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C h apter
ontents
CHEMISTRY
CBSE–XII (PART-1)
Syllabus I - II
Sr.No. Topic Page No.
1. Solutions (Chapter-2) 001–026
2. Electrochemistry (Chapter-3) 027–050
3. Chemical Kinetics (Chapter-4) 051–076
4. d-and f-Block Elements (Chapter-8) 077–096
5. Coordination Compounds (Chapter-9) 097–124
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CBSE I
CHEMISTRY (Code No. 043)

CLASS XII (2022 - 23)
SYLLABUS
Time : 3 Hours 70 Marks
S.No. Title No. of Periods Marks
1. Solutions 15 7
2. Electrochemistry 18 9
3. Chemical Kinetics 15 7
4. d -and f -Block Elements 18 7
5. Coordination Compounds 18 7
6. Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 15 6
7. Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 14 6
8. Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 15 8
9. Amines 14 6
10. Biomolecules 18 7
Total 160 70
Unit II : Solutions
Types of solutions, expression of concentration of solutions of solids in liquids, solubility of
gases in liquids, solid solutions, Raoult's law, colligative properties - relative lowering of vapour
pressure, elevation of boiling point, depression of freezing point, osmotic pressure, determination
of molecular masses using colligative properties, abnormal molecular mass, Van't Hoff factor.
Unit III : Electrochemistry
Redox reactions, EMF of a cell, standard electrode potential, Nernst equation and its application
to chemical cells, Relation between Gibbs energy change and EMF of a cell, conductance in
electrolytic solutions, specific and molar conductivity, variations of conductivity with
concentration, Kohlrausch's Law, electrolysis and law of electrolysis (elementary idea), dry cell-
electrolytic cells and Galvanic cells, lead accumulator, fuel cells, corrosion.
Unit IV : Chemical Kinetics
Rate of a reaction (Average and instantaneous), factors affecting rate of reaction: concentration,
temperature, catalyst; order and molecularity of a reaction, rate law and specific rate constant,
integrated rate equations and half-life (only for zero and first order reactions), concept of collision
theory (elementary idea, no mathematical treatment), activation energy, Arrhenius equation.
Unit VIII : d and f Block Elements
General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and characteristics of transition metals,
general trends in properties of the first-row transition metals – metallic character, ionization
enthalpy, oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic properties, interstitial
compounds, alloy formation, preparation and properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.
Lanthanoids –
Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical reactivity and lanthanoid contraction and its
consequences.
Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with lanthanoids.
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II Chemistry
Unit IX : Coordination Compounds

Coordination compounds - Introduction, ligands, coordination number, colour, magnetic
properties and shapes, IUPAC nomenclature of mononuclear coordination compounds. Bonding,
Werner's theory, VBT, and CFT; structure and stereoisomerism, the importance of coordination
compounds (in qualitative analysis, extraction of metals and biological system).
Unit X : Haloalkanes and Haloarenes.
Haloalkanes : Nomenclature, nature of C–X bond, physical and chemical properties, optical
rotation mechanism of substitution reactions.
Haloarenes : Nature of C–X bond, substitution reactions (Directive influence of halogen in
monosubstituted compounds only). Uses and environmental effects of - dichloromethane,
trichloromethane, tetrachloromethane, iodoform, freons, DDT.
Unit XI : Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers
Alcohols : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties (of primary
alcohols only), identification of primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols, mechanism of
dehydration, uses with special reference to methanol and ethanol.
Phenols : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, acidic nature
of phenol, electrophilic substitution reactions, uses of phenols.
Ethers : Nomenclature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical properties, uses.
Unit XII : Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids
Aldehydes and Ketones : Nomenclature, nature of carbonyl group, methods of preparation,
physical and chemical properties, mechanism of nucleophilic addition, reactivity of alpha
hydrogen in aldehydes, uses.
Carboxylic Acids : Nomenclature, acidic nature, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties; uses.
Unit XIII : Amines
Amines : Nomenclature, classification, structure, methods of preparation, physical and chemical
properties, uses, identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines.
Diazonium salts : Preparation, chemical reactions and importance in synthetic organic chemistry.
Unit XIV : Biomolecules
Carbohydrates - Classification (aldoses and ketoses), monosaccharides (glucose and fructose),
D-L configuration oligosaccharides (sucrose, lactose, maltose), polysaccharides (starch, cellulose,
glycogen); Importance of carbohydrates.
Proteins - Elementary idea of - amino acids, peptide bond, polypeptides, proteins, structure of
proteins - primary, secondary, tertiary structure and quaternary structures (qualitative idea only),
denaturation of proteins; enzymes. Hormones - Elementary idea excluding structure.
Vitamins - Classification and functions.
Nucleic Acids : DNA and RNA.
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CBSE 1
SOLUTIONS : (CHAPTER-2)
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
INTRODUCTION :
When two or more chemically non-reacting substances are mixed together forming homogeneous
mixture the mixture is called solution.
For binary solution : Solution = solute + solvent
• Generally the component present in lesser amount than, other component in solution, is called
solute.
• Generally, the component present in greater amount than all other components, is called the
solvent.
CONCENTRATION TERMS
(a) Molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute present in one litre solution is called its molarity(M).
Number of moles of solute n
Molarity =
volume of solution (L) VL
(b) Molality (m)
The number of moles of solute present in 1000 gram of the solvent is called molality of the
solution.
Number of moles of solute Number of moles of solute 1000
Molality of a solution = =
Amount of solvent kg Amount of solvent g
(c) Concentration in terms of percentage
(i) Percent By Mass (w/W)
Mass of solute (in g) present in 100 g of solution (g) is called mass percent of the solute.
Where 'w' gram of solute is dissolved in W gram of solvent.
Mass of solute g 100 w 100
Mass percent
Mass of solution g w W
Mass percent is independent of temperature.
(ii) Percent By Volume (v/V)
node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\02_Solution
This method is used for solutions of liquid in a liquid. The volume of liquid (solute) in mL
present in 100 mL of solution in is called volume percent.
Volume of solute 100
Volume percent =
Volume of solution
w
(iii) Percent by strength/percentage mass by volume : Mass of solute (in g) present in
V
100 mL solution is called mass by volume.
w mass of solute g
% 100
V volume of solution mL
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2 Chemistry
(d) Parts Per Million (ppm)
This method is used for expressing the concentration of very dilute solutions such as hardness
of water, air pollution etc.
Mass of solute g 10 6
ppm of substance (by mass) =
Mass of solution (g)
Volume of solute(mL) 106
ppm (by volume) =
Volume of solution(mL)
w mass of solute g
ppm by 106
V volume of solution mL
(e) Mole Fraction
The ratio of the number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of all the
components present in the solution, is called the mole fraction of that component.
moles of solute n
Mole fraction of solute XB =
moles of solute n moles of solvent N
moles of solvent N
Mole fraction of solvent XA =
moles of solute n moles of solvent N
SOLUBILITY
Maximum amount of solute which can be dissolved in a specified amount of solvent at constant
temperature is solubility. Solubility is affected by nature of solute and solvent as well as by
temperature and pressure.
(a) Solubility of Solid in Liquid
Polar solutes are soluble in polar solvent and non-polar solutes are soluble in non-polar solvent
due to similar intermolecular forces.
When solid solutes are dissolved in solvent then following equilibrium exists.
Dissolution
Solute + Solvent Crystallization
Solution
Solubility of solids is affected by temperature and pressure according to Le-chatlier's principle.
If dissolution is exothermic then solubility decreases with increase in temperature and if
endothermic then solubility increases with increase in temperature.
Solubility of solids is not affected by pressure significantly since solids are highly incompressible.
(b) Solubility of Gases in Liquid
Certain gases are highly soluble in water like NH3, HCl etc. and certain gases are less soluble in
water like O2, N2, He etc. Solubility of gases is affected by pressure and temperature. Increasing
pressure increases solubility and increase in temperature decreases solubility. During dissolution
of gas pressure of gas decrease and dissolution of gas is exothermic in nature.
HENRY'S LAW
The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (P) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas
(X) in the solution. (This is most common definition)
P = KHX KH = Henry's Constant
Henry's Constant is not a universal constant.
It depends on nature of gas and temperature.
KH increases with increase in temperature therefore solubility of gas decreases.
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CBSE 3
VAPOUR PRESSURE
At a constant temperature, the pressure exerted by the vapours of a liquid on its surface when
they (liquid and its vapours) are in equilibrium, is known as vapour pressure.
Factor affecting vapour pressure :
(a) Nature of liquid (b) Temperature
Raoult's Law
According to Raoult's law, the partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in any solution
is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
For liquid-liquid system : PS = P0A + XB(PB0–P0A)
IDEAL SOLUTIONS (mixture of two liquids A and B)
• A solution which obeys Raoult's law exactly at all concentrations and at all temperatures is
called an ideal solution.
• For ideal solutions; A-A interactions = B-B interactions = A-B interactions.
NON-IDEAL SOLUTIONS (mixture of two liquids A and B)
• A solution which do not obeys Raoult's law exactly at all concentrations and at all
temperatures is called an non-ideal solution.
• For non-ideal solutions; A–A interactions + B–B interactions A – B interactions.
AZEOTROPIC MIXTURES :
• Some liquids on mixing, form azeotropes which are binary mixtures having the same
composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at a constant temperature, the liquid and
vapour have the same composition, and no further separation occurs.
• Components form azeotrope can't be separated by fractional distillation but can be separated
by azeotropic distillation.
• Solutions showing Positive deviation form minimum boiling azeotrope and solutions
showing negative deviation form maximum boiling azeotrope.
COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS (CP)

Those physical properties of a solution which depends upon the relative number of particles of
solute and do not depend on nature of solute particles are called colligative properties.
(a) Relative Lowering in Vapour Pressure
• When a nonvolatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, the vapour pressure of the solvent is
lowered i.e. the vapour pressure of a solution is always lower than that of pure solvent,
because the escaping tendency of solvent molecules decreases (due to lesser solvent molecules
per unit surface area).
PA0 PS nB
Relating lowering in vapour pressure =
PA0 NA nB
PA0 PS nB nB
For a dilute solution nB << nA so P
PA0 NA NA
• Relative lowering depends upon relative number of solute particles. Therefore it is called
colligative properties.
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4 Chemistry
(b) Elevation in Boiling Point

• When a non-volatile solute is dissolved in a pure solvent, its vapour pressure is decreased and
boiling point increases.
• The difference of boiling points of the solution and pure solvent is called elevation in boiling
point ( Tb).
Tb K b molality
Kb = molal elevation constant or Ebullioscopic constant.
(c) Depression in Freezing Point
When a non-volatile is dissolved in a pure solvent the vapour pressure of the solvent is lowered.
The difference freezing point of the solution and pure solvent is called depression in freezing
point ( Tf).
Tf K f molality
Kf = molal depression constant or Cryoscopic constant.
(d) Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure
Osmosis : Osmosis is defined as the spontaneous net flow of solvent molecules through
semipermeable membrane from a solvent to a solution or from a dilute solution to a concentrated
solution.
Osmotic Pressure (p or )
• The external pressure which must be applied on the solution in order to stop the flow of
solvent into the solution through semipermeable membrane is equal to osmotic pressure.
or
• Hydrostatic pressure developed in a vertical column when solution and solvent are separated
by SPM.
Reverse Osmosis
• If external pressure greater than osmotic pressure is applied, the flow of solvent molecules can
be made to proceed from solution towards pure solvent, i.e., in reverse direction of the
ordinary osmosis.
• Reverse osmosis is used for the desalination of sea water for getting fresh drinking water.
ABNORMAL COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES
• It has been observed that difference in the observed and calculated molecular masses of
solute is due to association or dissociation of solute molecules in solution. It results in a
change in the number of particles in solution.
• Van't hoff factor (i) : Tells about relationship between normal colligative properties and
abnormal colligative properties.
observed colligative properties
i=
calculated colligative properties
i -1
Degree of dissociation :
n -1
n i 1
Degree of association :
1 n
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CBSE 5
EXERCISE-1 INTEXT QUESTIONS

1. Calculate the mass of urea (NH2CONH2) required in making 2.5 kg of 0.25 molal aqueous
solution.
Ans. 0.25 molal aqueous solution means
w w
Molality (m) 0.25
m W 60 2.5
w = 0.25 × 60 × 2.5 w = 37.5 g
2. Calculate (a) molality, (b) molarity, (c) mole fraction of KI if the density of 20% (mass/mass)
aqueous KI is 1.202 g/mL.
Ans. 20% mass/mass aqueous KI means
Mass of KI = 20 g, Mass of water = 80g,
Mass of solution = 100 g
(a) For molality :
Molar mass of K.I. = 39 + 127 = 166
w 20
Molality = = = 1.51
m × mass of solvent in kg 166 × 80 ×10 -3
(b) For Molarity :
mass 100
Volume of solution = = = 83.2 ml.
density 1.202
w 20
Molarity = = = 1.448
m × V(lit) 166 × 83.2 ×10-3
w 20
(c) Moles of KI = = = 0.120
m 166
w 80
Moles of water = = = 4.444
m 18
Total moles = 0.120 + 4.444 = 4.564,
0.120
Mole fraction of KI = = 0.0263
4.564
3. H2S, a toxic gas with rotten egg smell, is used for the qualitative analysis. If the solubility of H2S
in water at STP is 0.195 m, calculate Henry's law constant.

