of the same
polarity.
Unshielded Carbon Arc Welding: A term of limited use, no longer of
A carbon-arc welding process wherein no shielding medium is
used.
Unshielded Metal Arc Welding: A term of limited use, no longer of
A metal arc welding process wherein no shielding medium is used.
Upset: The localized increase in volume in the region of a weld, resulting

from the application of pressure.
Upset Butt Welding: See preferred term Upset Welding.
Upset Weld: A weld made by upset welding. See Fig. 17A.

54/ Appendix
Upset Welding (UW): A resistance-welding process wherein coalescence is

produced, simultaneously over the entire area of abutting surfaces or
progressively along a joint, by the heat obtained from resistance to
electric current through the area of contact of those surfaces. Pressure
is applied before heating is started and is maintained throughout the
heating period.
Upsetting Force: The force exerted at the welding surfaces during upsetting.
Upsetting Time: The time during upsetting.
Upslope Time: The time during which the welding current continuously
increases from the beginning of welding current. See Figs. 65 and 66.
v
Vacuum Brazing: A term erroneously used to denote various brazing proc-
esses which take place in a chamber or retort below atmospheric pres-
sure under such conditions that sufficient flow of the brazing-filler metal
results to accomplish the required joint.
Vertical Position: The position of welding wherein the axis of the weld is
approximately vertical. See Figs. 1, 2 and 3.
Vertical Position:
Pipe Welding.-The position of a pipe joint wherein welding is per-
formed in the horizontal position and the pipe may or may not be
rotated. See Figs. 1 and 4.
Voltage Regulator: An automatic electrical control device for maintaining
a constant voltage supply to the primary of a welding transformer.
w
Wandering Block Sequence: A block sequence wherein successive blocks
are completed at random after several starting blocks have been com-
pleted.
Wandering Sequence: A longitudinal sequence wherein the weld bead
increments are deposited at random.
Wax Pattern: Wax molded around the parts to be welded by a thermit
welding process, to the form desired for the completed weld.
Weave Bead: A type of weld bead made with transverse oscillation. See
Fig. 61.
Weld: A localized coalescence of metal wherein coalescence is produced

either by heating to suitable temperatures, with or without the applica-
tion of pressure, or by the application of pressure alone, and with or
without the use of filler metal. The filler metal either has a melting point
approximately the same as the base metals or has a melting point below
that of the base metals but above 800°F (427°C).
Weld Bead: A weld deposit resulting from a pass. See Stringer Bead and
Weave Bead. See Fig. 44.
Weld Crack: A crack in weld metal.
Weld-Delay Time: The time by which the beginning of resistance welding
current is delayed with respect to the initiation of the forge-delay timer
in order to synchronize the forging force with welding current flow. See
Fig. 64.
Weld Gage: A device designed for checking the shape and size of welds.
Weld-Heat Time: The time from the beginning of welding current to the
beginning of postheat time in resistance welding. See Figs. 64, 65 and
66.
Weld Interval: The total of all heat and cool times when making one
multiple-impulse weld in resistance welding. See Figs. 64 and 65.
Weld Interval Timer: A device which controls heat and cool times and
weld interval when making multiple-impulse welds singly or simultane-
ously in resistance welding.
Weld Length: See preferred term, Effective Length of Weld.
Weld Line: See preferred term Bond Line.
Weld Metal: That portion of a weld which has been melted during welding.
Weld Metal Area: The area of the weld metal as measured on the cross-
section of a weld. See Fig. 51.
Weld Penetration: See preferred terms Joint Penetration and Root
Penetration.
Weld Size: See preferred term Size of Weld.
Weld Time: The time that welding current is applied to the work in making
a weld by single-impulse welding or flash welding. See Figs. 64, 65, 66.
Weld Timer: A device which controls only the weld time in resistance
welding.
56 I Appendix
Weldability: The capacity of a metal to be welded under the tabrication

conditions imposed into a specific, suitably designed structure and to
perform satisfactorily in the intended service.
Welder: One who is capable of performing a manual or semiautomatic
welding operation. (Sometimes erroneously used to denote a welding
machine.)
Welder Certification: Certification in writing that a welder has produced
welds meeting prescribed standards.
Welder Qualification: The demonstration of a welder's ability to produce
welds meeting prescribed standards.
Welder Registration: The act of registering a welder certification or a
photostatic copy.
Welding (Noun): The metal joining process used in making welds.
(See the Master Chart of Welding Processes.)
Welding Current: The current in the welding circuit during the making of
a weld. In resistance welding, the current used during a preweld or post-
weld interval is excluded. See Figs. 64, 65 and 66.
Welding Cycle: The complete series of events involved in the making of a

weld. See Figs. 64, 65 and 66.
Welding Electrode: See preferred term Electrode.
Welding Force: See preferred term Electrode Force and Platen Force.
Welding Generator: A generator used for supplying current for welding.
Welding Goggles: Goggles with tinted lenses, used during welding, brazing
or oxygen cutting, which protect the eyes from harmful radiation and
flying particles.
Welding Ground: See preferred term Work Connection.
Welding Leads: The work lead and electrode lead of an arc-welding cir-
cuit. See Figs. 42 and 43.
Welding Machine: Equipment used to perform the welding operation. For
example, spot-welding machine, arc-welding machine, seam-welding
machine, etc.
Welding Operator: One who operates machine or automatic welding equip-
ment.
Welding Pressure: The pressure exerted during the welding operation on
the parts being welded. (See also Electrode Force and Platen Force.)
Welding Procedure: The detailed methods and practices including all joint
welding procedures involved in the production of a weldment. See
Joint Welding Procedure.
Welding Process: A metal-joining process wherein coalescence is produced
by heating to suitable temperatures, with or without the application of
pressure or by the application of pressure alone, and with or without
the use of filler metal.
(See the Master Chart of Welding Processes.)
Welding Rod: A form of filler metal used for welding or brazing wherein
the filler metal does not conduct the electrical current.
Welding Sequence: The order of making the welds in a weldment.
Welding Technique: The details of a welding operation which, within the
limitations of the prescribed joint welding procedure, are controlled by
the welder or welding operator.
Welding Tip: A welding torch tip designed for welding.
Welding Torch: A device used in gas welding or torch brazing for mixing
and controlling the flow of gases.
Welding Transformer: A transformer used for supplying current for weld-
ing.
Welding Wheel: See preferred term Electrode.
Welding Wire: See preferred terms Electrode and Welding Rod.
Weldment: An assembly whose component parts are joined by welding.
Weldor: See preferred term Welder.
Wetting: The bonding or spreading of a liquid filler metal or flux on a solid
base metal.
Wiped Joint: A joint made with solder having a wide melting range in
which the heat is supplied by the molten solder poured onto the joint.
The solder is manipulated with a hand-held cloth or paddle so as to
obtain the required size and contour.
Work Angle: The angle that the electrode makes with a line perpendicular
to the weld axis at the point of welding, taken in a transverse plane.
See Fig. 45.
Work Coil: The inductor used when welding, brazing or soldering with
induction heating equipment.
Work Connection: The connection of the work lead to the work. See Figs.
42 and 43.
Work Lead: The electric conductor between the source of arc-welding cur-
rent and the work. See Figs. 42 and 43.
58 I Appendix
TAB~LATION ~~ P&~IT~ONS
F GROOV W LD
POSITION DIAGRAM INCLINATION ROTATION
REFERENCE OF AXIS OF FACE
FLAT A o• TO 15• 1so•To 210•
eo•ro1so•
HORIZONTAL a o• To 1s•
210•T0 28D-
o• TO eo•
OV£RH£AD c o• To eo•
zeo•To3&o•
D 1s•ro eo• ao•Tozao•
VERTICAL
£ eo•ro so• o-To3so•
-- --- --
NOTES:
1. The horizontal reference plane is taken to lie always below the weld under consideration.
2. Inclination of axis is measured from the horizontal reference plane toward the vertical.
3. Angle of rotation of face is determined by a line perpendicular to the theoretical face of
the weld and which passes through the axis of the weld. The reference position (0°) of
rotation of the face invariably points in the direction apposite to that in which the axis
angle increases. The angle of rotation of the face af weld is measured in a clockwise
direction from this reference position (0°) when looking at point P.
Fig. 1-Positions of Welds-Part 1

TABULATION OF P,~SITIONS
OF FILLET W LDS
POSITION DIAGRAM INCLINATION ROTATION
REFERENCE OF AXIS OF FACE
FLAT A o• TO 15° 150" TO 210"
HORIZONTAL 8 o• To as• 125"TO 150"
210" T0235"
OVERHEAD c o• To eo•
o• TO 12s•
235"T0360"
D 15"TO eo• 125° TO 235"
VERTICAL
E eO"TO 90° o• TO 360"
--- -- :::::J
-- I
--- -- -- --
-- --
... ... ...
... .................
4. FOR GROOVE WELDS IN PIPE THE FOLLOWING DEFINITIONS SHALL APPLY:

Horizontal Fixed Position: When the axis of the pipe does not deviate by more than 30°
from the horizontal plane and the pipe is not rotated during welding.
Horizontal Rolled Position: When the axis of the pipe does not deviate by more than 30"
from the horizontal plane, the pipe is rotated during welding, and the weld metal is
deposited within an arc not to exceed 15° on either side of a vertical plane passing
through the axis of the pipe.
Vertical Position. When the axis of the pipe does not deviate by more than 1o• from the
vertical position. (The pipe may or may not be rotated during welding.)*
*Positions in which the axis of the pipe deviates by more than 10' and less than 60' from the
vertical shall be considered intermediate.
Fig. 1-Positions of Welds-Part 2

60 I Appendix
FLAT POSITION
r=-~o~-W£L7
~~--~-l
:
~-.-
__ __.J
- ~-, ,.
l.. •• J..-.----
..______,, : ___J
-...!.--··
HORIZONTAL POSITION HORIZONTAL POSITION
LL.-~ -.l..J
I
VERTICAL POSITION
OVERHEAD POSITION OVERHEAD POSITION.
Fig. 2-Positions of Welding Fig. 3-Positions of Welding

for Groove Welds for Fillet Welds
HORIZONTAl.. FIX£0 POSITION (P!Pl STATIONARY DUIUMI W[LOINI)

HORIZONTAL ROLLED POSITION (PIPE ROTATU DUftiMG WELDING}
''
YE~TICAl POSITION
Fig. 4-Positions of Pipe During Welding
Fig. 5-Backhand Welding Fig. 6-Forehand Welding

62 I Appendix
WELDING OTHER SIDE----~
WELD-~--"
Fig. 8-Back Welds
Fig. 9-Backstep Sequence
Fig. 10-Block Sequence
~-- ---~~r::__-:...~.....J
0
Fig. 11-Buildup Sequence
Fig. 12-Cascade Sequence

~--~:;::;
~-~----:-:::.:::..----·.
--_;....-
SQUARE-GROOVE WELD
---
re::::
:
-~-~
-
__ ___._.........
SINGLE-BEVEL- GROOVE WELD DOUBLE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD
,.c:".
:
.____
~-~ ----J.....--"'""
SINGLE-VEE-GROOVE WELD DOUBLE-VEE-GROOVE WELD
SINGLE- J·GROOVE WELD
SINGLE·U·GROOVE WELD DOUBLE·U-GROOVE WELD
SINGLE -FLARE-BEVEL-GROOVE WELD DOUBLE-FLARE-BEVEL GROOVE WELD
SINGLE· FLARE-VEE-GROOVE WELD DOUBLE-FLARE-VEE GROOVE WELD
Fig. 13-Types of Groove Welds

64 I Appe ndix
~~----::>
--> ~-- ~ ~->
"''•-r-·· ---------- ___. "' '• - - - - - - - - - - -
._..
"-l.- ---
Fig. 14-Sur facing Welds
'~
'"""-- . -
..:::: --·-- -
1-.... . .-~
'·-
----
. .~-
------::::::- ::----
~- ...........
-- J.--._:;.,
--
"" ' -·-... '------
·-
. -. . . :·y--- -- ---- --- _.:
. '
-~;0:
"-L-- ---
Fig. 16-Sio t Welds
Fig. 17-Fia sh Weld Fig. 17a-U pset Weld
Fig. 18-Sea m Weld
A-A
:.--=.:·-~
,,., 1:
A-A
__ '. ,_'_j
\
I I
Fig. 19-Spot Weld
A-A
'
''
'\\ --
~--
Fig. 20'-Corner-Fionge Weld Fig. 21-Edge-Fionge Weld

66 I Appendix
,--\\)1--1
L--~--_J
........
...
r:.~
' .•
w
Fig. 22-Melt-Thru
L~--~
c~~X~ ' L _ _____ j
Fig. 24-Double-Welded Joint
Fig. 25-Single-Welded Joint

APPLICABLE WELDS
Square-Groove Flare-Y-Groove
¥-Groove Flare-Bevel-Groove
Beve 1-Groove Edge-Flange
U-Groove Flash
J-Groove Upset
(A) BUTT JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
Fillet Flare-Bevel-Groove
Square-Groove Edit-Flange
V-Groove Corner-Fiuge
Bevel-Groove Spot
U-Groove Projection
!-Groove Seam
Flare-V-Groove Flash
(B) CORNER JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
Fillet FIare-Bevel-Groove
Pluc Spot
Slot Projection
Square-Groove Se1111
Bevel-Groove Flash
J-Groove
TEE JOINT
APPLICABLE WELDS
Fillet J-Groove
Pluc Flare-Bevel-Groove
Slot Spot
Bevel-Groove Projection
se...
(0) LAP JOINT
::::::,I
I APPLICABLE WELDS
I
I Pluc J-Groove
I Slot Edle-Fiaqe
Square-Groave corner-Fiaqe
I Bevel-Groove Spot
,----.J
,.. V-Groove Projection
U-Groove se...
JOINT
(E) EDGE JOINT
Fig. 23-Types of Joints

