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ACTIVITY NO. 4a Overview of the Skeleton

PreLab Quiz
1. All the following are funct ions of the skeleton except:
a. attachment for muscles
b. production of melanin
c. site of red blood cell formation
d. storage of lipids
'
2. Circle the correct term. Compact I Spongy bone looks smooth and homogeneous .
3. _______bones are genera lly thin, with two wafer-like layers of compact bone sandwiching a layer of spongy bone.
a . Flat c. Long
b . Irregular d. Short
4. Circle the correct term. The shaft of a long bone is known as the epiphysisIdiaphysis.
5. A central canal and all the concentric lamellae surrounding it are referred to as: a. an osteon b. canaliculi c. lacunae

T he skeleton is constructed of two of the most supportive tissues found in the human body-cartilage and bone.. In embryos, the
skeleton is composed mainly of hyaline cartilage, but in adults, most of the cartilage is replaced by more rigid bone .

0 B J E C T IV E 1· List three functions of the skeletal system.

Besides supporting the body as an internal framework and protecting many of its soft organs, the skeleton provides a system of
levers the skeletal muscles use to move the body. In addition, the bones store lipids and many minerals (most importantly
calcium). Finally, bones provide a site for blood cell formation in their red marrow cavities.

The skeleton is made up of bones that are connected at joints, or articulations.

The skeleton is subdivided into two divisions: the axial skeleton (those bones that form the body's longitudinal axis) and the
appendicular skeleton (bones of the girdles and limbs) (Figure 7.1).

Before beginning your study of the skeleton , imagine for a moment that your
bones have turned to putty . \\Th at if you were running when this transformation took place? Now imagine your bones forrning a
continuous metal framework inside your body. \\That problems could you foresee with this arrangement? These images should help
you understand how well the skeletal system provides support and protection while making movement possible.

0 B J E C T IV E 2 Identif y several surface bone markings and functions.

Bone surfaces are not featureless and smooth but have an array of bumps, holes, and ridges called bone markings. Bone
markings fall into two categories: projections, or processes that grow out from the bone and serve as sites of muscle attachment or
help form joints; and depressions or cavities, inden- tations or openings in the bone that sometimes serve as passageways for
nerves and blood vessels. The bone markings are summarized in Table 7.1.
 Cranium
Skull
Facial bones
Bones of
pectoral
Clavicle girdle
Bony thorax Scapula
(ribs, sternum,
and thoracic Sternum Upper
vertebrae) limb
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Vertebral
column Radius Bones
Ilium Ulna of
pelvic
girdle
Carpals
Ischium

Pubis
Phalanges 7
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella
Lower
Tibia limb

Fibula

Talus
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges Calcaneus

(a) Anterior view (b) Posterior view

Figure 7.1 The human skeleton. The bones of the axial skeleton (colored green) are: the
skull, the bony thorax, and the vertebral column. The bones of the appendicular skeleton
make up the limbs and the girdles that the limbs attach to.

Long bones, such as the femur (Figure 7.1) and phalan-

Classification of Bones
O B J E C T I V E 3 Identify the four main kinds of bones.
The 206 bones of the adult skeleton are composed of two
basic kinds of osseous tissue that differ in structure.
Compact bone is dense and looks smooth and
homogeneous. Spongy bone is composed of small
trabeculae (needlelike bars) of bone and lots of open space.
Bones may be classified further on the basis of their gross
anatomy into four groups: long, short, flat, and irregular bones.
ges (bones of the fingers), are much longer than they are
wide and generally consist of a shaft with heads at either
end. Long bones are mostly compact bone.
Short bones are typically cube-shaped, and they
contain more spongy bone than compact bone. Notice the
tarsals and carpals in Figure 7.1.
Flat bones are generally thin, with a layer of spongy
bone sandwiched between two waferlike layers of compact
bone. Bones of the skull are flat bones.
Irregular bones, such as the vertebrae, are bones that do
not fall into one of the preceding categories (see Figure 7.1).
 Table 7.1 Bone Markings