Mass of solvent (water) = 1kg = 1000 g,
Ans. Mole fraction of H2S(x) in solution Solubility = 0.195 mole in one kg of water
0.195
= = 0.0035 Mass of solvent (water) = 1kg = 1000 g,
0.195 + 55.55
w 1000
Pressure of H2S at STP = 0.987 bar. Moles of water = = = 55.55
m 18
PH2S
kH Total moles = 0.195 + 55.55
x
0.987
kH or KH = 282 bar
0.0035
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6 Chemistry
4. The vapour pressure of pure liquids A and B are 450 and 700 mm Hg respectively at 350 K. Find
out the composition of the liquid mixture if total vapour pressure is 600 mm Hg. Also find the
composition in vapour phase.
Ans. Ps = PBo + X A (PAo – PBo ) PA0 = 450 mm,
o
600 = 700 + XA (450 – 700) PB = 700 mm,
100
XA = = 0.40 Ptotal = 600 mm
250
XB = 1 – XA = 1 – 0.40 = 0.60
PA = PA0 X A = 450 × 0.40 = 180 mm
PB = PBo X B = 700 × 0.60 = 420 mm

Total vapour pressure = 180 + 420 = 600 mm
PA 180
Mole fraction of A in vapour phase = = = 0.30
Ptotal 600
PB 420
Mole fraction of B in vapour phase = = = 0.70
Ptotal 600
5. Vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mm Hg. 50 gram of urea (NH2CONH2)
is dissolved in 850g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure of water for this solution and its
relative lowering.
PAo – PS w × M
Ans. = PA0 = 23.8,
PS m×W
23.8 – PS 50 ×18 3
or = = w = 50,
PS 60 × 850 170
or Ps = 23.387 W = 850,
PAo – Ps 23.8 – 23.387
Relative lowering in V.P. = = = 0.017 Ps = ?,
PAo 23.8
M = 18 for H2O,
m = 60 for urea
6. Boiling point of water at 750 mm is 96.63ºC. How much sucrose is to be added to 500 g of water
such that it boils at 100ºC ? Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol.
K b × w ×1000
Ans. Tb = Tb = 100 – 96.63 = 3.37
M×W
0.52 × w ×1000
or 3.37 = w = ?, W = 500 g,
342 × 500
M = 342 for sucrose,
or w = 1108.2 g Kb = 0.52 K kg/mol
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CBSE 7
7. Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (vitamin C, C6H8O6) to be dissolved in 75g acetic acid to
lower its melting point by 1.5ºC. Kf = 3.9 K kg/mol.
K f × w ×1000
Ans. Tf = Tf = 1.5º, w = ?, W = 75g,
M× W
3.9 × w ×1000
1.5 = M for ascrobic acid = 176
176 × 75
or w = 5.08 g
8. Calculate the osmotic pressure in pascals exerted by a solution prepared by dissolving 1.0g of
polymer of molar mass 185000 in 450 mL of water at 37ºC.
wRT
Ans. Since mass of solute is given, V = p=?
m
1× 8.314 ×103 × 310
× 0.450 = V = 0.450 litre,
185000
or = 30.96 Pa w = 1g,
m = 185000,
R = 8.314 kPa LK–1 mol–1
9. Calculate the molarity of a solution containing 5 g of NaOH in 450 mL solution.
0.125 mol 1000 mL L 1
Sol. Molarity = 0.278 M
450 mL
10. Calculate molality of 2.5 g of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) in 75 g of benzene.
w 1000
Ans. Molality(m)
m w
2.5 1000
m m = 0.556 mol kg–1
60 75
11. The vapour pressure of pure benzene at a certain temperature is 0.850 bar. A non-volatile,
non-electrolyte solid weighing 0.5 g when added to 39.0 g of benzene (molar mass 78 g mol-1).
Vapour pressure of the solution, then, is 0.845 bar. What is the molar mass of the solid substance ?
P1 P w1 M2
Ans. p10 = 0.850 bar:
P1 m1 W2
1
0.850 bar 0.845 bar 0.5g 78 g mol
p = 0.845 bar :
0.850 bar M2 39 g
Therefore, M2 = 170 g mol–1. M1 = 78 g mol–1;
w2 = 0.5 g;
w1 = 39 g
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8 Chemistry
12. 18 g of glucose, C6H12O6, is dissolved in 1 kg of water in a saucepan. At what temperature will
water boil at 1.013 bar ? Kb for water is 0.52 K kg mol–1.
Ans. Tb = Kb × m = 0.52 K kg mol–1 × 0.1 mol kg–1 = 0.052 K
Tb = Tbo Tb
0.052 = Tbo 373.15
Tb = 373.15 + 0.052
Tb = 373.202 K
13. The boiling point of benzene is 353.23 K. When 1.80 g of a non-volatile solute was dissolved in
90 g of benzene, the boiling point is raised to 354.11 K. Calculate the molar mass of the solute.
Kb for benzene is 2.53 K kg mol–1.
Ans. ( Tb) = 354.11 K – 353.23 K = 0.88 K.
w 1000
Tb Kb
m W
2.53 K kg mol 1 1.8 g 1000 g kg 1
1
w 58 g mol
0.88 K 90 g
14. 200 cm3 of an aqueous solution of a protein contains 1.26 g of the protein. The osmotic pressure
of such a solution at 300 K is found to be 2.57 × 10–3 bar. Calculate the molar mass of the
protein.
Ans. The various quantities known to us are as follows : P = 2.57 × 10–3 bar,
V = 200 cm3 = 0.200 litre
T = 300 K
R = 0.083 L bar mol–1K–1
w 2 RT
Substituting these values in equation M 2 we get
V node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\02_Solution
1.26g 0.083LbarK 1mol 1 300K 1

M2 61,022g mol
2.57 10 3 bar 0.200 L
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CBSE 9
EXERCISE-2 NCERT EXERCISE

1. What role does the molecular interaction play in a solution of alcohol and water ?
Ans. In pure alcohol and water, the molecules are held tightly by a strong hydrogen bonding.
The interaction between the molecules of alcohol and water is weaker than alcohol - alcohol and
water – water interactions. As a result, when alcohol and water are mixed, the intermolecular
interactions become weaker and the molecules can easily escape. This increase the vapour
pressure of the solution, which in turn lowers the boiling point of the resulting solution.
2. Why do gases always tend to be less soluble in liquids as the temperature is raised ?
Ans. Solubility of gases in liquids decreases with an increase in temperature. This is because
dissolution of gases in liquids is an exothermic process.
Gas + Liquid Solution + Heat
Therefore, when the temperature is increased, heat is supplied and the equilibrium shifts
backwards, thereby decreasing the solubility of gases.
3. State Henry's law and mention some important applications ?
Ans. Henry's law states that partial pressure of a gas in the vapour phase is proportional to the
mole fraction of the gas in the solution.
p = KHx
where, KH is Henry's law constant
Some important applications of Henry's law are mentioned below.
(i) Bottles are sealed under high pressure to increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and
soda water.
(ii) Henry's law states that the solubility of gases increases with an increase in pressure.
Therefore, when a scuba diver deep into the sea , the increased sea pressure causes the
nitrogen present in air to dissolve in his blood in great amounts. As a result, when he comes
back to the surface, the solubility of nitrogen again decreases and the dissolved gas is
released, leading to the formation of nitrogen bubbles in the blood. This results in the
blockage of capillaries and leads to a medical condition known as 'bends' or 'decompression
sickness'.
Hence, the oxygen tanks used by scuba divers are filled with air and diluted with helium to
avoid bends.
(iii) The concentration of oxygen is low in the blood and tissue of people living at high altitudes
such as climbers. This is because at high altitudes, partial pressure of oxygen is less than
that at ground level. Low -blood oxygen cause climbers to become weak and disables them
from thinking clearly. These are symptoms of anoxia.
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10 Chemistry
4. What is meant by positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law and how is the sign of solH
related to positive and negative deviations from Raoult's law ?
Ans. According to Raoult's law, the partial vapour pressure of each volatile component in any solution
is directly proportional to its mole fraction. The solutions which obey Raoult's law over the entire
range of concentration are known as ideal solutions. The solutions that do not obey Raoult's law
(non - ideal solutions) have vapour pressure either higher or lower than that predicted by Raoult's
law. If the vapour pressure is higher, then the solution is said to exhibit positive deviation, and if
it is lower, then the solution is said to exhibit negative deviation from Raoult's law.
Vapour pressure
of solution
Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure
p1
p2 of ideal solution
x1=0 Mole fraction x1=1

x1
x2=1 x2=0
x2
Vapour pressure of a two - component solution showing positive deviation from Raoult's law.
Vapour pressure
of ideal solution
Vapour pressure
Vapour pressure
p2 of solution
p1
x1=0 Mole fraction x1=1

x1
x2=1 x2=0
x2
5. An aqueous solution of 2% non-volatile solute exerts a pressure of 1.004 bar at the normal
boiling point of the solvent. What is the molar mass of the solute ?
Ans. Here,
Vapour pressure of the solution at normal boiling point (p1) = 1.004 bar
Vapour pressure of pure water at normal boiling point (p01) = 1.013 bar
Mass of solute, (w2) = 2g
Mass of solvent (water), (w1) = 98 g
Molar mass of solvent (water), (M1) = 18 g mol–1
According to Raoult's law.
p10 p1 w2 M1
p10 M2 w1
1.013 1.004 2 18 0.009 2 18 1.013 2 18
M2
1.013 M 2 98 1.013 M 2 98 0.009 98
= 41.35 g mol–1
Hence, the molar mass of the solute is 41.35 g mol–1.
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CBSE 11
6. At 300 K, 36g of glucose present in a litre of its solution has an osmotic pressure of 4.98 bar.
If the osmotic pressure of the solution is 1.52 bars at the same temperature, what would be its
concentration ?
Ans. Here,
T = 300 K p = 1.52 bar
–1 –1
R = 0.083 bar L K mol Applying the relation,
1.52
= CRT C = = 0.061 mol
RT 0.083bar,L.K 1mol 1
300 K
Since the volume of the solution is 1L, the concentration of the solution would be 0.061 M.
7. Determine the amount of CaCl2 (i = 2.47) dissolved in 2.5 litre of water such that its osmotic
pressure is 0.75 atm at 27°C.
n
Ans. We know that, i RT
V
w MV
i RT w df
MV iRT
= 0.75 atm V = 2.5 L
i = 2.47 T = (27 + 273) K = 300 K
Here, R = 0.082 L atm K mol–1–1
M = 1 × 40 + 2 × 35.5 = 111 g mol–1