68 I Appendix
GROOVE
\
ANGLE~ BEVEL ANGLE
~--
1 \ r----,
-1!- __ _ j:
I \
I \ /
~---~L
I
GROOV;ooT OPENING
r --
\ANGLE~
~~--\ ~BEVEL ANGLE r··;~

J
10 ; · BE GROOVE
OPENI~~-·
r- ~ ---!___,
: \ --, ROOT ANGLE
L \ : 1 •• A.m
--- __ _ j
Fig. 26-B I GROOVE RADIUS - ...Jj
eve Angle G
. --
' reave An g Ie, Groove Rod"IUs and Root 0 pentng
__:-::::::_:::::.:::-;::::h
~:::::-:-
!! ::
..
l.j__:. __________ _j
I
GROOVE FACE
r-r:-=------ ----r~
I i : :
I
l.j_;:: _____.J
ROOT EDGES
F'9· 2 7-Groov e Face ' Roat Face an d Root Edge

r-·· : · ·--(i~~~-----,
I
:---
t.____
LINE
-.m~ 1----''- ----,

----'
.--
I
L--
(FUSION ZONES INDICATED BY CROSS-HATCHING)
BOND Ll NE
------,:
-----1
Fig. 28-Bond line and Fusion Zone
DEPTH OF FUSION
MEASURED NORMAL
TO THE ORIGINAL
BASE METAL SUR-
FACE ---------=~-
---,
---
I I
·--
1
---c:;~-"'--- I
L - . . _ _,..,______ _J
I
Fig. 29-Depth of Fusion

70 I Appendix
-- r---,
,--:;z_--;
L__
•
__ .
[- _j
I
l : h----,
-~ ~-- __ L__ lL__ i
.-----,
I
I
ALL ORIGINAL
JOINT SURFACES,
r-1
PASSES AND
LAYERS FUSED
.--~
•L---.- _ _ _ __.
I I
Fig. 30-Complete Fusion
ALL ORIGINAL
JOINT SURFACES,
PASSES AND
LAYERS HAVE NOT
BEEN FUSED
Fig. 31-lncomplete Fusion

ROOT .JOINT
r-·- --,
P£NET2.[PENETRATION
'
.___
. -- __,J
.'
r·
ROOT PENETRATION
L~_j_
--NJ:~
~~~PENETRATION
WIT
L.. ____j
r··
.JOINT PENETRATIO~
' L •,..
.., ROOT
P£NETRATION
L.. - __ _j
I
JOINT
P£NfTRATION
JOINT PENETRATION
Fig. 32-Root Penetration and Joint Penetration of Groove Welds
,---
: I t ..
--,
:
L---~
r -- ---fii=:=;...L ----,
,--- ----, I
I
L._ ___.....J_.......:...
I I
L--------~~~~-r------~
Joint Penetration
Fig. 33-Complete Joint Penetration Fig. 34-Partial Joint Penetration

7 2 /A P P e n d ix
ELo
F IL L E T W
ROOTS URFACE
ELD
GROOVE W
T d
Fig, 3 5 -F e, Root S ac e a n d o e of W el
ac ur f
==-=,
--
rr=-- --
-- --
(
--
~ ~.
1 •
- ~
I
:
I
;
f~ -- __ _ _ _i
t=L - -
Fi g. 3 7 -C h a•.n In te r mJt
. tent F ill W el d 'Jng
et
-=- ====
!. -- =-=-= =
..
F'' 9 · 36- B o x·•ng
t ter . '
Fig. 3 8 -S a g g e re d In m Jt te nt F e t W el d Jng
ill
THEORETICAL
AND ACTUAL
THROAT
CONCAVITY
Fig. 39-Concave Fillet Weld
ACTUAL
THROAT
THEORETICAL
THROAT
Fig. 40-Convex Fillet Weld
Fig. 41-Drag and Kerf

74 I Appendix
GROUND
CONNECTION
WORK LEAD .-------~--......jlt•
~============~====~E) NEGATIVE
D.C.
WELDING
MACHINE
ELECTRODE LEAD
Fig. 42-Reverse Polarity
GROUND
CONNECTION
WORK LEAD ..---------+--- 111•

~============~====~~POSITIVE
D.C.
WELDING
MACHINE
ELECTRODE LEAD
Fig. 43-Straight Polarity
,--
BEAbS WELD
1
I
L--~~ I I
I...-- --....J
Fig. 44-Weld Beads and Layers
WORK LEAD
ANGLE ANGLE
PROGRESS OF WELD
PROGRESS OF WELD
INTO PAGE
Fig. 45-Leod Angle and Work Angle
FLAME AS SEEN WITHOUT WELDER'S GOGGLES FLAME AS SEEN WITH WELDER'S GOGGLES
Fig. 46-Neutral Flame

Shown for Oxyacetylene Flame
Fig. 47-0xidizing Flame (Excess Oxygen)

Shown far Oxyacetylene Flame
Fig. 48-Reducing Flame (Excess Gas)

Shown for Oxyacetylene Flame
Fig. 49-Nugget Size
r--,
I
I
I
r··k,: UNDERCUT ,
t1 OVERLAP
: __.-OVERLAP- -
I: __ .,.-- ~.
r--•·
:__ ________ _j L.J
I
Fig. 50-Undercut and Overlap

76 I Appendix
FACE
.---
.---y_-···
L__
·~: ~L
- -
__ J
, L_ __
1:-:·"''''l- HEAT-AFFECTED
ZONE
~-WELD METAL AREA
Fig. 51-Heat-Affected Zone and
Weld Metal Area
Fig. 52-Reinforcement of Weld
rr::::::-- - ;;.~
lJ--------
------
! :
rc·· . : ,~ ·-
.·-~·~~ ~
\. ·-""' ··y-·· __ __.-~
:
--~------
r:-.;:---- -·---~
o I ·
l~
~----1
r ,-------- _j
l ·-l---0 ------·
Fig. 53-Root of Joint

Terms and Definitions j 77
ROOT OF WELD
--l
r--~.,. I
! -; :
~ WEL~=*--__;,
: # .. I
L_ ____: __ _j ROOT OF
!/'"" 0> " ' "
c-~
Fig. 54-Root of Weld
r--~---,
: r:
L----- - - ' - - - --J
:
SIZE= a
.·--~--,
I
'-- --
.
=r--
.
'"y•"
____J
I
SIZE...f
SIZE~SIZE
,--
I
'• ,' ""l I
L___ ' ~ __ _j
r-----l.rn,
.i -r-V ~
SIZE ::J --' ~j
Fig. 55-Size of Groove Welds

SIZE ::: a BY lr
Fig. 56-Size of Fillet Welds
Fig. 57-Size of Flange Weld

78 I Appendix
~PATH OF WELDING CURRENT
" I ELECTRODES
I I
Fig. 58-Series Welding Fig. 59-Spacer Strip
Fig. 60-Stringer Bead Fig. 61-Weave Bead
.----Mh
r-·---,
I I
I I
---
CRACKS
__ __.)
Fig. 62-Tae Cracks Fig. 63-Underbead Cracks

t WELDING PROCESS
TIMES
WELDING CURRENT
ELECTRODE FORCE
SOlENOID VALVE COIL

VOLTAGE
TINER
TIMER
INITIATED
FOOTNOTES'
• Machine operating time.
t Welding process "times" d1Her from timer "time'" due to machine operatint; time.
Fig. 64a-Simple Welding Cycle (Repeat)
WELDING
PROCESS
TIMES
WELDING
CURRENT
ELECTRODE
FORCE s~--~---r------t-----~~----~----~~----T-
SOLENOlD ~
VALVE ;::::
VOLTAGE ~~~~Af~~tR~~~tR~~~~tAJb~~Af~~tA~~~~~Af~fV~----~~t-
a:
FORGE w
~~~~~OlD ___ ~ri------~~~Af~{~----~~------j:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~=o~j:~~O EZE

~~L b~G~C :::: SQUEEZE PRECOM ~rw;
PRESSIO>I PREC M PRE HEAT
TIMER FUNCTIONS PRESSI
AND TIMES TIME I. HEAT
:: •MACHINE OPERATING TIME 2.COOL
:::c AC FORGE SOLENOID VOLTAGE SHOWN
NOTE-When weld delay is required, it occurs before the start of weld time; forge delay time then will be initiated at the beginning of weld delay time, Both pteh~t
and weld delay are not used in the u.me sequence,
Fig. 64b-Complex Welding Cycle (Multiple-Impulse)

(PULSE) ! o + - - - - - WELD 00
,.,. WELD TIME 0
..........
~
~ ~
::s
~
~·
UPSLOPE DOWNSLOPE HEAT TIME

TIME
TIME TIME
WELD-HEAT TIME POST HEAT (c)-frequency Converter

(Multiple-Impulse or Resistance-Seam Welding)
TIME
(a)-Electronic frequency Converter

('12 Cycle Operation)
or
Metallic Rectifier Control
CJ
1_HEAT
!IME_
l COOL _1 '-1 a
(d)-frequency Converter
(V. Cycle Resistance-Seam or Multiple-Impulse)
(b)-frequency Converter
(full Cycle Operation)
Pulses may be same as in (a) fig. 65
WELDIHG
-
CURRENT
POST HEn
INITIAL CURRENT
CURRENT
t
1-+---WELD·HEAT T I M E - - - - - 4 4 - - - POSTHEAT TIME
! - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - W E L D TIME ----------.. l
(a)-Resistance-Spot Weld with Slope Control
WELDING
CURRENT
INITIAL _ _L - - - - - ,
CURREMT
...- ...-
UPSLOPE TIME --1 ~ DO!:f:~~OPEi

!+----WELD INTERVAL HEAT TIME-+-POSTH HT TIME
~--------- WELD I N T E R V A L - - - - - - - - - - - - - t
(b)-Multiple-Impulse Weld with Slope Control
Fig. 66
82 I Appendix
Fig. 67-Scarf Joints
CONTACT ELECTROD7 CONTACT

TUBE~ It("' TUBE----.
Fig. 68-Short Circuiting Transfer Fig. 69-Spray Transfer
CONTACT ELECTRODE
TUBE---
A._,
A.J SECTION A-A
Fig. 70-Giobular Transfer Fig. 71-Coil with Support

SPOOLED
SECTION A-A
Fig. 72-Spool
CIRCULAR COILED
CHANNEL
Fig. 73-Rim
SECTION A-A
,--Q,' --,
L__ ; __ _j
\_CONCAVE ROOT SURFACE
Fig. 74-Concave Root Surface
___ j
Fig. 75-Underfill
INDEX
A gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13, 25.22,