Name of bone marking Description Illustrations

Projections That Are Sites of Muscle and Ligament Attachment

Tuberosity Large rounded projection;
(too0bĕ-ros′ĭ-te) may be roughened Iliac Trochanter Intertrochanteric
Crest Narrow ridge of bone; crest line
usually prominent
Trochanter (tro-kan′ter) Very large, blunt, irregularly
shaped process (the only
examples are on the femur) Ischial
spine
Line Narrow ridge of bone; less
Adductor
prominent than a crest
Coxal Ischial tubercle
Tubercle Small rounded bone tuberosity Femur
(too′ber-kl) projection or process of Medial
thigh epicondyle
Epicondyle Raised area on or above Condyle
(ep0ĭ-kon′dīl) a condyle Vertebra
Spine Sharp, slender, often
pointed projection Facet
Spinous
7 Ramus (ra′mus) Armlike bar of bone process
Process Any bony prominence
Projections That Help to Form Joints
Head
Head Bony expansion carried
Condyle
on a narrow neck
Facet Smooth, nearly flat
articular surface Facets
Ramus
Condyle (kon′dĭl) Rounded articular projection
Rib Mandible

Depressions and Openings

For Passage of Blood Vessels and Nerves
Groove Furrow Inferior
orbital
Fissure Narrow, slitlike opening Meatus fissure
Sinus
Foramen Round or oval Foramen
(fo-ra′men) opening through a bone Fossa
Notch Indentation at the Notch
edge of a structure Groove
Skull
Others
Meatus (me-a′tus) Canal-like passageway
Sinus Cavity within a bone, filled with air and lined with
mucous membrane
Fossa (fos′ah) Shallow, basinlike depression in a bone,
often serving as an articular surface
Bone

O B J E C T I V E 4 Identify the major anatomical areas of a longitudinally cut long bone.

Copyright © 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Activity 2
Examining a Long Bone
1. Refer to the figure of a long bone that has been cut
lengthwise.
With the help of Figure 7.2, identify the shaft, or
diaphysis. Observe its smooth surface composed of
com-pact bone. If you are using a fresh specimen, look
for its periosteum, a fibrous membrane that covers the
bone surface. Notice that many fibers of the periosteum
pene-trate into the bone. These fibers are called
perforating fibers or Sharpey’s fibers.
2. Now inspect the epiphysis, the end of the long bone.
Notice that it is composed of a thin layer of compact bone
enclosing spongy bone.
3. Identify the articular cartilage, which covers the
epiphyseal surface in place of the periosteum. Because it
is composed of glassy hyaline cartilage, it provides a
smooth surface to prevent friction at joint surfaces.
4. If the animal was still young and growing, there will be an
epiphyseal plate, a thin area of hyaline cartilage that
provides for growth in bone length. When long bone growth
ends, these areas are replaced with bone.Their barely
discernible remnants are called epiphyseal lines.
5. In an adult animal, the medullary cavity, the central
cavity of the shaft, is essentially a storage region for
adipose tissue, or yellow marrow. In the infant, red
marrow, involved in forming blood cells, is found in these
central marrow cavities. In adult bones, red marrow is
confined to the interior of the epiphyses.
6. A fresh bone will show the delicate endosteum lining
the medullary cavity.

Articular cartilage 7

Compact bone
Proximal
epiphysis
Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Endosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity
(lined by (b)
Diaphysis endosteum) Yellow bone
marrow (fat)
Compact bone
Periosteum
Perforating
(Sharpey’s)
fibers
Nutrient
arteries
Distal
epiphysis
(a) (c)