0.75 111 2.5
Therefore, w = = 3.42 g
2.47 0.0821 300
Hence, the required amount of CaCl2 is 3.42 g.
8. Determine the osmotic pressure of a solution prepared by dissolving 25 mg of K2SO4 in 2 litre of
water at 25°C, assuming that it is completely dissociated.
Ans. When K2SO4 is dissolved in water, K+ and SO42– ions are produced.
K2SO4 2K+ + SO42–
Total number of ions produced = 3

i=3
Given, w = 25 mg = 0.025 g
V=2L
T = 25°C = (25 + 273) K = 298 K
Also, we know that : R = 0.0821 L atm K–1 mol–1
M = (2 × 39) + (1 × 32) + (4 × 16) = 174 g mol–1
Applying the following relation,
n w1 0.025 1
i RT = i RT = 3 0.0821 298 = 5.27 × 10–3 atm
v Mv 174 2
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12 Chemistry
9. A 10% solution (by mass) of sucrose in water has a freezing point of 269.15 K. Calculate the
freezing point of 10% glucose in water if the freezing point of pure water is 273.15 K.
Given :
(Molar mass of sucrose = 342 g mol–1)
(Molar mass of glucose = 180 g mol–1)
(b) Define the following terms :
(i) Molality (m)
(ii) Abnormal molar mass
w2 / m 2 k f w2 1000
Ans. (a) (i) Tf = Kf × m kf
w1 /1000 m 2 w1
k f 10 1000
273.15 – 269.15
342 90
kf = 12.3 k kgmol–1. [1]
(ii) Tf = Kfm
= 12.3 × 10 × 1000 × 180 × 90 [1]
= 7.6 K
Tf = 273.15 – 7.6 = 265.55 K [1]
(b) (i) Number of moles of solute dissolved in per kilo gram of the solvent. [1]
(ii) Abnormal molar mass : If the molar mass calculated by using [1]
any of the colligative properties to be different than theoretically
10. (a) 30 g of urea (M = 60 g mol–1) is dissolved in 846 g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure
of water for this solution if vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mm Hg.
(b) Write two differences between ideal solutions and non-ideal solutions.
Ans. (a) (PA0 PA ) / PA0 = (wB × MA)/(MB × wA)
23.8 PA
(30 18) / 60 846
23.8
23.8 – PA = 23.8 × [(30 × 18)/60 × 846]
23.8 – PA = 0.2532
PA = 23.55 mm Hg
(b) Ideal solution Non ideal solution
(a) It obeys Raoult's law over the (a) Does not obey Rauolt's
entire range of concentration. law over the entire range of concentration.
(b) mix
H=0 (b) mix
H is not equal to 0.
(c) mix
V=0 (c) mix
V is not equal to 0.
(any two correct difference) [3+2=5]
E
CBSE 13
11. (i) Write the colligative property which is used to find the molecular mass of macromolecules
(ii) In non-ideal solution, what type of deviation shows the formation of minimum boiling
azeotropes ?
Ans. (i) Osmotic pressure [1]
(ii) Positive deviation from Raouts’ law/ Positive deviation [1]
12. Calculate the boiling point of solution when 2 g of Na2SO4 (M = 142 g mol–1) was dissolved
in 50 g of water, assuming Na2SO4 undergoes complete ionization. (Kb for water = 0.52 K kg mol–1)
K b w b 1000
Ans. Tb i [1/2]
M b wa
3 0.52 2 1000
Tb [1/2]
142 50
= 0.439 K [1/2]
Tb = Tb – Tb0 [1/2]
Tb = 0.439 + 373 = 373.439 K [1]
13. (i) Why are aquatic species more comfortable in cold water than in warm water ?
(ii) What happens when we place the blood cell in saline water solution (hypertonic solution)?
Give reason.
Ans. (i) As solubility of gases decreases with increase of temperature, less oxygen is available in
summer in the lakes / as cold water contains more oxygen dissolved. [1]
(ii) They will shrink , due to osmosis. [1]
14. Vapour pressure of water at 20°C is 17.5 mm Hg. Calculate the vapour pressure of water at 20°C
when 15 g of glucose (Molar mass = 180 g mol–1) is dissolved in 150 g of water.
Ans. PAo = 17.5 mm of Hg WB = 15 g MB = 180 g/mol
WA = 150 g PS = ?
PAo PS WB M A PAo PS 15 18
0.01 [1]
PAo M B WA PAo 180 150
PAo PS 17.5 PS
0.01 [1]
PAo 17.5
PS = 17.325 mm of Hg [1]
E
14 Chemistry
EXERCISE-3 RACE
Type 1 : Passage question 1 :-
Henry was the first to give a quantitative relation between pressure and solubility of a gas in a
solvent which is known as Henry’s law. The law states that at a constant temperature, the
solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure of the gas. Dalton, a
contemporary of Henry, also concluded independently that the solubility of a gas in a liquid
solution is a function of partial pressure of the gas. If we use the mole fraction of a gas in the
solution as a measure of its solubility, then it can be said that the mole fraction of gas in the
solution is proportional to the partial pressure of the gas over the solution. The most commonly
used form of Henry’s law states that “the partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the solution” and is expressed as : p = KHx
(a) “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas (x) in the solution” is :
(i) Raoult’s law (ii) Dalton’s law
(iii) Henry’s law (iv) None of these
(b) Value of Henry’s constant KH ____________.
(i) increases with increase in temperature.
(ii) decreases with increase in temperature.
(iii) remains constant.
(iv) first increases then decreases.
(c) The value of Henry’s constant KH is _____________.
(i) greater for gases with higher solubility.
(ii) greater for gases with lower solubility.
(iii) constant for all gases.
(iv) not related to the solubility of gases.
(d) KH value for Ar(g), CO2(g), HCHO (g) and CH4(g) are 40.39, 1.67, 1.83 × 10–5 and 0.413
respectively. Arrange these gases in the order of their increasing solubility :-
(i) HCHO < CH4 < CO2 < Ar (ii) HCHO < CO2 < CH4 < Ar
(iii) Ar < CO2 < CH4 < HCHO (iv) Ar < CH4 < CO2 < HCHO
OR
What do we do to avoid the bend in scuba divers kit :
(i) air is diluted with He
(ii) air is diluted with N2
(iii) increase the concentration of O2
(iv) decrease the concentration of O2
E
CBSE 15
Type 2 : Assertion and Reason :-
Question 2 to 6 :- Note :- In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a
reason. Choose the correct answer out of the following choices –
(i) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct statements, and Reason (R) is the correct
explanation of Assertion (A).
(ii) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct statements, but Reason (R) is not the correct
(iii) Assertion (A) is correct, but Reason (R) is incorrect statement.
(iv) Assertion (A) is incorrect, but Reason (R) is correct statement.
2. Assertion : Molarity of a solution in liquid state changes with temperature.
Reason : The volume of a solution changes with change in temperature.
3. Assertion : When methyl alcohol is added to water, the boiling point of water increases.
Reason : When a volatile solute is added to a volatile solvent elevation in the boiling point is
observed.
4. Assertion : When NaCl is added to water a depression in freezing point is observed.
Reason : The lowering of vapour pressure of a solution causes depression in the freezing point.
5. Assertion : When a solution is separated from the pure solvent by a semipermeable membrane,
the solvent molecules pass through it from pure solvent side to the solution side.
Reason : Diffusion of solvent occurs from a region of high concentration solution to a region of
low concentration solution.
6. Assertion : Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high
altitude suffer from anoxia.
Reason : due to low atmospheric pressure.
Type 3 : Multiple choice question (one correct answer) (Questions 7 to 16) :-
7. On dissolving sugar in water at room temperature solution feels cool to touch. Under which of
the following cases dissolution of sugar will be most rapid ?
(i) Sugar crystals in cold water.
(ii) Sugar crystals in hot water.

(iii) Powdered sugar in cold water.
(iv) Powdered sugar in hot water.
8. At equilibrium the rate of dissolution of a solid solute in a volatile liquid solvent is __________.
(i) less than the rate of crystallisation (ii) greater than the rate of crystallisation
(iii) equal to the rate of crystallisation (iv) zero
9. A beaker contains a solution of substance ‘A’. Precipitation of substance ‘A’ takes place when
small amount of ‘A’ is added to the solution. The solution is _________.
(i) Saturated (ii) supersaturated
(iii) unsaturated (iv) concentrated
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16 Chemistry
10. Maximum amount of a solid solute that can be dissolved in a specified amount of a given liquid
solvent does not depend upon ____________.
(i) Temperature (ii) Nature of solute
(iii) Pressure (iv) Nature of solvent
11. Low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high altitude is due to
____________.
(i) low temperature
(ii) low atmospheric pressure
(iii) high atmospheric pressure
(iv) both low temperature and high atmospheric pressure
12. Considering the formation, breaking and strength of hydrogen bond, predict which of the
following mixtures will show a positive deviation from Raoult’s law?
(i) Methanol and acetone (ii) Chloroform and acetone
(iii) Nitric acid and water (iv) Phenol and aniline
13. Colligative properties depend on ____________.
(i) the nature of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
(ii) the number of solute particles in solution.
(iii) the physical properties of the solute particles dissolved in solution.
(iv) the nature of solvent particles.
14. The unit of ebulioscopic constant is _______________.
(i) K kg mol–1 or K (molality)–1 (ii) mol kg K–1 or K–1 (molality)
(iii) kg mol–1 K–1 or K–1 (molality)–1 (iv) K mol kg–1 or K (molality)
15. An unripe mango placed in a concentrated salt solution to prepare pickle, shrivels because _____.
(i) it gains water due to osmosis.
(ii) it loses water due to reverse osmosis.
(iii) it gains water due to reverse osmosis.
(iv) it loses water due to osmosis.
16. If two liquids A and B form minimum boiling azeotrope at some specific composition then ____.
(i) A–B interactions are stronger than those between A–A or B–B.
(ii) Vapour pressure of solution increases because more number of molecules of liquids A and B
can escape from the solution.
(iii) Vapour pressure of solution decreases because less number of molecules of only one of the
liquid.
ANSWER-KEY
Q. No. 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Ans. (iii) (i) (ii) (iii) or (i) (i) (iii) (i) (ii) (i) (iv) (iii)
Q. No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. (ii) (iii) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) (iv) (i)
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CBSE 17
EXERCISE-4 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION
1. Increasing the temperature of an aqueous solution will cause : [1]

(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
(a) Increase in Molarity (b) Increase in Molality
(c) Decrease in Molarity (d) Decrease in Molality
Ans. (c)
An increase in temperature increases the volume of the solution and thus, decreases it's molarity.
2. Which of the following conditions is correct for an ideal solution ? [1]

(CBSE 2022 Term-I)
(a) Hmix = 0 and Vmix = 0 (b) Hmix > 0 and Vmix > 0
(c) Hmix < 0 and Vmix < 0 (d) Hmix > 0 and Vmix < 0
Ans. (a)
3. For determination of molar mass of polymers and proteins, which colligative property is
used ? [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term-I)
(a) Relative lowering in vapour pressure (b) Elevation in boiling point
(c) Osmotic pressure (d) Depression in freezing point
Ans. (c) Osmotic pressure
Because this is the only method which takes place at room temperature and all biomolecules are
unstable above room temperature.
4. Pure water boils at 373.15 K and nitric acid boils at 359.15 K. An azeotropic mixture of H2O and
HNO3 boils at 393.55 K. Distilling the azeotropic mixture will cause : [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
(a) Pure nitric acid to distil over first