25.49
Abrasion gases for, 23.47
resistance to, 22.19 spot welding, 26.59-63
Absorption stud welding, 30.13
paraffin, 29.63 thermal conductivity of, 26.18
Acceleration, 23.28, 26.10, 27.3, 27.42, visual inspection of, 30.16
27.45 wires, 23.29-30
Accessibility, 23.54 Aluminum alloys, 23.6, 23.14, 23.60
Accessories, 25.50-51, 29.15-16 26.45, 26.54, 27.26, 29.69
Acetylene, 29.13, 29.15 age-hardenable, 28.58-59
Actinic effect, 23.62 electrodes, 23.33
Adhesion, 29.3, 29.12, 29.17, 29.19 gas shielded-arc welding, 23.16
Aerospace industry, 23.4, 27.47, 29.67-68, gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13
29.71, 30.32 gases for, 23.47
Air spot welding, 26.59-63
compressed, 29.14, 29.27 Aluminum oxide, 29.8
Air locks, 28.10 Ammeters, 23.21, 25.5, 27.17
Alignment, 24.31, 24.32, 26.9, 26.50, Anchoring, 29.4, 29.19
27.9-10, 27.31, 28.36, 28.45, 30.15 Angle
electrode, 26.47 delay, 28.52, 28.57
stud, 30.7 deviation, 27.34-35
Alloys electrode, 24.31-32, '26.29-30
fusible, 29.23-25, 29.59-60 included, 23.54, 27.34
Group 1, 29.23-24, 29.26, 29.29-30, lead, 22.24, 24.32
29.53 obtuse, 24.31
Group 2, 29.23-25, 29.29-30, 29.53-54 of displacement, 26.47
Group 3, 29.23-25 of impingement, 29.4
in fluxes, 24.20-21, 24.42 of inclination, 24.30
loss of, 23.45 power factor, 28.50-51
nickel, 29.23-24 work, 22.24-25
refractory, 28.29-30 Annealing, 26.17, 26.22, 27.30
self-fluxing, 29.23 Appearance, 22.14, 22.15, 22.20, 22.23,
special, 28.27 23.55, 27.5, 27.11, 28.15, 28.38,
Alternating current, 22.4, 23.4, 23.6-8, 29.27, 29.29, 29.47, 29.58-59, 30.25,
23.10, 23.14, 23.18, 23.35, 24.7, 30.31
'24.12, 24.13, 25.3, 25.12, 25.17, Arc blow, 22.21, 22.24, 23.18, 23.21,
25.31, 25.49, 26.5-6, 27.39, 27.33, 24.7-8, 24.9, 24.13, 24.25, 24.32
28.53 (See also Power sources) avoiding, 22.21
direction change, 25.17, 25.50 Arc column, 23.28
high-frequency, safety, 23.62 Arc energy
power sources, 22.9, 22.21-22 determining, 23.3
steady, 23.33 Arc gap, 23.39, 25.17
variations in, 25.33-34, 26.48 Arc length, 22.6, 22.7, 22.24, 22.25, 23.6,
Alternators, 25.12 23.8-10, 23.21, 23.35-38, 23.49-51,
design, 25.12 25.4, 25.51-52, 30.15
single-phase, 27.32 control of, 22.24, 24.14, 25.45
Alumina, 29.70-71 increase in, 23.49
Aluminum, 23.6, 23.48, 24.14, 26.42, percussion welding, 27.47
26.43, 26.54, 29.9, 29.51, 29.66, spot welding, 23.55-56
29.69, 30.27, 30.29 variation, 24.23, 25.25
electrodes for, 26.17 Arc plasma, 23.21, 23.28
filler wire, 23.28 Arc radiation, 23.61-62
gas shielded-arc welding, 23.16 Arc shield (See Ferrule)
2/ Index
Arc starters, 27.30, 27.42, 27.44 23.47, 23.50, 23.54
nib type, 27.40, 27.48 Armatures, 25.23, 25.39
Arc stream, 22.4, 24.12 Arms
Arc stud welding welding machine (See Horns)
applications, 30.22-23 Army, Navy & Maritime Commission,
designing, 30.4-5 30.23
duty cycle, 30.20 ASME
energy requirements, 30.10 Boiler & Pressure Vessel Code, 30.22
equipment, 30.3-4, 30.16-17 ASTM
cost of, 30.3 specifications, 22.12, 23.16-17
inspection, 30.14-16 Aspiration, 23.19, 23.53
metallurgical aspects, 30.1 0-14 Atomization, 29.3, 29.4, 29.14, 29.18-19,
power sources, 30.20-22 29.41-43, 29.45
process selection, 30.33 Austenite, 28.59, 30.12
weld cycle, 30.3, 30.11 Autotransformers, 28.68
Arc welding Auxiliaries (See Controls)
series, 24.9-10 AWS
Arcing, 28.54, 30.24, 30.25 specifications, 22.12, 23.10, 23.16-17,
Arcs, 23.2, 23.3, 24.2, 29.2, 29.30 24.2, 24.19-22, 24.32, 28.35, 29.4,
a-c, 24.13-14, 25.4 29.10, 29.18, 29.51
characteristics of, 23.42
d-e, 24.13-14 B
distribution of, 27.40
heat of, 22.3 Backup, 23.21, 23.27, 24.14, 24.32, 27.10,
intensification, 25.53 27.19, 27.22, 30.13
multiple, 24.9-14 copper, 24.37
shielding of, 22.4-5 flux, 24.37-38
short-circuiting, 23.54 mandrel, 27.36
spray-type, 23.29, 23.54 methods of, 24.34-38
stabilizing, 23.4, 23.6, 23.10, 23.39-40, steel, 24.33
23.45, 23.47, 23.49, 23.53, 25.4, weld metal, 24.33-35
25.17, 25.33, 25.49, 25.50-51, 25.53, Baking, 29.78
30.5, 30.13 Ballast, 25.44
factors affecting, 25.7-8 Bars
films, 23.27 flash welding, 27.21
starting, 22.3, 22.8, 23.4, 23.8, 23.12- upset butt welding, 27.28
13, 23.20, 23.38-39, 23.53, 24.3, Base metals, 22.19, 22.21
24.25, 24.36, 25.49-50, 25.38, 25.53, coating, 29.23-30
26.10, 27.44, 28.75 dilution, 24.42
methods of, 23.23-25, 23.58, 24.15- gas metal arc-welding, 23.60-61
16 gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.26-27
percussion welding, 27.39 porous, 29.8
retract, 23.58, 24.14-15 submerged arc welding, 24.4
variables, 27.48 Battery units, 30.21
wandering, 23.39 Bead shape, 22.15, 22.16, 22.23, 22.24,
Argon, 23.6, 23.8, 23.12, 23.13, 23.15, 24.5, 24.13, 24.14, 24.26, 24.32,
23.33, 23.39, 23.40, 23.42-45, 23.50, 24.39
23.54, 29.32-33, 29.39 "hat," 24.24-25
advantages of, 23.12, 23.47 uneven, 24.25
globular transfer in, 23.31 Bead size, 24.38-39
Argon-carbon dioxide, 23.43-46, 23.50, Bead welding, 29.4
23.54 Bend test, 30.16, 30.30-31
Argon-helium, 23.6, 23.13, 23.15, 23.50, Bending, 27.12
23.54, 23.42-45 Beryllium
advantages of, 23.47 fumes, 23.62
Argon-hydrogen, 23.13 Beveling, 27.9
Argon-oxygen, 23.33, 23.40, 23.43-46, Blasting, 26.22, 29.2, 29.4, 29.7
Index I3
equipment, 29.11 29.26 metallurgical aspects, 30.28-30
grit, 29.11-13, 29.26-27 principles, 30.24-25
Blow out, 23.39, 27.5, 27.7, 27.31 process selection, 30.33
Bond electrodes, 29.4 power sources, 30.32
Bonding, 29.37, 29.46 quality control, 30.30
electric, 29.4, 29.6-9, 29.12 studs, 30.26-27
fluxes, 24.20 welding guns, 30.26-27
mechanical, 29.3, 29.19 Capacitor discharge welding, 27.40
molybdenum spray, 29.6, 29.8-9 Capacitor discharge percussion welding,
oxide-to-oxide, 29.3 27.44-46
Booms, 23.60 Capacitors, 25.19, 26.6, 27.42, 28.74,
Boosters, 28.11 28.75, 30.28, 30.31
Borax portable, 27.44-45
solution of, 26.35 series-connected, 23.8, 28.68-69
Boron trioxide, 29.4 shunt, 28.69
Brass, 26.43, 27.26, 29.70, 30.27, 30.29 storage, 25.53
Brazing, 26.55, 29.67 Caps
Bridges air, 29.16, 29.20
copper, 27.9 Carbide precipitation, 22.19-20
Bridging, 22.21, 27.4, 27.9 (See alsu Carbon dioxide, 23.41, 23.43-46, 23.49,
Shorting) 23.50, 23.54, 29.4
Bronze, 29.9, 29.66, 29.70 advantages, 23.46-47
gas shielded-arc welding of, 23.17 cost, 23.41
Brushing, wire, 29.66 disadvantages of, 23.45-46
Build-up, 24.31, 25.21, 29.12, 29.32 globular transfer in, 23.31-32
Burnback, 23.36 Carbon monoxide, 23.56
Burning, 24.33, 26.10, 27.17, 27.35-36 Carbon tetrachloride, 23.62
control of, 26.29 Carriages, 23.26, 23.59
Burn-off, 22.24, 27.40, 27.47, 23.30, Casting, 28.27
23.58, 29.47-48, 30.9 Cavitation, 26.49
Burn-through, 24.22, 24.34, 30.12-14, Cellulose, 22.14-15
30.5, 30.28 Center punch, 30.6
Bus system, 28.84-85 Ceramics, 29.21-22
Butt welds, 22.23 deposition, 29.2
finishing, 29.54-57
c melting ranges, 29.3, 29.21
reactive, 29.4
Cables, 22.2-3, 22.10, 22.11, 24.9, 28.11, Characteristics
28.13, 30.4 arc, of gases, 23.42
length, 30.21 dynamic, 25.7-8, 25.27, 25.33
selection of, 25.11 electrical, 25.18-20, 25.32-33, 25.24-
severing, 28.45 27, 25.37, 25.42
size, 22.11, 28.86, 30.21 electrode feed, 23.36, 23.38
Cadmium, 29.14, 29.17-18, 29.64, 29.69 magnetic, 25.16
fumes, 23.62 metal transfer, 23.43
Cam, 27.12-13, 28.7 power source, 23.38, 25.8
flashing, 28.47 static, 25.7-8, 25.24, 25.27, 25.43
speed, 27.4 transient-voltage recovery, 25.17
Capacitor discharge stud welding, 30.24- volt-ampere, 23.35-37, 23.51-53, 25.3,
33 25.6-9, 25.27
advantages, 30.25-27 Chilling, 24.34, 27.5 (See also Backup)
applications, 30.32-33 Chipping, 22.26, 23.54, 29.47
drawn arc, 30.26, 30.29 Chubb, L. W., 27.38
electrical characteristics, 30.24-25 Circuits
energy requirements, 30.28 d-e, 25.42
equipment, 30.26-27, 30.31-32 electrical, 26.2
initial gap, 30.26 generator, 25.26, 25.30
4 I Index
leveling, 28.77 control, 25.16
magnetic, 25.52 "Cold laps," 23.53, 23.55, 23.56
multiple-operator power sources, 25.44 Collapse, 26.39, 26.41, 26.43
primary, 28.2 Collaring, 29.5, 29.11
rectifier, 25.34-35 Collets, 23.11, 23.14, 23.22
resistance welding, 28.2 Columbium, 29.61, 29.70
secondary, 25.6, 26.11-12, 28.2, 28.68 Conductivity, 26.14, 26.18
shielded metal-arc welding, 22.2-3 electrical, 26.25, 28.27
welding current, 24.8-9 of gases, 29.31
Cladding, 24.9 parallel, 26.1 0
removal of, 26.21 power supply, 28.82
Clamping, 24.8, 26.31, 27.10-11, 27.42 thermal, 23.42-43, 26.19, 26.25, 26.54-
force, 26.8, 27.17-18 55,28.27
mechanisms, 28.48-49 Configurations, 29.7
Clamps, 22.2-3, 22.10, 30.4 Connections, 25.52
annealing, 27.30 closed delta, 24.13, 25.33, 25.46-47
Cleaning, 22.16, 23.3-4, 23.12, 23.14, open delta, 24.8, 24.13, 25.33
23.48, 23.53-54, 23.56, 26.20-22, Scott, 24.8, 24.13, 25.33, 25.46-47
29.7, 29.11-12, 29.37 (See also Ox- series, 24.41
ide films, removal of) Vee, 25.33
Clearance Wye, 25.33
electrode, 26.49 Contact
Clevis, 26.40 current, 23.37-38
Clothing electrode-to-jaw, 22.9
protective, 22.10-11, 23.61-62, 29.18, relay, 28.52
29.40 Contactors, 24.16, 25.42-43, 25.45, 28.49-
Clogging, 23.32 50,29.33
Coalescence, 22.2, 23.2, 23.47, 24.2, electronic, 27.13, 28.45, 28.49-50,
26.2-3, 27.2, 27.24, 27.38, 30.2 28.52-57
Coatings, 26.46 (See also Stock, coated) ignitron, 28.50-54, 28.57, 28.60, 28.63,
electrode, 23.33, 23.35, 23.48 (See also 28.70, 28.78
Coverings) magnetic, 27.13, 27.26, 27.31, 28.45,
Coatings (sprayed), 29.2 28.49, 28.54-55, 28.61, 28.63, 28.67
applications, 29.64-71 classification of, 28.55
appearance, 29.58 primary, 25.20, 28.11
bond strengths, 29.68-71 thyratron, 28.50-54, 28.60
characteristics, 29.4 tube-firing, 28.52
determining density, 29.62-63 Contamination, 23.41, 23.48, 23.61, 24.5,
fused, 29.53-54 29.12
fused metallized, 29.23 Contour
fusible alloy, 29.59-60 bead, 23.47
insulation, 29.67 Controls, 28.3 (See also Weld timers)
metallized, 29.52-58 adaptive, 26.52-53
microstructure, 29.58-60 arc length, 24.14
post treatment, 29.48-49, 29.51-2 arc voltage, 24.14, 25.54
preparation for, 29.13 auxiliary, 28.50, 28.56-64
properties, 29.58-64 bench welding machine, 28.60
refractory, 29.66 combination (NEMA), 28.66-67
rod, pmpose of, 29.22-23 current, 25.27, 25.33-35, 25.43-44,
selection of materials, 29.21-25 28.59, 28.79, 30.31
structure, 29.3, 29.17, 29.22 drag, 29.41-43
tests, 29.61 electrical, 25.33-34, 28.11, 28.45-46
thickness, 29.13, 29.16 electrode voltage, 28.61-63
Cobalt electronic, 25.51
alloys, 29.23-25 flash welding, 27.13, 28.49-56, 28.63
Cohesion, 29.3, 29.62 forge delay, 28.49, 28.64, 28.66
Coils, 25,12-13 gas, 23.25
Index/ 5
gas metal-arc spot welding, 23.58-59 28.34, 28.35, 28.79, 29.47, 29.56,
gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.21-26 30.3
generators, 25.39 Counter bores
load distribution, 28.60-61 dimension of, 30.9-10
mechanical, 25.33-34 Countersinks
module, 25.44 dimensions of, 30.9-l 0
NEMA, 26.4-5, 28.63-65 Coverings
phase-shift (See Heat control) electrode, 22.2-4
programmed, 23.19, 23.21 function of, 22.3
quench and temper, 28.59, 28.64, 28 66 Cracking, 22.17, 22.18-20, 23.54, 23.58,
reactor, 25.16, 25.21, 25.33-34 23.61, 24.31, 26.20, 26.47, 27.6,
remote, 25.27-28, 25.35, 25.54 27.7, 27.12, 28.38, 28.59, 29.17,
resistor, 25.33-35 29.23, 29.26, 29.52, 26.29
rheostat, 25.38 Craters, 22.15, 22.24, 27.4, 27.7, 29.17
semiautomatic, 23.58 Crevices, 30.13
sequencing, 23.23, 26.45-46 Cross wire welding, 26.37 (See also
series, 25.27 Projection welding)
shunt, 25.13-15, 25.27, 25.33-34 Crowning, 23.51
slope, 25.7, 26.4-7, 27.58-59, 28.58-S9, Cupping, 27.12
28.64, 28.66 Current density, 23.21, 23.27, 23.33,
solid state, 25.39 24.26, 25.51, 26.9, 26.17, 26.41,
stud welding, 30.18-19 27.35, 28.62, 29.31
submerged arc welding, 25.45-46 low, 23.28
synchronous precision, 26.54, 28.56 variations on, 26.14
transformer, 25.20-21 Current distribution, 26.14, 26.24, 26.27-
upset butt welding, 27.26, 28.49-56 28, 26.36, 26.51
volt-ampere characteristics, 25.8-9 Current flow, 23.18, 25.45, 25.50, 26.6-7,
wire, 29.41 26.12, 27.28
Cooling, 24.35, 27.11, 28.25-26, 28.37-38, balanced, 23.8, 25.51
28.65, 29.36 Current paths
external, 26.35 parallel, 26.3 6
flood, 26.20, 26.35, 26.44, 29.54 Current ranges
immersion, 26.35 gas metal-arc welding, 23.33-34
mist, 26.35 gas tungsten-arc welding electrodes,
rate of, 22.24, 23.21 23.7
water, 23.25 submerged arc welding, 24.16
Copper, 23.12, 23.61, 26.19, 26.43, 26.54- Current surges, 25.43
55, 27.26, 29.69 load circuit, 25.34
backup, 24.35 short-circuit, 23.39, 25.26
fumes, 23.62, 24.17 Currents, 22.16, 22.23, 26.2, 26.4-6 (See
gas shielded-arc welding of, 23.16 also Pulses, Waves)
gas tungsten-arc welding of, 23.13 arc stud welding, 30.10
gases for, 23.47 arc welding, 22.5
Copper alloys, 23.12, 23.61, 26.17, 26.34, -carrying capacity, factors affecting,
26.45, 26.54, 29.8 23.11
electrodes, 26.49 conduction of, 26.9
gas shielded-arc welding of, 23.16 constant, 26.12
conversion, 28.71-73
gas tungsten-arc welding of, 23.13
direction change, 25.38
gases for, 23.47
excitation, 25.23, 25.26
Corrosion resistance, 22.19, 23.45, 26.17, flashing, 27.4, 27.18
26.46, 27.12, 29.16-17, 29.49, 29.64- force diagrams, 28.70, 28.73, 28.76-78
66,29.64 high-frequency, 23.15
Cost, 22.17, 22.20, 22.24, 23.8, 23.10, interrupted, 26.29
23.12, 23.27, 23.54, 24.13, 24.32, localization of, 26.35, 27.4
25.2, 25.51, 26.21-22, 26.30, 26.35, measurement of, 27.18, 28.86-87
26.49, 27.47-48, 28.2-3, 28.8, 28.12, output, 25.21, 28.56
6/ Index
parameters affecting, 22.25, 30.21-22 insufficient, 23.51
projection welding, 26.40 rate, 22.4-5, 22.14, 22.18, 22.21, 22.24,
pulsing, 23.6, 23.19-20, 23.29, 23.56, 23.18, 23.52, 23.54-55, 24.5-7, 24.26,
25.3 24.30, 24.42-43, 29.5, 29.14, 29.19,
gas metal-arc welding, 23.33 29.20, 29.38, 29.46
peak, 23.34 Design
postheat, 28.49, 28.58 alternators, 25.12
rms, 23.35, 28.57, 28.58 arc stud welding, 30.4-5
rectified, 23.8, 26.5 capacitor discharge stud welding,
seam welding, 26.33 30.24-27
shielded metal-arc welding, 22.21-22 dies, 26.51, 26.86
short-circuiting, 23.8, 23.36, 25.13 electrodes, 27.11, 28.26, 28.31-34
shunt, 25.15, 26.23, 26.36, 26.51, flash welding, 27.7-12
28.14 generators, 25.16-17, 25.23, 25.27,
spot welding, 23.55 25.38-39, 25.41-43
superimposition, 27.39 joint, 23.4-5, 23.54
-time diagrams, 26.7, 30.10-11, multiple-transformer machines, 28.16
30.28-29 percussion welding, 27.40-43
transient, 28.51-52 plasma torches, 29.31-32
transition, 23.30-31, 23.32, 23.34, projection welding, 26.37, 26.51, 26.84,
23.35, 23.49 26.86 .
upsetting, 27.7 punch and die, 26.86
upset butt welding, 27.26-28 spot welding, 26.24-25
upset tube welding, 27.33 transformers, 25.33-35
varying, 22.25, 25.24 Detonation, 29.3
welding parameters, 23.39, 24.23-25, Detonation gun spraying, 29.48-50
25.49, 25.52, 26.3, 28.4, 28.72 Dew point, 29.33
zero, 25.17-18,25.33 Diagrams
Curves current-force, 28.70, 28.73, 28.76-78
bumoff, 23.30 · current-time, 30.11, 30.29
E-I (See Curves, volt-ampere) Diamond
volt-ampere, 22.6-7, 23.8-9, 23.36-37, grinding wheels, 29.57
25.4, 25.7, 25.13, 25.14-16, 25.24-27, paste, 29.54
25.27-29, 25.30, 25.36-38, 25.40, Die shoes, 27.31, 27.32
25.41-43,25.51-52 Dies, 27.31, 28.15 (See also Electrodes)
Cutting, 22.26, 25.22 care, 28.39-40
Cycle counter, 27.17 contact, 27.7
Cylinders, 27.39, 27.42, 27.43, 28.6-8, design, 26.51, 26.86
28.10, 28.13, 28.18, 28.47, 28.75 flash, upset and percussion welding,
28.39-40
D locating, 27.7
Diodes
D/t ratio, 27.35 selenium, 25.34
Damming, 23.59, 24.27, 24.38 silicon, 25.34, 26.6
Decarburization, 29.37 Direct current, 22.21, 22.24, 23.4, 23.7,
Deflection, 26.11, 26.47, 26.49-50, 28.45 23.15, 23.53, 24.7, 24.42, 25.3, 25.31,
Deformations, 27.7, 28.31, 28.35-36, 26.6, 26.29, 26.31, 27.39, 27.41-42
29.22 power sources, 22.8, 30.20
resistance to, 28.27, 28.29, 28.30 pulsed, 23.6, 23.19-20, 23.27, 23.33-34
torsional, 26.47 steady, 23.6, 23.31, 23.33
Degreasers, 23.62, 29.7, 29.11-12 Displacement, 25.31, 25.47, 26.47
vapor, 23.4, 26.21 Dissimilar metals
Deoxidation, 22.3, 22.4, 23.40, 23.45, welding, 23.13, 26.35, 26.43-44, 26.55
23.48, 23.53, 23.56, 24.20, 28.46, Dissociation, 29.3
30.5 Distance
efficiency, 29.2, 29.5, 29.28, 29.32, contact-to-work, 23.37-38, 24.14
29.38-39 spraying, 29.17, 29.33
Index /7
Distortion, 23.6, 23.47, 24.27, 24.32, access, 23.54
26.17, 26.44, 30.5 alignment, 28.36
prevention of, 29.8 aluminum-alloy, 23.33
Dragging, 22.17, 22.19, 23.57, 24.32 angle, 22.24-25, 23.21, 24.32-33, 26.15
control of, 29.41·43 bar, 26.32
Drive units, 28.18-24, 28.38 bond, 29.4
Drop transfer (See Metal transfer) bum-off curves, 23.30
Dovetailing, 29.5, 29.10-11 cap-and-shank, 28.34
Ductility, 23.55, 26.46, 26.53, 27.30, 29.3 carbon, 22.12-14, 25.22
Dust, 29.17, 29.47 classification of, 22.12, 24.18
Duty cycle, 22.9, 25.9-11, 25.19, 25.21, AISI, 24.19-20
25.39, 25.31, 25.36, 25.43, 25.54, ASTM, 23.16-17
26.11-12, 28.25, 28.54, 28.68, 28.82, AWS, 23.16-17, 24.19-20
29.35 military, 23.10-17
arc stud welding, 30.20 RWMA, 26.42, 28.26-30
finding, 25.10 clearance, 26.49
coated, 23.33, 23.35, 23.48
E cold-formed, 28.26
cooling of, 26.21, 28.33-34, 28.36-38,
Ears 29.31
protection of, 29.18, 29.40 copper alloy, 26.49
Edge core wire, 22.19
distance, 26.48-49 cost, 23.10, 23.45
geometry, 27.34 covered, 22.3-4
locating devices, 23.21 cellulose, 22.14-15
preparation, 23.54 lime, 22.17-20
Edges, 27.37 (See also Cold lap) mineral, 22.16-17
Efficiency titania, 22.15, 22.17
deposition, 29.5, 29.28, 29.32, 29.38-39 design, 27.11, 28.31-34
electrical, 25.18 diameter, 22.12, 22.20, 23.52, 23.55,
joint, 27.12 26.25
Elasticity dressing, 26.27, 26.47, 27.8, 28.35
modulus of, 29.50 drives, 26.28
Electric arc spraying, 29.40-48 embedding, 26.15, 26.26, 29.8
advantages, 29.45-48 extension, 23.23, 23.32, 23.51-52,
appearance, 29.47 23.56, 24.26, 27.16
cost, 29.47 extmded, 22.4
deposition rates, 29.45-56 face, 28.32, 28.37
equipment, 29.40-43, 29.47 feed characteristic, 23.36-38
finishing, 29.47 feeders, 23.57-58
operating principles, 29.43-45 force, 26.3, 27.35
power sources, 29.43-45 gas metal-arc welding, 23.46-48, 23.52,
safety, 29.47-48 23.55
Electrical characteristics, 24.8, 25.18-20, gas shielded-arc welding, 23.16-17
28.65-79 gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.10-11,
capacitor discharge stud welding, 25.53
30.24-25 hard surfacing, 22.19, 22.21
gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.5-10 iron powder, 22.4, 22.16-17, 22.18,
resistance welding, 28.3 22.24
spot welding machines, 26.11 iow-alloy, 22.12-14
Electrical shock, 23.62, 25.12 low-hydrogen, 22.17-18,22.21,24.35
Electrode holders, 22.9-10, 23.14, 28.11, magnesium, 23.33
28.13 maintenance, 26.35, 25.50-51, 27.34-35,
gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.22 28.36-37
positioning, 23.4 manipulation of, 23.55
resistance welding, 28.26-42 materials, 26.43, 28.26-30
Electrodes, 23.2-3, 27.48 melt-off, 24.14, 24.16
8/ Index
melting rate, 23.34-35, 23.46, 24.26, capacitor stored, 27.39
25.25, 25.38 electrochemically stored, 28.75, 28.79
motion of, 28.5 electromagnetic storage, 27.39, 28.75-
mushrooming, 26.14, 28.62 78
nickel-alloy, 24.19-20, 29.12 electrostatically stored, 28.7 5-78
nonferrous, 22.21 flashing, 27.7
pickup, 26.20, 26.49 fusion, 23.51
position, 24.32-34, 24.40-41 inductive storage, 23.34, 27.39
projection welding, 26.41-42, 28.36-38 input, 23.51, 25.18, 25.25, 25.30, 27.4
rate of wear, 23.13, 26.17, 26.30, 26.34, no-load, 25.30
26.35, 26.47, 29.32 output, 25.18, 25.20-21
storage, 27.39, 28.75-79, 30.2, 30.34
recessed, 26.42
Entrapment, 23.39
resistance welding, 26.17-18, 28.26-40 Epoxies, 29.51
functions of, 26.8-9 Equipment
selection, 28.30-36 arc-stud welding, 30.3-4
retraction, 26.3, 26.8 auxiliary, 25.20-21, 27.13
rotating circular, 26.2-3, 26.28, 26.32 blasting, 29.11, 29.26
seam welding, 26.34, 28.37-38 capacitor discharge stud welding,
settings, 28.5 30.31-32
shape, 23.11, 26.9, 26.18, 26.25, 26.34, ceramic rod flame spraying, 29.19-20
26.46, 28.18 detonation gun spraying, 29.48-50
shielded metal-arc welding, 22.5, electric arc spraying, 29.40-43
22.11-20 electrogas welding, 23.59-60
special, 22.19-20, 28.26 flame spraying, 29.28
spot welding, 23.55, 26.8-9, 26.17-18, flash welding, 27.12-13
26.25, 26.28, 28.31 gas metal-arc welding, 23.4, 23.57-60
stainless steel, 22.19, 22.21, 23.33 gas tungsten arc welding, 23.3, 23.14,
steel, 22.13-14, 22.22, 23.48 23.19, 25.21
stubbing, 23.37 grinding, 29.54-57
submerged arc welding, 24.25, 24.32- inspection, 29.30
34 multiple-operator, 25.43-44
tapered, 23.11, 23.28, 26.49, 26.54 percussion welding, 27.42-46, 28.74-79
tips, 23.11, 23.21, 25.38, 26.50 plasma spraying, 29.34-35
tolerances, 28.34 resistance welding (See Chapter 28)
semiautomatic welding, 24.29
tungsten, 23.11, 29.31
shielded metal-arc welding, 22.2-3,
Electrogas welding 22.9-11
equipment, 23.59-60 spot welding, 23.58-59
gas shielding, 23.59 stud welding, 30.2-3, 30.16-23
power sources, 25.53-54 submerged arc welding, 24.16-18
Electromagnets, 23.11, 25.17, 27.39, upset butt welding, 27.26-28
27.42, 28.54, 28.75, 29.31, 29.43 upset tube welding, 27.32
Electroslag welding, 25.43 wire-metallizing, 29.14-15
power sources, 25.53-54 Etching, 23.48, 29.7
Embossments. 26.3, 26.10, 26.35, 26.37 Excitation, 23.16, 25.26-27
shunt-field, 25.39-41
Embrittlement, 22.3, 23.27, 23.61, 26.45,
Exfoliation, 29.17
26.54-55,28.59, 29.17. 30.12
Expansion
End-to-end welding. 27.28 coefficient of, 29.23, 29.37, 29.50,
Ends 29.65
preparation, 27.9-10, 27.19, 27.31, Expulsion, 26.17, 23.53, 26.25, 26.32,
27.40-41 26.49
Energy Extrusion, 26.38, 27.5, 27.23, 27.34-35
arc, 23.3 Eye-burn, 22.10
arc stud welding, 30.10 protection from, 23.61-62, 24.3, 29.18,
capacitor discharge stud welding, 30.28 29.30-31, 29.40
Index J 9
F Flash welding, 26.3, 28.40, 28.45-50
applications, 27.19-20, 27.23-24
FCC, 23.24-25 bars, 27.21
Failure, 26.47, 29.23, 30.7 controls, 27.13, 28.49-56
bond, 29.12 cycle, 27.2-3
electrode, 23.11 dies, 28.39-40
Fatigue, 29.8, 30.10 electrode design, 27.11
Paying surfaces, 26.2, 27.40, 27.42 equipment, 27.12-13
Feedback, 25.52-53- 28.59 loading, 28.82-84
Feldspar, 29.13 materials, 27.23-24
Ferrule, 30.2, 30.10, 30.14 metallurgical aspects, 27.23-24
Filler metals, 22.3 recommended practices, 27.13-22
choice of, 23.13-14; 23.16-17 schedules, 27.19-22
feeding, 23.5 variables, 27.13, 27.16-17
gas tungsten arc welding, 23.13-18 Flashing, 24.26, 27.2-4, 27.7, 27.9-10,
Filler materials 27.13, 27.16, 27.19, 27.40, 27.48
plasma spraying, 29.34 control of, 26.29
Filler wires mechanisms, 28.46-48
aluminum, 23.28 Flash
feeding, 23.25 rate of, 27.3-4, 27.17-18
Fillet welds, 21.13-17, 22.23 removal of, 27.5, 27.11, 27.47, 28.39
formation of, 30.9, 30.15 Flicker, 28.80-81
Films Flint, 29.8
mechanical, chemical, 26.20-21 Flux (magnetic), 25.14, 26.18, 30.5
oxide, 23.6, 29.3, 29.14 Fluxes, 24.15, 24.18, 24.20•21, 24.26
Filters, 29.14 alloy, 24.42
Finishing, 29.30 backup, 24.36
ceramic coatings, 29.54-57 bonded, 24.20
electric arc spraying, 29.4 7 fused, 24.20
fused coatings, 29.53-54 recovery, 24.27, 24.42
improving, 29.54 storage, 24.42
matte, 29.30, 29.54, 29.58 support, 24.36 (See also Damming)
nonprecision, 29.57 types, 24.26-27
plasma sprayed coatings, 29.57 width and depth, 24.26-27
precision, 29.56-57 Flow
sprayed metals, 29.52-58 electron, 23.6
Firing gas, 23.13, 23.42, 23.53-54, 23.58-59,
simultaneous, 28.84-85 29.32
Fitup, 22.13-15, 22.23, 24.32, 24.36, gas-ion, 23.6
26.33 plastic, 27.5
Fixtures, 23.20-21, 23.49, 24.8, 24.27-29, rates of, 29.35
26 35-36, 28.25, 28.48-49 Flowmeters, 23.21, 23.22, 23.25, 23.58-
artificial, 23.56 59, 29.14, 29.32, 29.35
backup, 23.27 Follow-up, 25.53, 26.10-11, 27.42, 28.8
iron-man, 28.24-25 Forces
locating, 30.6, 30.18 clamping, 26.1, 26.20, 27.10, 27.18,
projection welding, 26.41-42 27.42
Flame spraying definitions, 27.17 (See also Appendix)
appearance of coatings, 29.::!9 electrode, 26.3, 26.52
applications, 29.27-28 electromagnetic, 23.28, 23.31, 23.32,
ceramic rod, 29.18-23, 29.26-27 29.31
equipment, 29.28 magnetic, 25.13, 25.14, 27.40
finishing, 29.30 platen, 27.18
safety, 29.30-31 projection welding, 26.41
thickness, 29.28 spot welding, 26.25
Flange welds, 21.30-31 upset, 27.2, 27.4-5, 27.7, 27.9, 27.18
Flash-through, 24.25 variables, 27.48
10 I Index
welding, 27.39-40, 27.42, 28.4, 28.10, booms, 23.60