Figure 7.2 The structure of a long bone (humerus of the arm). (a) Anterior view with
longitudinal section cut away at the proximal end. (b) Pie-shaped, three-dimensional view
of spongy bone and compact bone of the epiphysis. (c) Cross section of the shaft
(diaphysis). Note that the external surface of the diaphysis is covered by a periosteum, but
the articular surface of the epiphysis is covered with hyaline cartilage.
Examining the Microscopic Structure of
Compact Bone
lamella. The canaliculi connect all the living cells of the
Study the microscopic figure of a ground bone as seen under a osteon to the nutrient supply located in the central canal.
low power microscope. 1. Using Figure 7.3 as a guide, focus
2. Also notice the perforating (Volkmann’s) canals in Fig-
on a central (Haversian) canal (one is indicated by the
ure 7.3. These canals run into the compact bone and mar-
microscope pointer). The central canal runs parallel to the long
row cavity from the periosteum, at right angles to the shaft.
axis of the bone and carries blood vessels and nerves through
With the central canals, the perforating canals complete the
the bony matrix. Identify the lacunae (chambers) where the
pathway between the bone interior and its external surface.
osteocytes (mature bone cells) are found in living bone. These
are arranged in concentric circles (lamellae) around the central 3. If a model of bone histology is available, identify the
canal. A central canal and all the lamellae surrounding it are same structures on the model.
referred to as an osteon or Haversian system. Also identify
canaliculi, tiny canals running from a central canal to the
lacunae of the first lamella and then from lamella to

Compact Spongy bone

bone

Central Perforating 7
(Haversian) canal (Volkmann’s) canal

Endosteum lining
Osteon bony canals and
(Haversian system) covering trabeculae

Circumferential
lamellae

(a) Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers

Periosteum

Nerve
Vein
Lamellae
Artery
Central
Canaliculus canal
Osteocyte Lacunae
in a lacuna

(b) (c) Interstitial Central Lacuna (with

lamellae canal osteocyte)
Figure 7.3 Microscopic structure of compact bone. (a) Diagram of a pie-shaped
segment of compact bone. (b) Close-up of a portion of one osteon. Notice the position
of osteocytes in lacunae (cavities in the matrix). (c) Photomicrograph of a cross-
sectional view of an osteon (3203).
 ACTIVITY REVIEW SHEET
4a Overview of the Skeleton

Name _______________________________________________________ Lab Time/Date ___________________________________

Bone Markings
1. Match the terms in column B with the appropriate description in column A:

Column A Column B
1. sharp, slender process condyle

2. small rounded projection foramen

3. large rounded projection fossa

4. structure supported on neck head

5. armlike projection meatus

6. rounded, convex projection ramus

7. canal-like structure sinus

8. round or oval opening through a bone spine

9. shallow depression trochanter

10. air-filled cavity tubercle

11. large, irregularly shaped projection tuberosity

Classification of Bones
2. The four major anatomical classifications of bones are long, short, flat, and irregular. Which category has the least

amount of spongy bone relative to its total volume?

3. Classify each of the bones in the following chart into one of the four major categories by checking the appropriate column.
Use appropriate references as necessary.

Long Short Flat Irregular

Humerus
Phalanx
Parietal (skull bone)
Calcaneus (tarsal bone)
Rib
Vertebra

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 Review Sheet 4a

Gross Anatomy of the Typical Long Bone

4. Use the terms below to identify the structures marked by leader lines and brackets in the diagrams. (Some terms are used
more than once.) After labeling the diagrams, use the listed terms to characterize the statements following the diagrams.

Key: articular cartilage epiphyseal line red marrow

compact bone epiphysis spongy bone
diaphysis medullary cavity trabeculae of spongy bone
endosteum periosteum yellow marrow

(type of (covering)
marrow)

(b)

(a) (c)

1. made almost entirely of compact 4. scientific term for bone end

bone

2. site of blood cell formation 5. contains fat in adult bones

3. fibrous membrane that covers 6. growth plate remnant

the bone

5. What differences between compact and spongy bone can be seen with the naked eye? ___________________________

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 Review Sheet 4a

Microscopic Structure of Compact Bone

10. Trace the route that nutrients take through a bone, starting with the periosteum and ending with an osteocyte in a lacuna.

Periosteum ➝ ➝
➝ ➝ osteocyte

11. On the photomicrograph of bone below (4803), identify all structures listed in the key to the left.

Key: canaliculi
central canal
lamellae
lacuna