(b) Pure water to distil over first.
(c) One of them to distil over with a small amount of the other.
(d) Both of them to distil over in the same composition as that of the mixture being distilled.
Ans. (d)
Some liquid on mixing forms azerotropes which are binary mixtures having the same
composition in liquid and vapour phase and boil at constant temperature. The liquid and vapour
have the same composition and no further separation occures.
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18 Chemistry
5. A 5% (by mass) solution of glucose (molar mass = 180 g mol–1) is isotonic with 1% solution (by
mass) of a substance 'X'. The molar mass of 'X' is : [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
–1 –1 –1
(a) 36 g mol (b) 18 g mol (c) 72 g mol (d) 900 g mol–1
Ans. (a)
For isotomic solution
C1 = C2
n1 n 2
v v
w1 / m 1 w 2 / m 2
v v
5 1
180 x
x = 180/5 = 36 g mol–1.
6. When 2.5g of a non-volatile solute was dissolved in 50 mL of water, it gave boiling point
elevation of 0.52 °C. The molar mass of the solute is (Kb for water = 0.52 Km–1) [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
(a) 100g mol–1 (b) 50g mol–1 (c) 25g mol–1 (d) 75g mol–1
W2 1000
Ans. (b) Tb = kbm = k b
M 2 W1
2.5 1000
0.52 = 0.52 ×
50 w1
0.52 2.5 1000
w1 50 g mol 1
10 50 2.52
7. To increase the solubility of CO2 gas in soft drinks, the bottle is sealed under : [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
(a) Low pressure (b) High temperature (c) Constant pressure (d) High pressure
Ans. (d)
To increase the solubility of CO2 gas in soft drink the bottle are sealed under low temperature and
high pressure. Because solubility of gas in liquid increases under low temp and high pressure.
(acc. to Henry's law).
8. A solution of a pair of volatile liquids A and B shows negative deviation from Raoult's law. This
is because :- [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
o o
(a) p A p A x A and p B pB x B
(b) The intermolecular forces A –A, B – B < A – B
(c) Both Hmixing and Vmixing are positive
(d) All of the above
Ans.. (b)
Properties of Raoult's law of negative deviation.
(i) Hmix < 0
(ii) Vmix < 0
(iii) PT < PAo XA + PBo XB
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CBSE 19
9. Assertion (A) : Relative lowering in vapour pressure is a colligative property. [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term-I)
Reason (R) : Relative lowering in vapour pressure depends upon mole fraction of pure solvent.
Ans. (iii)
Relative lowering in vapour pressure depends on upon number of solute particles.
reason is false.
10. Which of the following analogies is correct ? [1]
(CBSE 2022 Term -I)
(a) Chloroform-acetone : Positive deviation : : Ethanol H2O : Negative deviation.
(b) pA p Ao x A : Henry 's law : : p = KH x : Raoult's law.
(c) PTotal = pA + pB : Non-ideal solution : : PTotal > pA + pB : Ideal solution
(d) = CRT : Osmotic pressure :: P > : Reverse osmosis.
Ans. (d)
= CRT : Osmotic pressure : : P > reverse osmosis.
Chloroform : acetone show negative derivation due to formation of H-Bond between chloroform
and acetone molecules.
Ethanol : H2O show positive derivation due to weak inter molecular force of attraction.
P = KHX is Henry's law & P = P A 0 XA is Raoult's law.
Ptotal = PA + PB for ideal solution = Ptotal > PA + PB for Non ideal solution.
11. Assertion (A) : Molarity of a solution in liquid state changes with temperature.
Reason (R) : The volume of solution changes with the change in temperature. [1]
(CBSE 2021 Compartment)

Ans. (i) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct statements, and Reason (R) is the correct
E
20 Chemistry
12. (a) State Henry’s law and mention its two applications. [2]
(b) 5% aqueous solution of a non-volatile solute was made and its vapour pressure at 373 K was
found to be 745 mm. Vapour pressure of pure water at this temperature was 760 mm. Calculate
the molar mass of solute. [3]
OR
(a) Give two differences between ideal and non-ideal solutions. [2]
(b) Calculate the amount of NaCl (M = 58·5 g mol–1) that must be added to 100 g of water so that
freezing point is depressed by 2 K. Kf for water is 1·86 K/m. [3]
Ans. (a) The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (P) is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas (X) in the solution. (This is most common definition) [1]
P = KHX KH = Henry's Constant
Applications : [1]
(1) To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under
high pressure.
(2) At high altitudes the partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground level. This
leads to low concentration of oxygen in the blood and tissues of people living at high
altitudes or climbers. Low blood oxygen causes climbers to become weak and unable to
think clearly, symptoms of a condition known as anoxia.
PA0 Ps nB
(b) Raoult's law, [1] WB(mass of solute) = 5g in 100 g of solution
PA0 nA
760 745 5 / M B
[1] WA = 95 g mass of solvent) ;
760 95 / M B
5 18 760
MB = 48g / mol [1] mA (molecular mass of water) = 18 g
15 95
mB (molecular mass of solute) = ?
U.P. of pure water) PAo = 760 mmHg ;
Ps (V.P. of solution after addition of solute)
= 745 mm Hg
OR
(a) Ideal solution Non-ideal solution
(i) It obeys Raoult's law over the (i) Does not obey Raoult's
entire range of concentration. law over the entire range of concentration.
(ii) mix H = 0 (ii) mix H is not equal to 0.
(b) Tf = i × kf × m [1] NaCl Na+ + Cl– i = 2.
w 1000
Tf = i × kf × [½] w1 = 100 g
m w
w 1000
2 = 2 × 1.86 × [½] M2 = 58.5 g mol–1
58.5 100
58.5
w =
1.86 10
w = 3.145 g [1]
E
CBSE 21
13. Identify which liquid will have a higher vapour pressure at 90°C if the boiling points of two
liquids A and B are 140°C and 180°C, respectively. [1]
(CBSE 2020)
Ans. (A)
14. For a 5% solution of urea (Molar mass = 60 g/mol), calculate the osmotic pressure at 300 K.
[R = 0.0821 LatmK-1mol-1] : (CBSE 2020)
OR
Visha took two aqueous solutions - one containing 7.5 g of urea (Molar mass = 60 g/mol) and the
other containing 42.75 g of substance Z in 100 g of water, respectively. It was observed that both
the solutions froze at the same temperature. Calculate the molar mass of Z. [2]
Ans. = CRT (Volume of solution = 100 mL) [½]
n
RT [½]
v
5 0.0821 300
[½]
60 0.1
= 20.5 atm [½]
OR
Tf(urea) = Tf(Z) [½]
w urea 1000 wz 1000
kƒ kf [½]
Murea w solvent Mz wsolvent
7.5 1000 42.75 1000
[½]
60 100 Mz 100
42.75 60
Mz = 342 g / mol [½]
7.50
15. Calculate the mass of ascorbic acid (Molar mass = 176gmol–1) to be dissolved in 75g of acetic
acid, to lower its freezing point by 1.5°C. (Kf = 3.9 K kgmol–1) [3]
(CBSE 2020)
Ans. Tf Kfm [1]
w 1000
Tf Kf [1]
m W
w 1000
1.5 3.9 [1]
176 75
mass of ascorbic acid (w) = 5.08 g
16. Give reasons : [2]
(a) Cooking is faster in pressure cooker than in cooking pan. (CBSE 2019)
(b) Red Blood Cells (RBC) shrink when placed in saline water but swell in distilled water.
Ans. (a) Due to increase of pressure in cooker, boiling point of water increases [1]
(b) RBC looses water in saline water and absorb water in distilled water due to osmosis. [1]
E
22 Chemistry
17. A solution containing 1.9 g per 100 mL of KCl (M = 74.5 g mol–1) is isotonic with a solution
containing 3 g per 100 mL of urea (M = 60 g mol–1). Calculate the degree of dissociation of KCl
solution. Assume that both the solutions have same temperature. [3]
(CBSE 2019)
Ans. 1
(urea) = 2
[KCl]
C1RT = iC2RT [1]
n1 n2
i (V1 = V2)
V1 V2
3 1.9
i [1]
60 74.5
i = 1.96
i 1 1.96 1
= 0.96 or 96% [1]
n 1 2 1
(a) A decrease in temperature is observed on mixing ethanol and acetone. (CBSE 2019)
(b) Potasium chloride solution freezes at a lower temperature than water.
Ans. (a) Due to positive deviation. [1]
(b) Due to more van't hoff factor. [1]
(a) An increase in temperature is observed on mixing chloroform and acetone. (CBSE 2019)
(b) Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
Ans. (a) Due to negative deviation [1]
(b) In water, oxygen is in dissolved state & as temperature rises, the solubility of oxygen
decreases, It means the solubility of oxygen is less in warm, because of this reason Aquatic
animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water. [1]
20. Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 60 g of glucose (Molar mass = 180 g mol–1)
in 250 g of water. (CBSE 2018)
–1
(Kf of water = 1.86 K kg mol )
Ans. W1 = 250 g ; w2 = 60g ; M2 = 180g/mol or 180g mol–1
Kf = 1.86 k kg mol–1
Tf = Kf m [1/2]
w2 (g) 1000 60 1000
Tf = Kf × 1.86 [1/2]
M 2 w1 (g) 180 250
= 2.48 K [1/2]
Tf = t(solvent) – t(solution) [1/2]
t(solution) = t(solvent) – Tf
= 273.15 – 2.48 = 270.67 K [1]
E
CBSE 23
21. Give reasons for the following : [3]
(CBSE 2018)
(a) Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination of molar
masses of macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.
(b) Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
(c) Elevation of boiling point of 1 M KCl solution is nearly double than that of 1M sugar
solution.
Ans. (a) Protein are high molecular mass material, the magnitude of colligative property depends
inversely on the molecular mass and osmotic pressure is the only colligative property have
measurable magnitude. So, the Osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination
of molar mass of macromolecules as proteins & polymers. [1]
(b) In water, oxygen is in dissolved state & as temperature rises, the solubility of oxygen
animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water. [1]
(c) The value of Van't Haff factor is twice in 1M KCl than 1M sugar solution due to which
elevation of Boiling point is more.
The solvent is somewhat but KCl is ionic due to which it dissociates completely.
The elevation of B.P. is Tb i K b m {In both 1 M KCl & 1M sugar solution} [1]
E
24 Chemistry
EXERCISE-5 MOCK TEST
1. Define the term 'osmotic pressure. [1]
2. Define the Mole fraction. [1]
3. Define the Azeotrope. [1]
4. State the Raoult’s law in its general form in reference to solutions. [2]
5. State the Henry’s law about partial pressure of a gas in a mixture. [2]
6. Explain the Boiling point elevation constant for a solvent. [2]
7. What type of deviation is shown by a mixture of ethanol and acetone ? Give reason. [2]
8. Write three differences between ideal solutions and non-ideal solutions. [3]
9. A solution of glucose (molar mass = 180 g mol–1) in water is labelled as 10% (by mass). What
would be the molality and molarity of the solution ? [3]
(Density of solution = 1.2 g mL–1)
10. Calculate the freezing point of a solution containing 60 g of glucose (Molar mass = 180 g mol–1)
in 250 g of water. (Kf of water = 1.86 K kg mol–1) [3]
11. (a) Give reasons for the following : [5]
(i) Measurement of osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination of molar masses
of macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.
(ii) Aquatic animals are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
(iii) Cooking is faster in pressure cooker than in cooking pan.
(b) 30g of urea (M = 60 g mol–1) is dissolved in 846 g of water. Calculate the vapour pressure of
water for this solution if vapour pressure of pure water at 298 K is 23.8 mm Hg.
E
CBSE 25
MOCK TEST SOLUTIONS

1. When two liquids of different conc. are separated by SPM, solvent flows from low conc. to high
conc. amount of external pressure required to be applied on conc. side to stop movement of
solvent in known as osmotic pressure.
2. Mole fraction : ratio of moles of solute and sum of moles of solute and moles of solution.
3. The binary mixture (liquid mixtures) having the same composition in liquid and vapour phase
and boil at constant temperature are called azeotropic mixtures or azeotropes.
4. It states that for a solution of volatile liquids, the partial vapour pressure of each component in
the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction.
5. Henry's law : The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase (P) is proportional to the mole
fraction of the gas (X) in the solution.
6. When molality (m) of solution is taken as unity then Kb = Tb.
7. In case of positive deviation from Raoult's law, A-B interactions are weaker than those between
A-A or B-B, i.e., in this case the intermolecular attractive forces between the solute-solvent
molecules are weaker than those between the solute-solute and solvent-solvent molecules. This
means that in such solutions, molecules of (A or B) will find it easier to escape than in pure state.
This will increase the vapour the hydrogen bonds between them. Due to weakening of
interactions, the solution shows positive deviation from Raoult's law.
8. Ideal solution Non ideal solution
(a) It obeys Raoult's law over the (a) Does not obey Raoult's
entire range of concentration law over the entire range of concentration
(b) mix
H=0 (b) mix
H is not equal to 0
(c) mix
V=0 (c) mix
V is not equal to 0
w 1000
9. Molality (m) =
m w
10 1000
m ; m = 0.62
180 90
10 1000 100
Molarity (M) = ; V
100 1.2
180
1.2
10 1000 1.2
M ; M = 0.67 M
180 100
E
26 Chemistry
10. W1 = 250 g ; w2 = 60g ; M2 = 180g/mol or 180g mol–1
Kf = 1.86 k kg mol–1 ; Tf = Kf m
w2 (g) 1000 60 1000

Tf = Kf × 1.86 = 2.48 K
M 2 w1 (g) 180 250
Tf = t(solvent) - t(solution) ; t(solution) = t(solvent) – Tf
= 273.15 – 2.48 = 270.67 K
11. (a) (i) Protein are high molecular mass material, the magnitude of colligative property depends
inversely on the molecular mass and osmotic pressure is the only colligative property have
measurable magnitude. So, the Osmotic pressure method is preferred for the determination
of molar of macromolecules as proteins & polymers.
(ii) In water, oxygen is in dissolved state & as temperature rises, the solubility of oxygen
animals are more compertable in cold water than in warm water.
(iii) Due to increase of pressure in cooker, boiling point of water increases
(b) (PA0 PA ) / PA0 = (wB × MA) / (MB × wA) node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\02_Solution
23.8 PA
(30 18) / 60 846
23.8
23.8 – PA = 23.8 × [(30 × 18)/60 × 846]
23.8 – PA = 0.2532
PA = 23.55 mm Hg
E
CBSE 27
ELECTROCHEMISTRY : (CHAPTER-3)
CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
INTRODUCTION
Electrochemistry is the branch of physical chemistry which deals with the study of
interconversion of chemical energy and electrical energy.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL
Galvanic cell or Voltaic cell Electrolytic cell.