28.11, 28.13, 28.75, 28.88 current ranges, 23.33-34
calculation of, 27.18, 28.5-7, 28.87 electrodes, 23.46-48, 23.55
Forging, 26.9, 26.26, 27.5, 28.43-44 equipment, 23.4, 23.56-60
Forms metal transfer, 23.29-31
free-standing, 29.52, 29.67 metallurgical aspects, 23.61
Freezing, 23.36, 23.51, 24.3, 24.14, 24.38, operating principles, 23.27-29
27.3, 27.7, 27.38, 27.42 welding position, 23.51
Frequency changers, 26.5 power sources, 23.35-37
Friction, 27.18 process variables, 23.29-48
coefficient of, 27.10 safety, 23.61-62
Fumes, 24.3, 23.62, 29.17-18,29.47 shielding gases, 23.41
Fusion, 22.15, 22.20, 22.22, 22.25 23.35, Gas tungsten arc welding, 23.2, 23.27
23.6, 23.56, 24.4, 26.9, 26.20, 29.3, a-c transformers, 25.22
30.24 applications, 23.14
lack of, 23.18-19, 23.53 automatic, 23.5
sprayed deposit, 29.28-30 auxiliaries, 23.23-25
surface, 26.9 base metals, 23.27, 26.27
temperature, 27.4, 29.24-25 controls, 23.21-26
current, 23.14-15
G electrode holders, 25.53
electrodes, 23.10-11, 25.53
Gages equipment, 23.3, 23.14, 23.19
deflection,28.87 filler metals, 23.13-18
strain, 28.87-88 joints, 23.5
thickness, 29.16 manual, 23.4-5, 23.12
Galling operating principles, 23.3-5
prevention of, 29.65, 29.67 positions, 23.19-20
Gaps, 23.6, 23.54, 24.32 power source, 23.14-15, 25.49-53
Garnet, 29.8 process variables, 23.5-10
Gas programmed, 23.21
backup, 23.15 Generators, 22.8
mixing units, 23.58 combination, 25.40-41
mixtures, 23.12, 23.41 constant-voltage, 25.36-41
pockets, 26.15 d-e, constant current, 25.23-31
production, 23.53 design, 25.23, 25.27, 25.38-39, 25.41
supply, 29.32-33 drives, 25.29-32
Gases high-frequency, 25.54
arc characteristics of, 23.42 homopolar, 26.6
compressed, 23.12 NEMA ratings (See NEMA)
conductivity, 29.31 self-excited, 25.29
cooling, 29.36 types, 25.23
fuel, 29.13-14, 29.17 Geometry
inert, 23.11-14, 23.27, 23.41 edge, 27.34
monatomic, 29.32-33 Gold, 27.26
oxidizing, 23.45 Governors, 23.25
oxy-fuel, 29.29 Gouging, 22.16, 22.26, 25.22
polyatomic, 23.45, 29.32-33 Grains
reactive, 23.12-13, 23.41 (See also columnar, 29.59
particular gas) size, 27.43
Gas metal-arc welding, 23.2, 23.27-60 structure, 22.3, 26.7
appearance, 23.49 Gravity, 23.51, 24.31, 27.39, 27.42
applications, 23.48-51 Grinding, 22.26, 23.54, 26.22, 29.7
arc voltages, 23.50 diamond, 29.57
auxiliaries, 23.60 dry, 29.52-53
base metals, 23.60-61 metallized coatings, 29.52-58
Index I 11
wet, 29.53-54 Helium, 23.6, 23.8, 23.13, 23.15, 23.21,