• Chemical energy Electrical energy • Electrical energy Chemical energy
• Spontaneous redox reaction • Non spontaneous redox reaction
Example : Daniell Cell
DANIELL CELL :
At Anode : Zn(s) Zn+2(aq.) + 2e–
At Cathode : Cu+2(aq.) + 2e– Cu(s) e– e–
_______________________________
Zn(s)+Cu+2(aq.) Zn+2(aq.) + Cu(s) Zinc (anode) Cl¯
+
K + Copper (cathode)
Salt Bridge and its functions : Salt bridge
Salt bridge is inverted U-tube containing
solution of inert electrolyte with agar-agar or 2e¯ –2
2e¯
SO
gelatin to convert into semi solid form. +2
Zn
4
+2
Zn Cu Cu
Ions of inert electrolyte do not involve in any
chemical change.
The electrolyte in salt bridge should be such that speed of it's cation is nearly equal to speed of
it's anion.
Ex. KCl, KNO3, NH4NO3
Function : It maintains the electrical neutrality of the solution in order to give continuous flow
or generation of current.
Cell Representation : Zn(s) | ZnSO4 (aq) CuSO4(aq) |Cu(s)
ELECTRODE POTENTIAL :
The potential developed between metal electrode and its ions in solution is known as electrode
potential.
The potential developed between metal electrodes and the solution of its ions at 1M
node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
concentration at 1bar pressure and 298K is known as standard electrode potential.

REFERENCE ELECTRODE :
The potential of a single electrode cannot be determined but the potential difference between
two electrodes can be accurately measured using a reference electrode.
An electrode is chosen as a reference with respect to which all other electrodes are valued.
STANDARD HYDROGEN ELECTRODE (SHE) :
Representation : Pt, H2(g) | H+ (1M)
H2(g)
When SHE acts as anode
(at 1bar)
H2(g) 2H+ + 2e–
When SHE acts as cathode
+
H3O (aq) Pt black
2H+ + 2e– H2(g) electrode
(1M)
For SHE electrode potential is arbitrarily assumed to be zero
at all temperature. SOP = –SRP = 0 for SHE.
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28 Chemistry
CELL POTENTIAL ( E 0cell ) :
E 0cell = SRP of cathode – SRP of anode.
NERNST EQUATION :
2 2
0 RT Zn 0 0.0591 Zn
E cell E cell n 2
Ecell E cell log 2
2F Cu 2 Cu
EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (Kc) FROM NERNST EQUATION :

Zn 2 0 2.303RT
Ecell 0 & K c
E cell log K c ...(1)
Cu 2 nF
GIBBS FREE ENERGY :

r
G = –nF Ecell r
Gº = –nF Eºcell ...(2)
Put Eºcell from equation (1) r
Gº = –2.303 RT log Kc
ELECTROLYTIC CONDUCTANCE
(a) Resistance (R) : Metallic and electrolytic conductors obey ohm's law according to which
the resistance of a conductor is the ratio of the applied potential difference (V) to the current (I)
V
flowing . R = R is expressed in ohms.
I
(b) Conductance (G) : It is the property by virtue of which it favours flow of current. The
conductance of a conductor is equal to reciprocal of resistance G = 1
R
unit of G is mho or ohm–1 or Siemens (S).
(c) Specific resistance/Resistivity ( ) :- The resistance (R) of a conductor is directly
proportional to its length ( ) and inversely proportional to its area of cross section (A).
A
= R × ; Therefore, resistance offered by 1 cm3 electrolytic solution is known as
resistivity. Unit of ohm cm

(d) Specific conductance/ Conductivity ( ) :-
It is defined as the reciprocal of specific resistance, = 1
G G*
Specific conductance = Conductance × Cell constant
Hence specific conductivity of a solution is defined as the conductance offered by 1 cm3 of
1 1
electrolytic solution. Unit of is ohm cm
Cell constant : G* ; Its unit is cm–1

A
(e) Molar conductivity or Molar conductance :- ( m, or m ) : It is defined as the conductance
of all the ions produced by one mole of electrolyte present in the given volume of solution.
m
= ×V
V = Volume of solution containing 1 mol of electrolyte.
If concentration of solution is M - mol per litre then
1000
m
= Unit ohm –1 cm 2 mol –1
M
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CBSE 29
DETERMINATION OF MOLAR CONDUCTANCE OF
ELECTROLYTES AT INFINITE DILUTION
Debye Huckel Onsager equation –
400
/(S cm mol )
CH3COOH
–1
m m b C [only for strong electrolyte]
(Weak electrolyte)
where = molar conductance at concentration C,
2
m
m
= molar conductance at dilution,
b = constant and its value is same for a particular type of 200
electrolyte.
m
KCl
If a graph is plotted between m vs C a straight line is obtained (Strong electrolyte)
for strong electrolyte. On extrapolation this line touches m axis.
Therefore m for strong electrolyte can be found out from 0 0.2 0.4
intercept. For weak electrolyte the slope of curve is not constant 1/2
c /(mol/L)
1/2
so it cannot be extrapolated to obtain m

KOHLRAUSCH'S LAW OF INDEPENDENT MIGRATION OF IONS
This law states that the equivalent conductivity of any electrolyte at infinite dilution ( eq. ) is the
sum of equivalent ionic conductivities of the cation and anion given by the electrolytes at infinite
dilution.
eq c a Where c = equivalent conductance of cation at infinite dilution.
= equivalent conductance of anion at infinite dilution.
a
APPLICATIONS OF KOHLRAUSCH'S LAW :

(a) To calculate conductance of weak electrolyte.
(b) To calculate degree of dissociation :
molar conductance at a given concentration
Degree of dissociation m
m molar conductance at infinite dilution

(c) To calculate dissociation constant of weak electrolyte
2
C
Ka
(1 )
2
If 5% then K a = C
ELECTROLYSIS
The process of chemical decomposition of an electrolyte by the passage of electricity is called
electrolysis or electrolytic dissociation. It is carried out in electrolytic cell where electrical
energy is converted into chemical energy.
There are two aspects of electrolysis : + –
e¯ e¯
Examples of electrolysis :
Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride -ve

NaCl Na+ + Cl– anode(+) ion Cathode (–)
At anode (oxidation) : 2Cl– Cl2(g) + 2e– (inert) +ve
ion (inert)
At cathode (reduction) : 2Na+ + 2e– 2Na(s) Electrolyte
FARADAY’S LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS Electrolytic cell
(a) First law of electrolysis :
Amount of substance deposited or liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to amount of
charge passed through the solution.
W Q where W = amount of substance deposited, Q = charge in coulomb
W = ZQ where Z = electrochemical equivalent
Let I ampere current is passed till ‘t’ seconds .
Then, Q = I t W=ZIt
1 Faraday = 96500 coulomb = Charge on one mole electrons
One faraday is the charge required to liberate or deposit one gram equivalent of a
substance at corresponding electrode.
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30 Chemistry
(b) Second law of electrolysis :
When same amount of charge is passed through different electrolyte solutions connected in
series then weight of substances deposited or liberated at electrodes are in ratio of their
W1 E1
respective equivalent weights. i.e. .
W2 E2
COMMERCIAL VOLTAIC CELLS
Batteries can be classified as primary and secondary. Primary batteries cannot be returned to
their original state by recharging, so when the reactants are consumed, the battery is "dead" and
must be discarded. Secondary batteries are often called storage batteries or rechargeable
batteries. The reactions in these batteries can be reversed; thus, the batteries can be recharged.
(A) PRIMARY CELL : Dry cells
Anode Zn(s) Zn+2 + 2e–
Cathode MnO2 + NH4+ + e– MnO(OH) + NH3
EMF 1.5 V
(B) SECONDARY OR RECHARGEABLE BATTERY : Lead Storage Battery
The most important secondary cell is the lead storage battery. It consists of a lead as anode and
a grid of lead dioxide as cathode.
EMF 2 V. So, a lead storage battery consisting of six cells will give 12V.
At Anode : Pb(s) + SO42– (aq.) PbSO4(s) + 2e–
PbO2(s) + 4H (aq.) + SO4–2 (aq.) + 2e–
+
At Cathode : PbSO4(s) + 2H2O( )
——————————————————————————
Net cell reaction : Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq.) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O( )
(C) Fuel Cells
Galvanic cells that are designed to convert the energy of combustion of fuels like hydrogen,
methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy are called fuel cells.
EMF 1.23 V.
The electrode reactions are :
At anode : 2[H2(g) + 2OH– (aq) 2H2O( ) + 2e– ]
At cathode : O2(g) + 2H2O( ) + 4e– 4OH– (aq)
————————————————
Net cell reaction : 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O( )
CORROSION
Corrosion is basically an electrochemical phenomenon. The rusting of iron, the tarnishing of
silver, development of a green coating on copper and bronze are some of the examples of
corrosion. Corrosion causes enormous damage to building, bridges, ships and to many other
articles made of iron.

Anode : Fe(s) Fe2+ (aq) + 2e– ; ( E 0 Fe / Fe 0.44V )
2
+ –
Cathode : O2(g) + 4H (aq) + 4e 2H2O ( ) ; (E0 = 1.23 V)
Overall reaction : 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) 2Fe2+(aq) + 2H2O( ) ; E0Cell = 1.67 V)
The Fe2+ ions are further oxidised by atmospheric oxygen to Fe3+ (as Fe2O3) and comes out as rust
in the form of a hydrated iron (III) oxide expressed as Fe2O3, xH2O.
4Fe2+(aq) + O2(g) + 4H2O( ) 2Fe2O3(s) + 8H+
H+ ions produced in the above reaction help further in rusting.
PREVENTION FROM CORROSION
Corrosion of a metal is prevented by applying protective coating (such as grease, paint,
bisphenol or metal coatings) on metal surface. In case of iron this coating is done in two ways :
(i) electrolysis (Cr, Ni and Cd coating) (ii) dipping iron objects in a molten metal (Zn and Sn
coating). Use of zinc coating to protect iron is called Galvanisation.
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CBSE 31

1. Calculate the potential of hydrogen electrode in contact with a solution whose pH is 10.
Ans. 2H+ + 2e– H2
0.059 PH
Ecell = E 0cell – log 2 2
2 [H ]
Eocell = 0, PH 2 = 1atm, [H ] = 10 = 10
+ –pH –10
0.059 1
Ecell = – log = -0.59V
2 (10 -10 )2
2. Calculate the emf of the cell in which following reaction takes place :
Ni(s) + 2Ag+ (0.002 M) Ni2+ (0.160 M) + 2Ag(s)
Given that Eocell = 1.05 V
Ans. Applying Nernst equation we have:
0.0591 Ni2 0.0591 0.160

E(cell) = E cell log 2
1.05 log 2
n Ag 2 0.002
0.16
1.05 0.02955log = 1.05 – 0.02955 log 4 × 104
0.000004
= 1.05 – 0.02955 (log 10000 + log 4)
= 1.05 – 0.02955 (4 + 0.6021)
= 1.05 – 0.02955 (4.6021)
= 1.05 – 0.14 = 0.91 V
3. The cell in which the following reaction occurs :
2Fe 3 (aq.) 2I (aq.) 2Fe 2 (aq.) I 2 (s) has Eocell = 0.236 V at 298 K
Calculate the standard Gibbs energy and equilibrium constant of the cell reaction.
Ans. Go = nFE cell = –2 × 96500 × 0.236 joule mol–1 = –45.55 kJ mol–1

r
Go = –2.303 RT log Kc
r
(R = 8.314 J K–1 mol–1)

–45.55 = –2.303 × 8.314 × 298 log Kc
or log Kc = 7.981 Kc = antilog (7.981)
or Kc = 9.6 × 107
4. Why does the conductivity the a solution decreases with dilution ?
Ans. The conductivity of a solution is the conductance of ions present in a unit volume of the solution.
The number of ions (responsible for carrying current) per unit volume decreases when the
solution is diluted. As a result, the conductivity of a solution decreases with dilution.
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32 Chemistry
0
5. Suggest a way to determine the m value of water.
Ans. Applying Kohlrausch’s law of independent migration of ions, the value of water can be
determined as follows :
0 0 0
m(H 2 O) H OH
0 0 0 0 0 0
H Cl Na OH Na Cl
0 0 0 0
m(H 2 O) m(HCl) m(NaOH) m(NaCl)
Hence, by knowing the values of HCl, NaOH, and NaCl, the value of water can be determined.
6. If a current of 0.5 ampere flows through a metallic wire for 2 hours, then how many electrons
would flow through the wire ?
Ans. I = 0.5 A, t = 2 hours = 2 × 60 × 60 s = 7200 s
Q = It = 0.5A × 7200 s = 3600C
96500 coulomb are equivalent of 6.023 × 1023 number of electrons
6.023 ×10 23 × 3600

3600 coulomb are equivalent to = 2.246 ×1022 electrons
96500
7. Write the chemistry of recharging the lead storage battery, highlighting all the materials that are
involved during recharging.
Ans. lead storage battery consists of a lead anode, a grid of lead packed with lead oxide (PbO2) as the
cathode, and a 38% solution of sulphuric acid (H2SO4) as an electrolyte.
When the battery is in use, the following cell reactions take place:
At Anode : Pb(s) + SO42– (aq.) PbSO4(s) + 2e–
At Cathode : PbO2(s) + 4H+ (aq.) + SO4–2 (aq.) + 2e– PbSO4(s) + 2H2O( )
—————————————————————————
Net cell reaction : Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq.) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O( ) node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
When a battery is charged, the reverse of all these reactions takes place.
Hence, on charging, PbSO4 (s) present at the anode and cathode is converted into Pb(s) and
PbO2(s) respectively.
8. The standard electrode potential for Daniell cell is 1.1 V. Calculate the standard Gibbs energy for
the reaction : Zn(s) Cu 2 (aq) Zn 2 (aq) Cu(s)
Ans. r G nF E(Cell)
F = 96487 C mol–1 and E(Cell) 1.1 V

1
Therefore, r G 2 1.1 V 96487 C mol = – 21227 J mol–1
= – 212.27 kJ mol–1
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CBSE 33
9. Resistance of a conductivity cell filled with 0.1 mol L–1 KCl solution is 100 . If the resistance
–1
of the same cell when filled with 0.02 mol L KCl solution is 520 . Calculate the conductivity
and molar conductivity of 0.02 mol L–1 KCl solution. The conductivity of 0.1 mol L–1 KCl
solution is 1.29 S/m.
Ans. The cell constant is given by the equations: Cell constant = G* = conductivity × resistance
= 1.29 S/m × 100 = 129 m–1 = 1.29 cm–1
Conductivity of 0.02 mol L–1 KCl solution = Cell constant/resistance
1
G* 129 m 1
0.248 S m
R 520
Concentration = 0.02 mol L–1
= 1000 × 0.02 mol m–3 = 20 mol m–3
248 10 3 S m 1
Molar conductivity = m = 124 10 4 S m2 mol 1
c 20 mol m 3
1
1.29 cm 2 1 (Scm 1 ) 1000 (cm 3 L–1 )
Alternatively, 0.248 10 S cm and m
520 molarity(mol L 1 )
0.248 10 2 S cm 1 1000 cm3 L 1
= 124 S cm2 mol–1
0.02 S cm2 mol L 1
10. The electrical resistance of a column of 0.05 mol L–1NaOH solution of diameter 1 cm and length
50 cm is 5.55 × 103 ohm. Calculate its resistivity, conductivity and molar conductivity.
Ans. A = r2 = 3.14 × 0.52 cm2 = 0.785 cm2 = 0.785 × 10–4 m2
= 50 cm = 0.5 m
RA 5.55 103 0.785 cm2

R or 87.135 cm
A 50 cm
1 1 1
Conductivity = S cm = 0.01148 Scm–1
87.135
1000
Molar conductivity, m cm3 L 1

c
0.01148 S cm 1 1000 cm 3 L 1
1
= 229.6 S cm2 mol–1
0.05 mol L
If we want to calculate the values of different quantities in terms of m instead of cm.
RA 5.55 103 0.785 10 4 m2 2
87.135 10 m
0.5 m
1 100 1
m 1.148 S m
87.135
1.148 S m 1
and m 229.6 10 4 S m2 mol 1
c 50 mol m 3
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34 Chemistry
11. Calculate o
m for CaCl2 and MgSO4 If Ca 2
119.0 Scm 2 mol 1 , Cl
76.3Scm 2 mol 1 ,
Mg2
106 Scm 2 mol 1 , SO24
160 Scm 2 mol 1 .
Ans. o
m(CaCl2 )
0
Ca 2
2 Cl
119.0 S cm 2 mol 1
2(76.3) S cm 2 mol 1
= (119.0 + 152.6) S cm2 mol–1 = 271.6 S cm2 mol–1

o 0 0
m (MgSO 4 ) Mg 2 SO 24
106.0 S cm 2 mol 1
160.0 S cm 2 mol 1
= 266 S cm2 mol–1

12. The conductivity of 0.001028 mol L–1 acetic acid is 4.95 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate its dissociation
o
constant if m for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol–1.
4.95 10 5 S cm 1 1000 cm 3
Ans. m 48.15 Scm 3 mol 1
c 0.001028 mol L 1 L
m 48.15 S cm 2mol 1
o
0.1233
m 390.5 S cm 2 mol 1
2
c 0.001028 mol L 1 (0.1233)2
K 1.78 10 5 mol L 1
(1 ) 1 0.1233
13. A solution of CuSO4 is electrolysed for 10 minutes with a current of 1.5 amperes. What is the
mass of copper deposited at the cathode ?
Ans. t = 600 s
charge = current × time = 1.5 A × 600 s = 900 C
According to the reactions
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– Cu(s) node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
We require 2F or 2 × 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu.

For 900 C, the mass of Cu deposited = (63 g mol–1 × 900 C)/(2 × 96487 C mol–1) = 0.2938 g
E
CBSE 35

1. Calculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cell in which the following reactions take place :
2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd(s)
E Cr 3 /Cr
=–0.74 V ; E Cd 2 / Cd
= –0.40 V
Calculate the G and equilibrium constant of the reactions.

r
Ans. The galvanic cell of the given reaction is depicted as : Cr(s) Cr 3 (aq) Cd 2 (aq) Cd (s)
Now, the standard cell potential is Ecell ER E L = –0.40 – (–0.74) = +0.34 V
r G nFE cell
In the given equation, n = 6
F = 96487 C mol–1 Ecell 0.34V
Then, r G = –6 × 96487 C mol–1 × 0.34 V = – 196833.48 CV mol–1 = –196833.48 J mol–1

= –196.83 kJ mol–1
Again, r G = –RT ln K
r G = –2.303 RT log K
G 196.83 103
log K = – = –r
2.303RT 2.303 8.314 298
log K = 34.496
K = antilog (34.496) = 3.13 × 1034
2. Write the Nernst equation and emf of the following cells at 298K :
(i) Fe(s) Fe 2 (0.001M) H 1M H 2 (g) (1bar) Pt(s)
(ii) Pt(s) Br2 (l) Br 0.010 M H 0.030M H 2 (g) (1bar) Pt(s)
Ans. (i) For the given reaction, the Nernst equation can be given as :
0.0591 [Fe 2 ] 0.0591 0.001

E cell E cell log = 0 – –0.44 – log 2
n [H ]2 2 1
= 0.44 – 0.02955(–3) = 0.52865 V = 0.53 V (approximately)
(ii) For the given reaction, the Nernst equation can be given as :
0.0591 1 0.0591 1
Ecell Ecell log = 0 1.09 log
n [Br ] [H ]2
2
2 2
0.010 0.030
2
1 1
= – 1.09 0.02955 log = 1.09 0.02955 log 8
0.00000009 9 10
= –1.09 – 0.02955 × log(1.11 × 107) = –1.09 – 0.02955 (0.0453 + 7)
= –1.09 – 0.208 = –1.298 V
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36 Chemistry
3. Conductivity of 0.00241 M acetic acid is 7.896 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate its molar conductivity.
If om for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol–1, what is its dissociation constant ?
Ans. Given, = 7.896 × 10–5 S cm–1 C = 0.00241 mol L–1
7.896 10 5 Scm 1 1000 cm3
Then, molar conductivity, m = 1
= 32.76 S cm2 mol–1
C 0.00241mol L L
Again, 0
m = 390.5 S cm2 mol–1
32.76 S cm 2 mol 1
Now, m
0
= 0.084
m 390.5Scm 2 mol 1
2
c 2 0.00241mol L 1 0.084
Dissociation constant, K a = = 1.86 × 10–5 mol L–1
1 1 0.084
4. A solution of Ni(NO3)2 is electrolysed between platinum electrodes using a current of 5 amperes
for 20 minutes. What mass of Ni is deposited at the cathode ?
Ans. Given, Current = 5A
Time = 20 × 60 = 1200 s
Charge = current × time = 5 × 1200 = 6000 C
According to the reaction, Ni 2 (aq) 2e Ni(s)
58.7g
Nickel deposited by 2 × 96487 C = 58.71 g
58.71 6000
Therefore, nickel doposited by 6000 C = g = = 1.825 g
2 96487
Hence, 1.825 g of nickel will be deposited at the cathode.
5. Three electrolytic cells A, B, C containing solutions of ZnSO4, AgNO3 and CuSO4, respectively
are connected in series. A steady current of 1.5 amperes was passed through them until 1.45 g of
silver deposited at the cathode of cell B. How long did the current flow ? What mass of copper
and zinc were deposited ?
Ans. According to the reaction : Ag (aq ) e Ag s
108g
i.e., 108 g of Ag is deposited by 96487 C.
96487 1.45
Therefore, 1.45 g of Ag will be deposited by = C = 1295.43 C
108 node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
Given Current = 1.5A

1295.43
Time = s = 863.6 s = 864 s = 14.40 min
1.5
Again, Cu 2 (aq ) 2e Cu(s)
63.5g
i.e., 2 × 96487 C of charge deposit = 63.5 g of Cu
63.5 1295.43
Therefore, 1295.43 C of charge will deposite = g = 0.426 g of Cu
2 96487
Given, Zn 2 (aq) 2e Zn (s)
65.4g
i.e., 2 × 96487 C of charge deposite = 65.4 g of Zn
65.4 1295.43
Therefore, 1295.43 C of charge will deposit = g = 0.439 g of Zn
2 96487
E
CBSE 37
6. Write the name of the cell which is generally used in inverters. Write the reactions taking place
at the anode and the cathode of this cell.
Ans. Lead storage battery
Anode : Pb(s) + SO42–(aq.) PbSO4(s) + 2e– [1/2]
Cathode : PbO2 + SO42–(aq) + 4H+ + 2e– PbSO4(s) + 2H2O( ) [1/2]
7. (a) The cell in which the following reaction occurs :

2 Fe3+ (aq) + 2 I–(aq) 2Fe2+(aq) + I2(s) has = 0.236 V at 298 K, Calculate the standard
Gibbs energy of the cell reaction. (Given : 1 F = 96,500 C mol–1)
(b) How many electrons flow through a metallic wire if a current of 0.5 A is passed for 2 hours ?
(Given : 1 F = 96,500 C mol–1)
Ans. (a) G0 = –nFE0cell [1/2]
n=2
G0 = –2 × 96500 C/mol × 0.236 V = –45548 J/mol = – 45.548 kJ/mol [1]
(b) Q = l t = 0.5 × 2 × 60 × 60 = 3600 C [1/2]