wheels, 29.54-57 23.42-45, 23.50, 23.54, 29.32-33,
Grit 30.14
iron, 29.8, 29.11 advantages,23.47
Grounding, 24.30 globular transfer, 23.31
Groove welds, 21.25-28 Helmets, 23.61-62, 29.30
Guns, 23.57, 28.13, 28.16 (See also Hold time, 26.8, 26.20, 26.28, 28.55-56,
Equipment, Pistols) 28.60, 28.63
detonation, 29.48-49 Honing, 29.30
electric arc spraying 29.47 Horizontal position, 22.13, 22.19
flame spraying, 29.20 Horns, 28.4-5, 28.6-9
metallizing, 29.2, 29.14 Horsepower
plasma spray, 29.35-36 ratings, 25.30-31
Hose, 28.11
H Hydrogen, 23.12-13, 23.41, 24.13, 29.33
Hang-up, 30.15
Hard-surfacing, 23.3, 29.53
Hardening, 26.45, 26.53, 27.12, 26.17 I
Hardness Ignitrons (See Contactors)
Brinell, 29.60-61 Immersion
coating, 29.60-61 water, 29.63
Knoop, 29.60-61 toluene, 29.63
Rockwell, 29.24-25, 29.26, 29.70-71 Impact, 27.12
Vickers, 29.50, 29.60-61, 29.65 Impact resistance, 22.19, 30.10
Headshields, 22.10 Impedance, 25.46, 25.52, 26.13, 26.33,
Heat, 24.4, 24.26, 27.31, 29.13 (See also 27.36-38, 28.11, 28.59, 28.68, 28.77,
Energy) 28.78, 28.81
balance, 26.9, 26.18-19, 26.25-27, secondary, 26.14, 26.16
26.35, 26.38, 27.8-10, 27.41 varying, 25.33-34
artificial, 26.26 Impingement, 29.22
dissimilar alloys, 26.26 angle of, 29.4
factors affecting, 43.44 Impregnation
control, 23.27, 28.50, 28.52, 28.57-58 vacuum, 29.51
(See also Phase-shift) Inclusion, 23.56, 27.5, 27.7, 27.12
dissipation, 26.9, 26.19-20 (See also Inconel, 23.17, 23.61, 29.13
Heat losses) annealed, seam welding, 25.82
generation, 26.2, 26.10, 26.12-19 spot welding, 26.72
factors affecting, 26.14 Inconel X
gradients, 26.14-15 seam welding, 26.83
input, 22.24, 23.41, 23.45, 23.47, 26.15 spot welding, 26.73-75
insufficient, 27.6 Indentors, 29.61
losses, 26.14, 26.16, 27.35-36 (See also Inductance, 23.34, 23.46, 25.15, 25.27,
Heat dissipation) 26.68
output, 28.56 mutual, 25.9
radiation, 23.49, 29.30 series, 25.42
Heat of vaporization, 23.26, 26.10 variable, 25.8, 25.42
Heat shrinkage, 26.26-27 Inertia, 27.18
Heat sinks, 23.54-55 Inspection
Heat transfer, 26.16, 26.20 flash welds, 27.12
Heat treatment, 26.17, 26.45, 27.6, 28.27, magnetic particle, 27.12
28.29 mechanical, 30.16, 30.31
Heating percussion welding, 27.42-43
electrical resistance (J2R),23.11, 23.18, submerged arc welding, 24.27
23.52, 26.10, 26.14, 27.28-29, 27.33, upset butt welding, 27.30
30.3 visual, 27.12, 30.14-16, 30.30
12 I Index
Insulation, 25.11, 27.41, 28.68 ratings, NEMA, 25.19, 28.54-55,

Interrupters 28.83-84
synchronous-precision, 26.29 ultimate tensile, 30.8, 30.27
Intersections, 26.3 voltage, 25.21, 27.17-18
Ionization, 22.4, 23.3, 24.3, 24.16, 25.7, formula, 25.21
25.53, 27.39, 29.31, 29.35, 29.43 Loading, 25.19
Irritants, 23.62 flash welding, 28.84
Iron fluctuating, 28.80
cast, 22.19, 27.23, 29.9 kva, 28.65
powder electrodes, 22.4, 22.14, 22.16, misapplied, 26.47
22.16-18, 22.24 projection welding, 28.84
wrought, 26.18 proofs, 27.12
seam welding, 28.84
shear, 26.46
J spot welding, 28.84
transient conditions, 25.25-27
Jarno tapers, 28.32 Localization, 26.3, 26.35, 27.4
Jets, 29.15, 29.31-32 Locators, 26.9, 26.31, 26.42-43, 26.51
Jigging, 26.45 Loop
Joints square hysteresis, 25.52
butt, 24.31
design, 23.54
efficiency, 27.12 M
gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.5
lap, 26.29-30 Machine elements
preparation, 29.10-12, 29.27
preparation, 22.26, 27.26 (See also
Machining, 23.54, 26.35, 27.5, 27.11,
particular methods)
29.53, 30.3 (See also Finishing, and
properties, 26.49-50
strength, 27.11 particular methods)
symbols (See Chapter 21) Magnesium, 23.6, 23.61, 30.14
Joule's law, 27.28 alloys, gases for, 23.47
electrodes, 23.33
gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13, 25.22
K gases for, 23.4 7
Magnesium alloys, 23.6, 23.61, 26.45,
Killing (See Deoxidation) 26. 54
Krypton, 23.11 gas shielded-arc welding, 23.16
Kva, 27.37-38 gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13
corrective, 25.19 spot welding, 26.64-68
demand, 26.11-12, 28.3, 28.7, 28.58, Magnetic field, 24.12, 25.16, 27.39,
28.68, 28.81-82 28.59, 28.87, 29.31
input, 27.36 Magnetic force, 27.40
Magnetic force percussion welding, 27.46
L Magnetic material, 28.68
Magnetic pinch, 29.31
Lap welding, 24.32 Magnetism, 25.51
Lapping, 29.56-57 Maintenance
Lead, 23.61, 26.54, 29.17-18,29.70 machine element, 29.8
coatings, 29.66 Mandrels, 29.67-68
deposition rates, 29.14 backup, 27.36
fumes, 23.62 Manganese, 23.48
Lenses Marine
gas, 23.23 uses for sprayed coatings, 29.51
welding, 22.10 Martensite, 28.59
Lime structure, 29.59
electrode covering, 22.17-20 transformation to, 26.45
Load Masking, 29.27
control of distribution, 28.60-61 Masks, 29.18
Index I 13
Materials 23-43-45
ceramic, 29.21-22, 29.39 Metallization (See Metallizing~
melting ranges, 29.21 Metallizing, 29.2
coatings, 29.2-3, 29.23 wire, 29.14-18
selection of, 29.23-25 accessories for, 29.15-16
density of, 29.39 equipment for, 29.14-15
exothermic, 29.12-13 (See also self- Metallographic examination, 29.59
bonding) Metallographic tests, 27.43
exothermically reactive, 29.8 Metallurgy
flash welding, 27.23-24 arc stud welding, 30.10-14
plasma spray deposition efficiency, capacitor discharge stud welding,
29.38-39 30.28-30
plasma spray rates for, 29.38 flash welding, 27.23-24
plasma spraying, 29.37-38 gas shielded arc welding, 23.61
self-bonding, 29.12-13 percussion welding, 27.46-67
submerged arc welding, 24.18, 24.18-21 projection welding, 26.45-46, 26.53-55
upset butt welding, 27.26 resistance welding, 26.45
Measurements, 28.86-87 seam welding, 26.45-46, 26.63-66
Mechanical properties, 22.4, 22.13, 22.15, spot welding, 26.18, 26.53-55
22.17, 30.6 Methylacetylene propadiene, 29.13,
Mechanisms 29.19
electro-servo, 28.59 MIG welding (See Gas metal-arc weld-
timing, 28.56 ing)
Melt (See Flux) Microstructure, 26.45
thermal sprayed coatings, 29.58-60
Melting, 26.17, 26.49 Milling, 29.47
rate of, 22.21, 25.4 Mixers
electrodes, 23.34-35, 23.46, 24.26, gas-ratio, 23.25
25.25, 25.38 individual, 25.44
Melt-off Molybdenum, 26.55, 29.8, 29.12-13,
rate, 22.17, 22.23, 23.28, 24.9, 24.16, 29.61, 29.70-71
24,14 spray bonding, 29.6, 29.8-9
Mercury, 28.53 Monel, 23.61, 29.66, 29.70
Mesh size, 29.38 annealed, seam welding, 26.80-81
Metal-gathering, 28.43-44 annealed, spot welding, 26.60, 26.71
Metals gas shielded-arc welding, 23.16, 23.17
bonding, 29.46 Morse tapers, 28.32
composition of, 26.18 Moscow Autogenous Metals Institute,
dissimilar (See Dissimilar metals) 29.40
exothermic, 29.70-71 Motor-generator sets, 22.8-9
low-melting, 29.47 Multiple impulse welding (Pulsation
melting points, 29.3 welding), 26.7
nonferrous, 30.13 Mushrooming, 26.14, 26.17, 26.50, 28.62
rare-earth, 23.33 (See also Deformation)
reactive, 23.27
refractory, 29.38, 29.66, 29.70-71,
N
transfer, 22.19.20, 23.27-29, 23.29,
23.36, 23.51, 23.52, 25.8 NEMA
axially directed, 23.31, 23.49 classification for timers, 28.55-56
characteristics, 23.43 classification for welding controls,
drop, 23.50, 23.38, 23.47 26.4-5, 28.58, 28.60, 28.63-65
globular, 23.31, 23.34, 23.43 power supply ratings, 25.10-11, 25.12,
non-axially directed, 23.31, 23.32-33 25.17-19, 25.21, 25.28-29, 25.36,
rate of, 23.28 25.41, 25.45, 25.48
short circuiting, 23.29, .23.34, 23.43, standards, 25.4, 28.50-51
23.45, 23.47, 23.50 Neon, 23.11
spray-type, 22,21, 23.31, 23.28-29, Nickel, 23.61, 26.55, 29.66, 29.69
14/ Index
gas shielded-arc welding, 23.17 p

gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13
gases for, 23.47 Paralleling, 24.9, 25.29, 25.44, 25.45,
spot welding, 26.69 26.36
Nickel alloys, 23.61, 26.55, 27.26 (See Particles, 29.3
also Monel, Inconel, Inconel X) size of, 29.17
deoxidizers for, 23.48 Path
electrodes, 24.19-20, 29.12 diverter, 25.16
gas shielded arc welding, 23.17 Peening, 26.44-45, 29.26
gas tungsten arc welding, 23.13 Penetration, 22.16, 22.21, 22.24, 22.23-24,
gases for, 23.47 23.11, 23.18-19, 23.19-21, 23.33,
Nitrogen, 23.12-13, 23.15, 23.41, 23.62, 23.41, 23.43, 23.49, 23.51, 23.54,
29.32-33, 29.39, 29.48 24.12, 24.23, 24.25, 24.32, 24.33,
pickup, 22.3 24.41, 26.47, 28.27, 30.28
Noise, 27.48, 29.40 increasing, 23.21
Normalization, 24.4, 28.50 papillary, 23.28
Notch effect, 27.11, 29.8 reduction of, 23.21
Notch toughness, 23.45 shape of, 23.44
Nuts, 26.40, 26.42 (See also Studs) Perchlorethylene, 23.62
Percussion welding, 27.38-49
advantages of, 27.47
0 applications of, 27.46-47
Off-time, 28.55-56, 28.63 capacitor discharge, 27.40-41
seam welding, 26.33 cycle, 27.38
Ordnance, 30.23 design, 27.40-43
Oscillation, 23.18-19, 24.42-43 dies, 28.39-40
Oscillators, 23.26, 23.59, 25.51, 29.33-34 equipment for, 27.42, 27.43-46, 28.74-
high-frequency, 23.4 79
spark-gap, 23.24 inspection and testing, 27.42-43
Oscillographs, 27.17, 28.86-87 limitations of, 27.47-48
Out-of-position welding, 22.7, 22.15, power supplies, 27.38-39
22.21 recommended practices, 27.48
Output Phase shift, 25.17-18
drooping voltage, 25.24 Phase shift heat control, 27.32, 27.43-44,
rated, 22.9, 25.9-11 28.45, 28.57, 28.59-60, 28.61, 28.62,
Overhead welding, 22.5 28.63, 28.66, 28.68, 28.83
Overheating, 23.11, 23.14, 23.21, 26.17, Phenolics, 29.49-52
26.25, 26.47, 26.49, 29.29, 29.36 Phosgene, 23.62
Overlap, 23.49, 26.30-31, 26.49-50, 28.54, Phosphorus, 23.61
29.33 Pickling, 23.48
preventing, 25.44 Pickup, 24.24, 28.25-36, 28.31 (See also
Overvoltage, 28.69 sticking)
Overwelding, 22.20, 24.22 electrode, 26.20, 26.49
Oxidation, 23.19, 23.41, 27.5, 27.7 oxygen, 22.3
reducing, 22.29, 23.45, 30.10 nitrogen, 22.3
resistance to, 29.23, 29.64-66 Pilot arc, 23.4, 30.25
Oxide films, 23.56 Pinch effect, 29.31
rare earth, 24.20, 29.70-71 Pipe, 23.6, 23.19, 26.32
refractory, 23.6 Pistol
removal, 23.14 (See also Cleaning) electric arc ~praying, 29.40-41
Oxyacetylene, 29.19, 29.29, 29.37 Pitting, 26.10, 26.16, 26.17, 28.27
Oxy-fuel systems, 29.13-14 Plasma
Oxy-propane, 29.29 nature of, 29.30-31
Oxygen, 23.33, 23.40-41, 23.43-46, 23.54 Plasma arc
cutting, 22.26 striking, 29.31, 29.33-35
pickup, 22.3 Plasma arc welding
safety, 29.17 power sources, 25.54
Ozone, 23.62 Plasma spray, 29.30-40
Index I 15
coatings, 29.37-38 Power factor, 25.18, 25.30, 26.11, 27.36,
applications, 29.68-71 28.3, 28.50-51, 28.57, 28.79
bond strength, 29.64 correction, 28.68-69
finishing, 29.57 finding, 28.87
controlled atmosphere, 29.37 input, 25.18-19
distance, 29.35 Power requirements
equipment, 29.34-35 spot, seam and projection welding,
filler material, 29.34, 29.37-38 26.11-12
operating system, 29.34-40 Power sources
parameters, 29.39 a-c, 12.21-22, 22.4, 12.6, 12.9, 25.29
power supply, 29.33-34 ac/dc, 22.6, 22.9
rates of, 29.38 arc welding (See Chapter 25)
safety, 29.39-40 arc stud welding, 30.20-22
speed, 29.35-36 capacitor discharge stud welding, 30.32
substrates, 29.37-38 characteristics, 23.8-10, 23.38
temperatures, 29.37 classification of, 25.2-3
torch design, 29.31-32 combination, 25.40-41
Plastic flow, 27.5 applications, 25.41
Plastic range, 26.18 components of, 25.3
Plasticity, 26.9, 26.15, 27.4, 27.8-9, 29.17 constant-current, 22.6, 25.4-25.25
Plastics a-c, 25.12-22
deposition of, 29.4 applications, 25.31
Platens, 27.3, 28.8-9 constant potential, 23.18, 23.25
force, 27.17 constant voltage, 22.6, 24.17, 25.4-5,
motion of, 27.12-13 25.36
projection welding machines, 26.51 cost, 24.13, 25.2, 25.51
Plug welding, 23.56-57 d-e, 22.6, 22.8, 22.21, 25.51, 25.54,
symbols for, 21.17-19 29.33-34, 30.20
Plunge, 30.15, 30.24 drooping-voltage, 23.8, 23.39, 24.17,
control of, 30.17 25.24
dampening, 30.14 electrogas welding, 25.53-54
Polarity, 22.9, 22.16, 22.21, 24.9-13, electronically controlled, 25.51
26.23, 27.41, 30.14 electroslag welding, 25.53-54
reverse, 22.14, 22.18, 23.6, 23.15, 23.43 electrostatic, 27.38
straight, 23.6, 23.15, 23.43 gas metal-arc welding, 23.35-37
Porosity, 23.15, 23.39, 23.40, 23.47, gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.14-15,
23.49, 23.53, 24.25, 24.27, 24.35, 23.22, 25.35, 25.49-53
26.20, 26.29, 26.47-48, 27.5, 29.22, industrial service, 25.19-20, 25.22
29.48, 29.62-63, 30.13 limited service, 25.15, 25.17, 25.19,
estimating, 29.63 25.20, 25.22
prevention of, 23.53-54 maintenance, 25.11
Position, 22.23, 22.24 manual welding, 22.6
flat, 24.31-32 motor-generator, 22.8, 25.23, 29.41,
gas metal-arc welding, 23.51 29.43-45, 30.4
three o'clock, 23.56 NEMA-rated, 25.21, 25.28-29, 25.43
welding (See particular position) percussion welding, 27.38-39
Postheating, 22.17, 27.3, 27.30, 30.12 plasma arc welding, 25.35, 25.54-55
(See also normalizing) plasma spraying, 29.33-34
Post treatment rectifier
sprayed coatings, 29.48-49, 29.51-52 constant-current, 25.31-36
Potentiometers, 25.35, 25.39, 28.19, 28.77 constant-voltage, 25.41-43
Powder, 29.3, 29.34 resistance welding, 28.80-88
injection of, 29.32, 29.36 safety, 25.11-12
mesh size, 29.23 selection of, 25.11
primary kva, 26.18-19 service classifications, 25.9-12, 25.21-22
primary kw, 25.18-19 solid state, 29.41-46
secondary kw, 25.18-19 special (See particular types)
16/ Index
spot welding, 26.11-12 26.53-55

stored energy, 26.6 operating principles, 26.9-10
stud welding, 25.35, 25.47-48 physical effects on materials, 26.44-45
submerged arc welding, 24.5-8, 25.35, schedules, 26.40-42, 26.84-86
25.45-47 time, 26.41
three-phase, 22.8-9, 26.11, 28.3 (See variables, 26.52
also Motor generators) Projection welding machines, 28.9
advantages of, 22.8 electrical characteristics, 26.11
transformer, a-c, 25.13 mechanical characteristics, 26.10-11
Precipitation, 26.45 Projection welds
carbide, 22.19-20 appearance, 26.35, 26.46
Preheat, 22.17, 23.19, 26.7, 23.18, 27.3, quality, 26.50
27.9, 29.36, 30.12-13 Projections, 26.3
Preheating force, 27.17 advantages in using, 26.35
Preheating annular, 26.37
time of, 27.16 formation of, 26.35-57
Preparations ring (See Projections, annular)
for arc sprayed coating, 29.13 size and shape, 26.37-40
for ceramic coatings, 29.13 Propane, 29.14
for ceramic rod spraying, 29.26-27 Properties
of edges, 26.22 for alloys in electrodes, 28.27 (table)
of joints, 27.26 electrical, 27.11
machine element, 29.10-12, 29.27 of flash welds, 27.12
plasma sprayed coatings, 29.13 metallurgical, 27.46-47
projection welding, 26.39 physical, 27.11, 28.27
surface, 26.20-22, 29.7-13 spot, seam and projection welds, 26.46-
Press welding machines, 28.7-10 47
construction of, 28.8-9 thermal sprayed coatings, 29.58-64
Pressure, 26.9, 26.16, 26.17, 26.26, 27.2, Protective devices
27.19, 27.37, 27.38, 30.2, 30.24 (See electrical, 28.85-86
also Force, welding) Prussian blue, 26.51
clamping, 26.27 Pseudo-alloys, 29.47
electrode, 27.35 Puddles
forging, 26.20, 26.47 control of, 23.13, 23.47
measurement of, 28.87 Pull gage, 27.43
upset, 27.31 Pull-out, 29.58
vessels, 22.14 Pulse
welding, 27.28 characteristics, 25.53
Prick-punch, 26.38 form of, 23.34
Primers, 29.51 multiple, 23.21
Production, 30.32 unidirectional, 26.6
accuracy in, 27.8 Pulsed arc welding
increasing, 26.35 power sources, 25.54-55
rate of, 27.23-24, 28.2 Punch design, 26.86
welding, 28.27 Punching, 23.56
weld speed, 23.19-20
Projection welding, 26.2, 26.35-44, 26.37,
26.53-55, 28.83-84 (See also Cross
Q
wire welding, Spot welding) Quality, 23.21, 23.27, 24.4, 24.42, 26.46-
adaptive controls, 26.52-53 50,27.37, 27.41, 27.42-43,29.17
applications, 26.37 control of, 29.39, 30.14, 30.30
current, 26.40 control, spot welding, 26.51-53
design, 26.51, 26.84, 26.86 flash welds, 27.6-7
electrodes, 26.41-42, 28.36-68 spot welds, 26.25
fixturing, 26.41-42 upset butt welds, 27.30-31
force, 26.41 Quench, 28.59
metallurgical aspects of, 26.45-46, Quench-and-temper, 26.7
Index I 17
rate of, 26.19-20, 26.45 current, 26.52, 28.59