96500 C = 6.023 × 1023 electrons
3600 C = 2.25 × 1022 electrons [1]
8. (a) Calculate for the following reaction at 298 K :
2Cr(s) + 3Fe2+ (0.01M) 2Cr3+(0.01M) + 3Fe(s)
Given : Ecell = 0.261 V

(b) Using the E° values of A and B, predict which one is better for coating the surface of iron
[E°(Fe2+/Fe) = –0.44 V] to prevent corrosion and why ?
Given : E°(A2+/A) = –2.37 V : E°(B2+/B) = –0.14V
0 0.059 [Cr 3 ]2
Ans. (a) Ecell E cell log [1/2]
n [Fe 2 ]3
0 0.059 [0.01]2
0.261V E cell log [1/2]
6 [0.01]3
0.059
0.261V E 0cell log100 [1/2]
6
E 0cell 0.261 0.0197 = 0.2807 V [1/2]
(b) A because low value of SRP [1]
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38 Chemistry
9. (a) The conductivity of 0.001 mol L–1 solution of CH3COOH is 3.905 × 10–5 S cm–1.
Calculate its molar conductivity and degree of dissociations (a).
Given l°(H+) = 349.6 S cm2 mol–1 and l°(CH3COO–)= 40.9 S cm2 mol–1.
(b) Define electrochemical cell. What happens if external potential applied becomes greater
than of electrochemical cell ?
c
Ans. (a) m
= k × 1000/C = 3.905 × 10–5 × 1000/0.001 = 39.05 S cm2/mole [1]
CH3COOH CH3COO– + H+
0
CH3COOH = CH3COO– + 0
H+
= 40.9 + 349.6
CH3COOH = 390.5 S cm2/mol
= 39.05/390.5 = 0.1 [1]
(b) An electrochemical cell is a device in which chemical energy of the redox reaction is
converted into electrical energy. While electrolytic cell do the reverse. e– flow from Cu
to Zn and current flows from Zn to Cu. [1]
10. Calculate the time to deposit 1.5 g of silver at cathode when a current of 1.5 A was passed
through the solution of AgNO3. (Molar mass of Ag = 108 g mol–1, 1 F = 96500 C mol–1)
Ans. Wt. of Ag = 1.5g Current = i = 1.5amp
Molecular mass = 108 g/mol F = 96500 C/mol
n = number of electron transferred
M I t
W [1]
n F
M n F 1.5 1 96500
t [1]
M I 108 1.5
= 893.51 s or 14.89 min [1]
11. Calculate E0cell and G0 for the following reaction at 25° C :
r
A2+ + B+ A3+ + B
Given : Kc = 1010, 1 F = 96500 C mol–1

Ans. A2+ + B+ A3+ + B (n = 1)
Kc = 1010 F = 96500C/mol T = 25º C = 298K
Go = ? Eo = ? R = 8.314J/K/mol
Go = –2.303 RT log Kc [1]
Go = –2.303 × 8.314 J/K/mol × 298K × log 1010.
Go = –57058.4 J/mol or –57.0584 kJ/mol
Go = –57058.4 J/mol = –nFEo = –1 × 96500 × Eo [1]
[1]
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CBSE 39
EXERCISE-3 RACE
Molar conductivity of solution is the conductance of solution containing one mole of electrolyte,
kept between two electrodes having unit length between them and large cross-sectional area, so
as to contain the electrolyte. In other words, molar conductivity is the conductance of the
electrolytic solution kept between the electrodes of a conductivity cell at unit distance but having
area of cross-section large enough to accommodate sufficient volume of solution that contains
one mole of the electrolyte. It is denoted by .
m
(a) The mathematical expression for molar conductivity is.

c 2
k G*
(i) Ka = (ii) m (iii) k = (iv) m m
1– C R
(b) The units of molar conductivity m
is :
(i) Scm2mol–1 (ii) Scm–1 (iii) Smolcm–2 (iv) cm–1
(c) Solutions of two electrolytes ‘A’ and ‘B’ are diluted. The m
of ‘B’ increases 1.5 times
while that of A increases 25 times. Which of the two is a strong electrolyte?
(i) electrolyte A (ii) electrolyte B (iii) electrolyte A & B (iv) None of these
(d) Molar conductivity of ionic solution depends on _________.
(i) pressure (ii) distance between electrodes
(iii) concentration of electrolytes in solution (iv) surface area of electrodes
Question 2 to 6 Note :- In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a reason.
choose the correct answer out of the following choices –

2. Assertion : Cu is less reactive than hydrogen.
Reason : E 0Cu2 /Cu
is negative.
3. Assertion : Conductivity of all electrolytes decreases on dilution.
Reason : On dilution number of ions per unit volume decreases.
4. Assertion : m for weak electrolytes shows a sharp increase when the electrolytic solution is
diluted.
Reason : For weak electrolytes degree of dissociation increases with dilution of solution.
E
40 Chemistry
5. Assertion : Current stops flowing when Ecell = 0.
Reason : Equilibrium of the cell reaction is attained.
6. Assertion : E Ag /Ag
increases with increase in concentration of Ag+ ions.
Reason : E Ag /Ag
has a positive value.
7. Which of the following statement is correct ?
(i) Ecell and G of cell reaction both are extensive properties.

r
(ii) Ecell and G of cell reaction both are intensive properties.

r
(iii) Ecell is an intensive property while r

G of cell reaction is an extensive property.
(iv) Ecell is an extensive property while r

G of the cell reaction is an intensive property.
8. The cell constant of a conductivity cell _________.
(i) changes with change of electrolyte.
(ii) changes with change of concentration of electrolyte.
(iii) changes with temperature of electrolyte.
(iv) remains constant for a cell.
9. Which cell will measure standard electrode potential of copper electrode ?
(i) Pt (s) | H2 (g,0.1 bar) | H+ (aq.,1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,1M) | Cu(s)
(ii) Pt(s) | H2 (g, 1 bar) | H+ (aq.,1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,2 M) | Cu(s)
(iii) Pt(s) | H2 (g, 1 bar) | H+ (aq.,1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,1 M) | Cu(s) node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
(iv) Pt(s) | H2 (g, 1 bar) | H+ (aq.,0.1 M) || Cu2+ (aq.,1 M) | Cu(s)
10. The difference between the electrode potentials of two electrodes when no current is drawn
through the cell is called ___________.
(i) Cell potential (ii) Cell emf
(iii) Potential difference (iv) Cell voltage
11. An electrochemical cell can behave like an electrolytic cell when ____________.
(i) Ecell = 0 (ii) Ecell > Eext
(iii) Eext > Ecell (iv) Ecell = Eext
E
CBSE 41
12. Which of the statements about solutions of electrolytes is not correct ?
(i) Conductivity of solution depends upon size of ions.
(ii) Conductivity depends upon viscosity of solution.
(iii) Conductivity does not depend upon solvation of ions present in solution.
(iv) Conductivity of solution increases with temperature.
13. m[NH 4 OH ]
is equal to ______________.
(i) m (NH 4 OH ) m (NH 4 Cl) – (HCl)
(ii) m(NH 4 Cl ) m (NaOH ) – (NaCl )
(iii) m(NH 4 Cl ) m (NaCl ) – (NaOH )
(iv) m(NaOH) m (NaCl) – (NH 4 Cl )
14. E Cell 1.1V for Daniel cell. Which of the following expressions are correct description of state of
equilibrium in this cell ?

2.303RT
(i) 1.1 Kc (ii) log K c 2.1
2F
2.2
(iii) log Kc = (iv) log Kc = 1.1
0.059
15. Conductivity k, is equal to ______________.
1 A G* l
(i) (ii) (iii) m
(iv)
R R A
16. For the given cell, Mg|Mg2+|| Cu2+|Cu

(i) Mg is cathode
(ii) Cu is anode
(iii) The cell reaction is Mg + Cu2+ Mg2+ + Cu
(iv) Cu is the oxidising agent
ANSWER-KEY
Q. No. 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. (ii) (i) (ii) (iii) (iii) (i) (i) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Q. No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. (iii) (ii) (iii) (iii) (ii) (iii) (ii) (iii)
E
42 Chemistry
1. Define conductivity for the solution of an electrolyte. Why does the conductivity of a solution
decreases with dilution ? [2] (CBSE 2022 Term - II)
Ans. Specific conductance/ Conductivity ( ) :-
1
It is defined as the reciprocal of specific resistance, =
R=
A
1
.
R A
G G*
Specific conductance = Conductance × Cell constant
Hence specific conductivity of a solution is defined as the conductance offered by 1 cm3 of
1 1
electrolytic solution. Unit of is ohm cm
The number of ions (responsible for carrying current) decreases when the solution is diluted. As
a result, the conductivity of a solution decreases with dilution.
2. (a) Calculate rG° and log KC for the following cell : (CBSE 2022 Term - II)
Ni(s) + 2Ag+(aq) Ni2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
Given that E ocell = 1.05 V, 1F = 96,500 Cmol–1 [3]
OR
(b) Calculate the e.m.f. of the following cell at 298 K.
Fe(s) | Fe2+(0.001 M) || H+(0.01 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt(s)
Given that E°cell = +0.44 V
[log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771, log 10 = 1] [3]
Ans. (a) r
G° = –nF E ocell [½]
= –2 × 96500 × 1.05
r
G° = –202.65 kJ mol–1 [½] node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
r
G° = –2.303 RT log KC [½]
Go 202.65
log K C r
[½]
2.303RT 2.303 8.314 298
log KC = 35.54 Kc = antilog (35.54) = 3.47 × 1035 [1]
OR
o 0.0591 [Fe 2 ]
(b) E cell E cell log [1]
2 [H ]2
0.0591 0.001
0.44V log [1]
2 (0.01) 2
0.0591
0.44V log10 0.41V [1]
2
E
CBSE 43
3. Predict the products of electrolysis in each of the following : [1 × 2 = 2]
(a) An aqueous solution of CuSO4 with Pt electrode
(b) An aqueous solution of AgNO3 with Pt electrode (CBSE 2021 Compartment)
OR
How many seconds does it require to reduce 3 moles of Fe3+ to Fe2+ with 2 A current ?
(Given : 1 F = 96500 C mol–1) [2]
Ans. (a) At anode : 2H2O( ) O2(g) + 4H+(aq.) + 4e– [½]
At Cathode : Cu+2 + 2e– Cu(s) [½]