techniques, 26.45 gas, 23.25, 23.58-59
voltage, 28.60
Reinforcement, 23.43, 23.44, 23.51,
R 24.27, 27.11
Radiation, 26.14, 29.40 excessive, 24.22
Radio Repair, 29.66-67
interference, 23.24-25, 25.53 Resistance, 23.8, 24.26, 25.18, 26.2, 26.9,
Ratings 26.16, 26.18, 27.2, 27.24, 30.24
circuit breakers, 28.86 contact, 26.8, 26.17, 26.20, 26.22,
current, 27.37-38 27.28-29
electrical, 25.21, 25.42 disadvantages of, 25.9
generators, 25.39 electrical, 23.34, 26.14, 26.53, 26.54,
horsepower, 25.30-31 27.33, 27.43, 28.61-62
nameplate, 26.12 series, 25.3 8
NEMA, 25.28-29, 25.36, 25.41, 25.45, surface, 26.20
25.48 Resistance welding
output, 26.11-12 accessories, 28.56-63
power supply transformer, 28.82-84 controls, 26.52-53, 28.49-56
thermal, 26.11-12 cost, 28.12, 28.16
voltage, 27.37-38 cycle, 28.63, 28.65
Ratio electrical characteristics, 28.3, 28.65-79
D/t, 27.36 electrode holders, 28.26-42
gas-oxygen, 29.14 electrodes, 26.17-18,28.26-40
turns, 25.5 selection of, 26.30-36
width to diameter, 26.46 equipment (See Chapter 28)
width to plate thickness, 26.34 function of electrodes, 26.8-9
Rays heat generation, 26.10
infrared, 22.10 high-frequency, 26.5-6
ultraviolet, 22.10, 22.14 machines, 26.12
Reactance, 23.52-53, 23.56, 25.6, 25.18, metallurgical aspects, 26.18, 26.45
25.43, 26.11, 26.13, 26.16 processes, 26.2
variable, 25.8-9 RWMA
Reactors, 25.6, 25.15, 25.27, 25.35 electrode classifications, 26.42, 28.26·
advantages of, 25.9 31
Rebound, 27.42 tapers, 28.32
Recrystallization, 26.18 Resistivity
Recommended practices (See specific electrical, 26.18-19
category) Resistors, 25.44
Rectifiers, 22.9, 25.34, 26.6, 28.53, 28.72, Retraction
30.21 of electrodes, 26.8
a-c, 25.50 Reverse polarity, 30.13
advantages of, 29.33 Rheostat, 25.20-21, 25.26, 25.27, 25.35,
bridge, 25.44 25.39, 28.79
circuits, 25.34-35 Rigidity, 26.11, 27.11
d-e, 28.71-73 Rings
motor-generator, 29.33 welding, 27.10-11
selenium, 29.33 Ripple, 25.35, 25.53
silicon, 28.57, 29.33 Riveting, 28.43
three-phase, 22.8 Rods, 29.3, 23.15
Reducers filler, 23.5
voltage, 25.12, 25.21 spraying, 29.22
Regulation Roll-resistance spot welding, 26.2, 26.28
electrode voltage, 28.61-63 operating principles, 26.9-10
gas, 29.15 "Roll lap," 23.53
voltage, 30.21 Roll seam welding, 27.33
Regulators Rms (See Currents, rms)
18/ Index
Rotometers (See Flowmeters) quality, 26.44, 26.44-50

Roughening, 29.37, 26.55 schedules, 26.33-37, 26.78-83
groove and rotary, 29.6-9 speed, 25.30, 26.33
Roughness, 23.20, 29.19, 29.58 symbols, 21.23-25
Rupture time, 26.20, 26.33
modulus of, 29.50 types, 26.29-33
Rust width to thickness ratio, 26.34
protection, 29.69 Selenium, 22.18, 25.34, 25.52
Semiconductors, 25.34
s Sensors
thermal, 25.34
SAE Sequencing (See Timing)
classifications Servo-mechanisms, 28.47, 28.59
steels, 27.18-19, 29.23-26 Shaving, 23.48
Safety, 23.8, 25.17, 26.42, 29.17-18, Shearing, 22.26, 26.39, 30.27
30.10 Sheet metal, 22.23, 28.4
electric arc spraying, 29.47-48 flash welding, 27.10-11
factor of, 30.7, 30.27 projections, 26.39
flame spraying, 29.30-31 separation, 26.49
gas metal-arc welding, 23.61-62 surface condition, 26.16
plasma spraying, 29.39-40 Shielding, 23.2, 23.11-14, 27.4-5
power sources, 25.11-12 function, 23.41-42, 23.53
submerged arc welding, 24.3, 24.9 Shields
Salvage, 29.66-77 face, 23.61-62
Sampling, 26.53 Shims, 26.51
Sand, 29.8 Shorting, 24.3, 27.3, 27.9
Sanding, 26.31, 29.7 Shrinkage, 26.44, 29.28, 29.63
Scale, 25.53, 26.22 Shunting, 25.16, 26.14, 26.23, 26.33,
Scavengers, 23.48 (See also Deoxidation) 26.50, 27.10-11, 27.27, 27.37, 28.61,
Schedules 28.87
flash welding, 27.19-22 capacitors, 28.69
projection welding, 26.40-42, 26.84-86 movable, 25.9
pulsation welding, 26.76-77 tube, 28.78
roll-resistance spot welding, 26.28 Shuttles, 28.17-18
seam welding, 26.33-37, 26.78-83 Silicon, 23.48, 25.34
spot welding, 26.24-25, 26.56-75 Silicones, 29.4, 29.51
Schoop, M. U., 29.2, 29.40 Silver, 26.55
Scorching, 23.49 Sintering, 29.4, 29.52
Sealer Skelp, 27.33 (See also Strip)
bituminus aluminum, 29.51 Skidding, 26.11, 26.47
Sealing, 29.49, 29.51 Skin effect, 27.36, 29.8
Seam welding, 24.8, 26.2, 26.28-35 (See Slag, 22.3, 22.10, 22.15, 22.25, 23.40,
also Spot welding) 24.3, 26.18, 27.5
adaptive controls, 26.52-53 crushed, 29.8
appearance, 26.31, 26.44, 26.46 removal of, 22.14, 22.16-17, 22.20,
applications, 26.31, 26.53-55 23.54, 24.24
current, 26.33 Slippage 27.7, 27.10, 27.31, 28.49
effects on materials, 26.44-45 Slope, 23.52-53, 23.56, 25.24-25, 25.27-
electrodes, 26.34, 28.37-38 29, 25.38, 25.42, 27.6
force, 26.33 changes in, 25.38
loading, 28.83-84 formula for, 25.53
metallurgical aspects of, 26.45-46, Slot welds, 21.20-21
26.53-55 Soldering, 29.67
methods, 26.28-29 Solidification, 23.3-4, 26.20
operating principles, 26.9-10 Solvents, 29.7
parallel, 26.29 Spacing, 24.13, 26.50
process variables, 26.52 Spatter, 22.15-16, 23.31, 23.32, 23.46,
Index I 19
23.49, 23.51, 23.53, 23.62, 24.26, bond strengths, 29.9

24.32, 25.8, 25.26, 27.23, 30.14 carbon, 26.45, 27.30, 28.15
Sparking, 23.4, 23.23, 24.16, 29.33-34 gas shielded-arc welding, 23.17
Specifications gas tungsten arc welding, 23.13
Military, 23.16-17 gases for, 23.47
Speeds (See particular category) classifications, 27.18-19, 29.23-26
Spitting, 26.15-16, 26.29, 26.41 current ranges, gas metal arc welding,
Splashing, 26.40-41 23.34
Spot welding, 23.3, 23.13, 23.21, 23.55- deposition rates, 29.14
56, 26.2, 26.22-28 electroplated, 26.55
adaptive controls, 26.52-53 galvanized, 28.20
applications, 26.53-55 heat-treated, 30.12-13
arc length, 26.55-56 high-carbon, 22.14, 30.12
Spot welds high-sulfur, 22.14, 22.18
appearance, 26.46 high-tensile, 22.18-19
circuit, 26.5 killed, 23.40
current, 26.25 low-alloy, 22.14, 23.61, 26.54, 28.27,
cycle, 25.3-4 30.12
design, 23.56, 26.24-25 gas-shielded arc welding, 23.17
effects on materials, 26.44-45 gases for, 23.47
electrodes, 26.17-18, 26.25 low-carbon, 22.18, 26.32, 26.53, 30.6,
equipment, 23.22, 23.58-59, 26.10-11 30.11-12, 30.27
force, 26.25 projection welding, 26.85
limitations, 26.35 pulsation welding, 26.76
loading, 28.83-84 seam welding, 26.78-79
metallurgical aspects of, 26.18, 26.45- spot welding, 26.56-57
46, 26.53-55 medium carbon, 26.57, 30.12
methods, 26.22-24 mild, 28.27, 30.29
operating principles, 26.9-10 rimmed, 23.40
power requirements, 23.55, 26.11-12 SAE, 27.18-19, 29.23-26
process variables, 23.55-56, 26.52 stainless, 23.12, 23.21, 23.45, 26.32,
programmed, 23.21 28.15, 29.66, 29.69, 29.70, 30.12,
quality, 26.25, 26.45-50 30.27, 30.29
symbols, 21.21-23 electrodes for, 26.17
time, 26.25 electrodes of, 22.19, 22.21, 23.33
Spraying (See also particular process) gas shielded-arc welding, 23.17
applications, 29.4, 29.51 gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13
corrosion protection, 29.16 gases for, 23.47
definitions, 29.4-7 (See also Appendix) projection welding, 26.85
distance, 29.17, 29.22 pulsation welding, 26.77
effects on materials, 29.3-4 spot welding, 26.58
flame, 29.2, 29.13-18 thermal conductivity, 26.18
flat surfaces, 29.16-17 strength, 27.22
rate of, 29.19 Stepping down, 28.81, 28.83
rooms, 29.18 Sticking
substrates, 29.17 electrode, 26.10, 28.27, 28.31
thermal, 29.3-4 "Stitch effect," 27.33
Spring-back, 27.16-17 Stock
Springs, 27.39, 27.42 bar, 26.40
Squeeze, 28.60, 28.63 Stocks
forging, 27.30 coated, 26.43, 26.55, 28.20
time, 26.8, 28.55-56 pickled, 26.22
Stampings, 27.26, 26.37 removal, 29.53-54, 29.56
Steels, 27.23, 27.26, 29.70 scaly, 28.27
air-hardenable, 28.50, 28.54, 30.12 Strength, 22.3, 22.20, 24.40, 26.25, 26.46-
alloys, 22.18, 27.11 47,27.11, 27.12, 27.23, 27.43
austenitic, 26.54 base metal, 26.53
20/ Index
bond, 29.8-9, 29.46, 29.50, 29.61, Substrates, 29.3, 29.17,. 28.38, 29.59
29.64, 29.65 preparation, 29.46
cohesive, 29.62 Sulfur, 23.61
compressive, 29.3 Superfinishing, 29.54, 29.57
fatigue, 27.11 Surfaces
fasteners, 30.5 flat, preparation, 29.12-13
forging, 27.19, 27.22 spraying, 29.16
reduction, 26.49 Surfacing, 24.42-43
shear, 23.21, 26.15 Switches, 25.20, 25.32, 25.42, 28.86
tensile, 29.46, 26.49-50, 29.3, 29.61-62 inching, 23.59-60
yield, 23.55, 27.36 limit, 28.43, 28.58
Stress relief, 22.17, 26.45, 27.6, 29.26 on-off, 23.4, 23.22, 23.26
Stressing, 26.46, 27.12 thermostatic, 28.53-54
residual, 26.44-45, 27.6 Symmetry, 26.47
Stringer beads, 23.55
Strips, 26.32
upset butt welding, 27.28 T
upset tube welding, 27.32-34
Structure, 27.12 (See also Microstruc- TIG welding (See Gas tungsten-arc weld·
ture) ing)
dendritic, 24.4-5 Tables
martensitic, 29.59 reciprocating, 29.55
sprayed coatings, 29.3, 29.17, 29.22 rotary, 29.55
submerged arc welds, 25.4-5 Tabs
Stubbing, 23.37 run-off, 24.38
Stud welding (See also Arc stud welcliPg, Tacking, 26.31
Tantalum, 26.55, 29.3, 29.61, 29.70-71
Capacitor discharge stud welding)
equipment, 30.2-3,30.17-19, 30.31 Tape
positioning, 30.14-15 punched (See Controls, programmed)
power supplies, 25.47-48 Tapers, 28.32
Studs, 26.38, 26.40, 29.7, 29.12, 30.56 Taping, 25.32, 27.13, 27.26, 28.84, 28.86
alignment, 30.7 alternatives, 25.5, 25.42
base size, 30.13 switches, 28.2, 28.13, 28.18, 28.45-
location, 30.6-7, 30.26-27 46, 28.58
styles, 30.3, 30.7-10, 30.26-27 Temperatures
uses, 30.3 flame, 29.13
Submerged arc welding, 23.54 fusion, 26.18, 27.4, 29.24-25
appearance, 24.23, 24.26 gradients, 27.5-6
applications, 24.21, 24.44 rates, 26.10
base metals, 24.4 plasma spraying, 29.37
costs, 24.32 Templates, 26.51, 30.6-7
current ranges, 24.16 Tensile torque relationships, 30.7-8,
deposition rates, 24.5-7 30.27
electrodes, 24.25-26 Tests, 30.30-31 (See also Sampling)
equipment, 24.16-18 bend, 27.30, 27.43
flux, 24.26-27 bond strength, 29.64
inspection, 24.27 destructive, 27.12, 27.43
materials, 24.18-21 dye penetrant, 27.30
operating principles, 24.2-5 electrical resistance, 27.43
power sources, 25.22, 25.45-47 flash welds, 27.12
process variables, 24.22-27 macrographic, 27.12
quality, 24.42 mechanical, 27.6, 30.16
safety, 24.3, 24.9 metallographic, 27.30, 27.43
surfacing, 24.41-42 microhardness, 29.61
techniques, 24.27-42 peel, 27.43
types, 24.39-42 percussion welding, 27.42-43
Index/ 21
porosity, 29.63 components, 25.5, 25.9
shear, 27.43 constant-current, 25.33-35
sprayed coatings, 29.61 constant-voltage, 25.15
tensile, 27.6, 27.30, 27.43, 30.30-31 controls, 25.20-21
tension shear, 26.53 duty cycle, 25.10-11
torque, 20.16, 30.30-31 grain-oriented core, 28.52
vibration, 27.43 iron-core, 27.39, 28.52
Thickness, 22.23 multiphase, 25.32
gages, 29.16 operating principles, 25.5-7
plate, 30.5, 30.13-14, 30.33 power distribution, 28.65
sprayed coatings, 29.28, 29.62-63 ratings 28.65-68, 28.82-84
Threading rectifier, applications, 25.35
rough, 29.6-7, 29.10 saturable diverter path, 25.16
Throat depth, 28.4, 28.6-8, 28.20, 28.68 secondaries, 28.15, 28.25
Thyratrons (See Contractors) settings, 27.4
Time (See also Current-time) single-phase, 22.8, 25.32
arc-spot weld, 23.56 turns, 28.65
flashing, 27.4, 27.7, 27.22 ratio, 25.5, 28.58
measuring, 27.17-18 windings, 28.70
preheating, 27.16 Traversing
projection welding, 26.41 mechanisms, 23.26
spot welding, 26.6-8, 26.25 Trichlorethylene, 23.62
transformation, 26.45 Trimming, 27.3, 27.11
values of, 26.5 Tubes (See Contactors)
Timers, 28.60 Tungsten, 23.3, 23.6, 26.55, 29.3
functions of, 28.64 electrodes, 23.7, 29.31
mechanisms, 28.7, 28.11, 28.40, 28.50- striped, 23.7
52, 28.63, 28.64, 28.66-67, 28.83 thoriated, 23.7
28.87 Tungsten carbide, 29.3, 29.70-71
NEMA classifications for, 28.55-56
Timing, 26.52, 28.43 u
arc stud welding, 30.3
electronic, 28.87 USASI
magnetic force percussion welding, standards, 29.17
27.44 Undercutting, 22.16, 22.23, 22.25, 23.13,
nonsynchronous, 28.87 23.21, 23.41, 23.44, 23.47, 23.49,
stud welding, 30.18-19 23.51, 24.13, 24.24, 24.26, 29.7,
synchronous precision, 28.50-51, 28.87 29.10, 30.14
upset butt welding, 27.26 Underwater welding, 26.20
Tin, 29.70 Uniformity, 26.3, 26.35, 29.17, 29.19
fumes, 29.17 Upset butt welding, 28.40-45
Titania, 22.14-15,22.17 applications, 27.24-26, 27.28, 28.43
Titanium, 22.20, 23.48, 23.61 current, 27.26
gas tungsten-arc welding, 23.13 cycle, 27.28-30
Tooling, 30.20-21, 27.10-11, 27.41, 27.43, equipment, 27.26-28
30.6 materials, 27.26
Toroids, 28.87 problems encountered, 27.31
Toughness, 23.47 quality, 27.30-31
Transfer testing and inspection, 27.30
drop (See Metals, transfer) Upset tube welding, 27.31-38
Transformer, 26.12, 26.23, 27.42, 27.44, current, 27.33
28.2, 28.11, 28.13, 28.18, 28.45, equipment, 27.32
28.65, 28.68 voltage, 27.36-37
a-c, 24.16, 25.46-47, 27.43 Upset welding
air-core, 23.24 advantages, 27.23
booster, 25.42 applications, 27.23-24
combination, 25.32 controls, 28.49-56
22/ Index
description, 27.24 sinusoidal, 28.58

dies, 28.39-40 spot welding, 23.55
Upsetting, 25.53, 25.51, 27.13, 27.27, transformer tap, 26.33
27.30 (See also Force, upsetting) transient, 25.52
mechanisms, 28.46-48 upset tube welding, 27.36-37
total, 27.16 variable, (See constant-current classi-
velocity, 27.17-18 fications)
variations in, 22.8, 26.14, 28.48, 28.61
v Voltmeter, 25.5, 27.18
Vacuums, 29.37
Vaporization, 23.28, 23.53
w
heat of, 23.26, 26.10, 28.26 Wandering
Vapors arc, 23.39
toxic, 23.62, 27.48 Warpage, 24.29, 26.19, 26.35, 26.44,
Vectorial addition, 25.7, 25.9, 26.16 29.28
Velocity Waves
air, 29.18 balanced, 23.7, 23.9, 23.14, 25.51
cross-draft, 23.43 pulsed current, 23.20
upset, 27.17-18 rectified, 23.9
Ventilation, 24.3, 27.48, 29.17-18, 29.30, unbalanced, 23.7, 23.9, 25.51
29.47-48 voltage, 23.9
Vinyl, 29.51 Wear
Voids, 27.7, 29.58 resistance to, 29.65-66, 29.70
Volatilization, 29.3 Weldability, 22.20, 23.26-27, 26.53-55,
Volt-ampere characteristics (See Char- 27.23
acteristics, volt-ampere) Weld cycles, 28.63
Volt-ampere curves (See Curves, volt- arc stud welding, 30.3, 30.11
ampere) flash welding, 27.2-3
Voltage, 22.5, 23.39-51, 25.3, 24.23-24, percussion welding, 27.38
29.20 resistance welding, 26.4, 28.63, 28.65
arc, 22.8, 22.23, 23.12, 23.39-40, 23.50, spot welding, 26.3-4
25.24, 29.48 synchronizing, 28.41
changeovers, 25.11 upset butt welding, 27.28-30
constant, 23.35-37, 26.12 Weld time, 26.3, 28.56, 28.63 (See also
drop, 23.3, 24.17, 24.26, 25.6, 25.9, type of welding)
25.44, 28.82-85, 28.87, 30.20 insufficient, 26.16
function of, 23.49 Welding
drooping, 23.35-37, 25.9, 25.37, 30.20 a-c, 24.8-9
disadvantages, 24.17 automatic, 23.5, 23.19, 24.17, 24.30,
excessive, 24.24 25.4
finding, 23.36-37 equipment, 23.22, 23.58
flashing, 27.3-4 circumferential, 23.19, 24.37-38
high-frequency, 23.8 cold wire, 23.15-18, 23.25
load, 25.5, 25.52, 27.17-18 d-e, 25.5, 23.25, 26.36, 26.41
measurements, 27.18 direct, 26.22-23, 26.32
no-load, 28.83 end-to-end, 27.28
open-circuit, 22.7-8, 25.16-18, 25.23-24, hazards, 22.10, 23.62
25.32, 25.46, 25.52 heads, 24.42, 25.46, 28.8, 28.18
rated, formula for, 25.19 arc stud welding, 30.19
recovery, 25.17-18 dished, 26.30
reducing, 25.5 types, 28.7
regulation, 27.22, 28.60, 30.21 hot wire, 23.18, 23.25
rising, 23.35-37 intermittent, 24.16, 26.29, 26.33
seam welding, 26.33 manual, 23.4-5, 23.12-13, 23.22, 25.26
secondary, 26.11, 26.16, 21.18, 21.22, multiple-pass, 23.54
28.11 parallel, 26.23-24
Index /23
programmed, 23.19-20 single-phase, 25.16-17, 26.59, 26.64,
push-pull, 26.23 26.69-70, 26.72-73, 26.80, 26.82
semiautomatic, 23.49, 23.51, 23.57-58 spot, 26.10-11, 28.3-19, 28.69
series, 26.3 2 stationary, 26.50
simultaneous, 26.36 submerged arc, 25.45-46
speed, 22.4, 22.6, 22.8, 22.14, 22.20, three-phase, 26.60-61, 26.65-67, 26.71,
22.23-24, 23.13, 23.47, 24.24-25, 26.74, 26.75, 26.81, 26.83
26.9-10, 26.33, 27.36-38 upset butt, 27.26-28, 28.40-45
formulas, 27.34, 27.37 welding throat, 27.33, 27.36
symbols (See Chapter 21); chart, 21.32 upslope, 26.41
techniques, 24.4, 24.27-40 (See also Wetting, 23.39, 23.44-45, 23.47, 24.24
particular techniques) Windings
tandem, 24.13, 25.46-47 primary, 25.5, 28.45, 28.72
three o'clock, 24.40-41, 28.69 secondary, 25.42, 27.39
Welding machines (See also Generators, series, 25.8
Power sources) Wire, 23.15, 27.24-25, 27.27, 29.3, 29.15
a-c, 25.16-19, 26.29, 26.64 feed, 23.21, 23.35 24.17, 29.43
air-operated, 28.6-7, 28.9-10, 28.40, speed, 23.29-30, 23.35, 25.37-38,
28.42, 28.55 29.15, 29.44
automatic, 27.12, 28.46-47 mesh, 26.37
combination, 28.9 Wires (See also Electrodes)
design, 28.11, 28.16, 25.16-17 aluminum, 23.29-30
dial table, 28.17 carbon steel, 23.29-30
electric resistance, 27.32 percussion welding, 27.47
flash, 27.12, 28.40, 28.45-50, 28.63 upset butt welding, 27.28
foot-operated, 28.3, 28.5-6 Workpieces (See Substrates)
hydraulic, 27.13, 28.10, 28.47, 28.55
manual, 28.40, 28.46 X
multiple-operation, 28.17-18
multiple-transformer, 28.13-15 Xenon, 23.11
over and under, 28.17
percussion, 27.43-46
z
portable, 26.50, 28.11, 28.24 Zinc, 29.51, 29.64, 29.69-71
press-type, 27.43, 28.7-10 deposition rates, 29.14
projection, 26.10-11, 28.7-10 fumes, 23.62, 29.17
pulsed arc, 25.54-55 Zinc alloy, 26.54
resistance, 26.12, 27.43, 28.65 (See Zirconium, 23.10, 23.61
also, particular resistance processes) Zirconium alloys, 23.61
roller spot, 28.18-22 Zirconia, 29.70-71
seam, 26.10-11, 26.28, 28.18-22, 28.24 Zone
semiautomatic, 27.12 heat-affected, 26.15

Welding Handbook Section Two Welding Processes Gas, Arc and Resistance

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Welding Handbook Section Two Welding Processes Gas, Arc and Resistance

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Welding Handbook

Prepared under the directlon of

Chairman L. F. LOCKWOOD The Dow Chemical Co.

Large Medium vo., 708 pp.

ARTHUR L. PHILLIPS, Editor

STANDARD WELDING SYMBOLS

Flange Welds 21.30

M.D. THOMAS E. A. HARWART

102. BASIC WELD SYMBOLS

103. SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS

104. STANDARD LOCATION OF ELEMENTS OF A WELDING

BASIC TYPES OF JOINTS AND WELDS

202. BASIC TYPES OF WELDS

302. LOCATION SIGNIFICANCE OF ARROW

RSW~ ~RSEW ~~~

303. LOCATION OF WELD WITH RESPECT TO JOINT

304. METHOD OF DRAWING SYMBOLS

305. USE OF INCH, DEGREE AND POUND MARKS

306. LOCATION OF SPECIFICATION, PROCESS OR OTHER

307. USE OF SYMBOLS WITHOUT REFERENCES

388. USE OF GENERAL NOTES

309. USE OF WELD-ALL-AROUND SYMBOL

310. USE OF FIELD WELD SYMBOL

311. USE OF MELT-THRU SYMBOL

312. SURFACE CONTOUR OF MELT-THRU

(b) Melt-thru that is to be mechanically finished to a convex contour shall

Table 21.1-Designation of welding processes by letters*

Infrared Brazing ..•••..•.......••...•.•... IRB

Table 21.2-Designation of cutting processes by leHers*

Arc Cutting .................................. AC

Table 21.1 A-Alphabetical cross-reference to Table 21.1

Table 21.2A-Aiphabetical cross-reference to Table 21.2

symbol is used (Figs. 21.28, 21.29, 21.320 and 21.33C).

314. WELD PROPORTIONS

315. FINISHING OF WELDS

316. CONSTRUCTION OF SYMBOLS

317. USE OF BREAK IN ARROW OF BEVEL- AND J-GROOVE

318. READING OF INFORMATION ON WELDING SYMBOLS

319. COMBINED WELD SYMBOLS

320. DESIGNATION OF SPECIAL TYPES 01.1' WELDS

402. SIZE OF FILLET WELDS

403. LENGTH OF FILLET WELDS

404. EXTENT OF FILLET WELDING

405. DIMENSIONING OF INTERMI'ITENT FILLET WELDING

(b) The pitch (center-to-center spacing) of intermittent fillet welding shall

406. TERMINATION OF INTERMITTENT FILLET WELDING

407. COMBINATION OF INTERMITTENT AND CONTINUOUS

408. FILLET WELDS IN HOLES AND SLOTS

409. SURFACE CONTOUR OF FILLET WELDS

(c) Fillet welds that are to be mechanically finished to a convex contour

(d) Fillet welds that are to be mechanically finished to a concave contour

DESIRED PLAN OR SECTION OR

DE SIRED PLAN OR SECTION OR

502. SIZE OF PLUG WELDS

503. ANGLE OF COUNTERSINK

504. DEPm OF FILLING

602. DEPm OF FILLING

603. DETAILS OF SLOT WELDS

604. SURFACE CONTOUR OF SWT WELDS

702. SIZE AND STRENGTH OF SPOT WELDS

703. SPACING OF SPOT WELDS

704. EXTENT OF SPOT WELDING

705. NUMBER OF SPOT WELDS

706. FLUSH SPOT WELDED JOINTS