Bubbles of O2 gas are formed at Anode & Copper deposited at Cathode.
(b) At Cathode : Ag+(aq.) + e– Ag(s) ; Eocell = 0.80 V
1
H+(aq.) + e– H2 (g); Eocell = 0V [½]
2
The value of Eocell is high (Ag ions have low discharge potential than H ions) then Ag ions
+ + +
deposited at cathode.
At Anode : Pt electrodes are inert, OH– ions have low discharge potential will be discharged in
preference to NO3– ions. OH– ions will de compose to give oxygen. [½]
4OH–(aq.) H2O( ) + O2(g) + 4e–
OR
Given, Current = 2.0 Ampere
3Fe3+ + 3e– 3Fe2+
Charge required = 3 Faraday = 3 × 96500 C = 289500 C [1]
We know, Charge = Current × Time
289500 144750
or Time = = 144750 sec. = min. = 2412.5min.
2 60
2412.5
= sec. = 40.20 sec. [1]
60
4. Conductivity of 0.002 M acetic acid is 8 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate its molar conductivity and degree of
dissociation ( ) if om for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol–1. (CBSE 2021 Compartment) [3]
Ans. = 8 × 10–5 Scm–1
M/C = 0.002 M or 0.002 mol L–1.
1000 5 1000
Molar conductivity ( m) = 8 10 40 Scm2 mol–1 [1]
C 0.002
m 40
Degree of dissociation ( ) = 0
0.102 [1]
m 390.5
2
C 2
0.002mol L 1 0.102 0.002mol L 1 0.0104
Dissociation constant (Ka) =
1 1 0.102 0.898
–5 –1
Ka = 2.31 × 10 mol L . [1]
E
44 Chemistry
5. Predict the change in molar conductivity with decrease in concentration.
Ans. Molar conductivity increases with decrease in concentration. Because the total volume (V) of the
solution containing one mole of electrolyte also increases.
6. (a) Calculate rG° for the reaction (CBSE 2020)
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) [3 + 2 = 5]
Given: E ocell for Zn2+/Zn = –0.76 and
E ocell for Cu+2/Cu = +0.34 V
R = 8.314 JK–1mol–1
F = 96500 mol–1
(b) Give two advantages of fuel cell.
OR
(a) Out of the following pairs, predict with reason which pair will allow greater conduction of
electricity : [3]
(i) Silver wire at 30°C or silver wire at 60° C.
(ii) 0.1 M CH3COOH solution or 1 M CH3COOH solution.
(iii) KCl solution at 20°C or KCl solution at 50°C.
(b) Give two points of difference between electrochemical and electrolytic cells. [2]
Ans. (a) E ocell = E E [½]
Cu 2 /Cu Zn 2 /Zn
= 0.34 – (–0.76)
= 1.10 V [1]
Gº = –nF E ocell
r
[½]
= –2×1.10×96500
= –212300 J/mol or –212.3 kJ/mol [1]
(b) (i) Pollution free (ii) High efficiency [2]
OR node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
(a) (i) Silver wire at 30ºC because as temperature decreases, resistance decreases so
conduction increases. [1]
(ii) 0.1 M CH3COOH, because on dilution degree of ionization increases hence
conduction increases. [1]
(iii) KCl solution at 50ºC, because at high temperature mobility of ions increases and
hence conductance increases. [1]
(b) [2]
Electrochemical Electrolytic
(1) Anode –ve Anode +ve
Cathode +ve Cathode –ve
(2) Convert chemical Convert electrical
Energy to electrical energy Energy of chemical energy
E
CBSE 45
7. (a) The conductivity of 0.001 mol L–1 acetic acid is 4.95 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate the
0
dissociation constant if m for acetic acid is 390.5 S cm2 mol–1. [5]
(CBSE 2019)
(b) Write Nernst equation for the reaction at 25°C :
2Al(s) + 3Cu2+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3Cu(s)
(c) What are secondary batteries ? Given an example.
OR
(a) Represent the cell in which the following reaction takes place : [5]
2Al(s) + 3Ni2+(0.1 M) 2Al3+(0.01 M) + 3Ni(s)
Calculate its emf if E 0cell 1.41V
(b) How does molar conductivity vary with increase in concentration for strong electrolyte and
0
weak electrolyte ? How can you obtain limiting molar conductivity ( m ) for weak electrolyte ?
4.95 10 3 Scm 2 1000 cm 3

Ans. (a) m 49.5Scm 2 mol –1 [1]
c 0.001 mol L 1 L
m 49.5 Scm 2 mol 1
0
0.126 [1]
m 390.5Scm 2 mol 1
2
c 2
0.001 mol L-2 0.126
1.8 10 4 mol L 1
[1]
1 1 0.126
(If K = c 2, then K = 1.6 × 10–5 mol L–1)
2
0.059 Al3
(b) Ecell E cell log 3
[1]
6 Cu2
(c) Batteries which are rechargeable [1]
Example- Lead storage, Ni-Cd batteries (Or any other one example)
OR
E
46 Chemistry
(a) Al(s) | Al3+(0.01 M) || Ni2+(0.1 M) | Ni(s)
2
0.059 Al3
E cell E cell log 3
[1]
6 Ni 2
2
0.059 0.01
E cell 1.41V log 3
[1]
6 0.1
E(cell) = 1.4198 V or E(cell) = 1.42 V [1]
0
(b) m
decreases with increase in concentration for both strong & weak electrolyte m can be
obtained for weak electrolyte by applying Kohlrausch law. [2]
8. (a) Write the cell reaction and calculate the e.m.f. of the following cell at 298 K: (CBSE 2018)
Sn (s) | Sn2+ (0.004 M) || H+ (0.020 M) | H2(g) (1 bar) | Pt (s) [3+2 = 5]
(Given : E0 0.14V )
Sn 2 /Sn
(b) Give reasons :
(i) On the basis of Eº values, O2 gas should be liberated at anode but it is Cl2 gas which is
liberated in the electrolysis of aqueous NaCl.
(ii) Conductivity of CH3COOH decreases on dilution.
OR
(a) For the reaction, 2AgCl(s) + H2 (g) (1 atm) 2Ag (s) + 2H+ (0.1 M) + 2Cl– (0.1 M),
GO = – 43600 J at 25°C.
Calculate the e.m.f. of the cell. [log 10–n = –n]
(b) Define fuel cell & write its two advantages.
Ans. (a) Sn(s) |Sn2+ (0.004 M) || H+(0.020 M)| H2(g), 1 bar |Pt(s)
(given E0 0.14V )
Sn 2 /Sn
Reaction at Anode Sn(s) Sn 2 (aq) 2e [1/2]

Reaction at Cathode 2H (aq) 2e H 2 (g) [1/2]
__________________
Overall reaction Sn(s) + 2H (aq) Sn 2 (aq) H 2 (g) [1/2]
E
CBSE 47
Ecell ( 0.14) V 0.14 V [1/2]
0.0591 [Sn 2 ]
Ecell Ecell log [1/2]
2 [H ]2
0.0591 0.004
0.14 log 0.11045 V [1/2]
2 [0.020]2
(b) (i) E° value of O2 is higher Cl2 but O2 will be liberated from H2O only when higher
voltage is applied. NaCl Na+ + Cl–
H2O H+ + OH– [1]
Due to over potential of O2

(ii) Conductivity changes as the concentration of electrolyte changes.
The conductivity will always decrease with decrease in the concentration because the no.
of ions per unit volume carrying current decreases on dilution. Hence, the conductivity of
CH3COOH decreases on dilution. [1]
OR
(a) 2AgCl (s) + H2(g) (1 atm) 2Ag(s) + 2H+(0.1 M) + 2Cl–(0.1M)
G nF E cell [1/2]
G ( 43600)
Ecell 0.23V [1/2]
nF 2 96500
0.0591
0.23 log (0.1)2 (0.1)2 [1/2]
2
0.0591
0.23 log (0.0001) [1/2]
2
0.0591
0.23 log (10)4

2
= 0.23 + 0.1182 = 0.3482 V
E cell 0.35 V [1]
(b) The are galvanic cell that are designed to convert the energy of combustion of fuel like
hydrogen, methane, methanol directly into electrical energy. eg. : H2 – O2 Fuel cell [1]
Two advantages of fuel cells

(i) These cells never becomes dead because due to the continuous supply of fuels. [1/2]
(ii) Do not cause only pollution like thermal plant. [1/2]
E
48 Chemistry
1. What is meant by ‘limiting molar conductivity’ ? [1]
2. Define the Molar conductivity ( m
). [1]
3. Express the relation between the conductivity and the molar conductivity of a solution. [1]
4. Conductivity of CH3COOH decreases on dilution. Why ? [2]
5. Define electrochemical cell. What happens if external potential applied becomes greater than
Ecell of electrochemical cell ? [2]
6. Calculate r
Gº for the reactions [2]
Mg(s) + Cu2+ (aq) Mg2+ (aq) + Cu (s)

Given : E cell = + 2.71 V, 1F = 96500 C mol–1
7. On the basis of E cell cell values, O2 gas should be liberated at anode but it is Cl2 gas which is
liberated in the electrolysis of aqueous NaCl. Explain. [2]

8. The conductivity of 0.001 mol L–1 solution of CH3COOH is 3.905 × 10–5 S cm–1. Calculate its
molar conductivity and degree of dissociations( ).

Given H
= 349.6 S cm2 mol–1 and CH3COO
= 40.9 S cm2 mol–1. [3]
9. How does molar conductivity vary with increase in concentration for strong electrolyte and weak
0
electrolyte ? How can you obtain limiting molar conductivity ( m ) for weak electrolyte ? [3]
10. Calculate the emf of the following cell at 25°C : [3]

Ag (s) | Ag+ (10–3 M)|| Cu2+ (10–1 M)| Cu(s)
Given E cell = + 0.46 and log 10n = n.
11. (a) For the reaction [5]
2AgCl(s) + H2 (g) (1 atm) 2Ag (s) + 2H+ (0.1 M) + 2Cl– (0.1 M),
r
GO = – 43600 J at 25°C.
Calculate the e.m.f. of the cell.
[log 10–n = –n]
(b) Calculate the potential for half–cell containing
0.10 M K2Cr2O7 (aq), 0.20 M Cr3+ (aq) and 1.0 × 10–4 M H+ (aq)
The half–cell reaction is :
Cr2 O27 (aq) 14 H (aq) 6 e 2 Cr3 (aq) 7H 2 O(l), and the standard electrode potential
is given as E cell = 1.33 V.
E
CBSE 49
MOCK TEST SOLUTIONS

1. The molar conductivity of a solution at infinite dilution is called limiting molar conductivity and
is represented by the symbol º m .
2. The conducting power of all the ions produced by 1 mole of an electrolytic solution placed
between two electrodes with cross sectional area (A) & distance of unit length ( ).
3. The relationship between conductivity (k) and molar conductivity of a solution is given by
k 1000
m
M
where C is molarity of concentration.
4. Conductivity changes as the concentration of electrolyte changes.
The conductivity will always decrease with decrease in the concentration because the no. of ions
per unit volume carrying current decreases on dilution. Hence, the conductivity of CH3COOH
decreases on dilution.
5. An electrochemical cell is a device in which chemical energy of the redox reaction is converted
into electrical energy. While electrolytic cell do the reverse.
e¯ flow from Cu to Zn and current flows from Zn to Cu.
6. G° = – nF E cell
r
= – 2 × 96500 × (2.71) = – 523030 J mol–1

7. E cell value of O2 is higher Cl2 but O2 will be liberated from H2O only when higher voltage is
applied. NaCl
Na+ + Cl¯
H2O H+ + OH¯
Due to over potential of O2
c
8. = × 1000/C
= 3.905 × 10–5 × 1000/0.001

= 39.05 S cm2/mole
CH3COOH CH3COO¯ + H+
0 0
m(CH3COOH) CH3COO H
= 40.9 + 349.6
m(CH3COOH) = 390.5 S cm2/mol
= m
0
m
= 39.05/390.5 = 0.1
E
50 Chemistry
0
9. m decreases with increase in concentration for both strong & weak electrolyte m can be
obtained for weak electrolyte by applying Kohlrausch law.
10. Ag (s) | Ag+ (10–3 M) || Cu2+ (10–1 M) | Cu(s)
E cell = +0.46 V
Cell reaction is 2Ag(s) + Cu2+ (aq) 2Ag (aq) Cu (s)
2
0.0591 [Ag ]2 0.0591 10 3
Ecell = E cell – log E cell 0.46 log
2 [Cu2 ] 2 10 1
0.059 5
Ecell = 0.46 – log10
2
= 0.46 + .1477
E cell 0.6077 V
11. (a) 2AgCl (s) + H2(g) (1 atm) 2Ag(s) + 2H+ (0.1 M) + 2Cl¯(0.1M)
rG nF E cell
rG ( 43600)
Ecell 0.23 V
nF 2 96500
0.0591
0.23 log (0.1)2 (0.1)2
2
o 0.0591 [H | ]2 [C ]2
Ecell E cell log10
n PH2
0.0591 0.0591 4
0.23 log (0.0001) 0.23 log 10 0.23 0.1182
2 2
= 0.23 + 0.1182 = 0.3482 V
E cell 0.35 V node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry
(b) The cell reaction for the cell :

Cr2 O27 (aq) 14 H (aq) 6 e 2 Cr 3 (aq) 7H 2 O( l)
o 0.059 [Cr 3 (aq)]2

Ecell Ecell log
n [H (aq)]14 [Cr2O 72 ]
0.0591 (0.2)2
E Cell 1.33 log 14
6 1.0 10 4 (0.1)
Ecell = 1.33 – 0.55 = 0.78V
E
CBSE 51
CHEMICAL KINETICS : (CHAPTER-4)

CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
The word 'Kinetics' is derived from the greek word 'Kinesis' meaning 'Movement'.
Chemical Kinetics : Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry which deals with the study of rates
of reactions, factor affecting the rates of reaction and their mechanisms.
Classification of the chemical reaction on the basis of speed of reaction.
1. Fast reactions : Reactions occur very fast, takes 10–14 to 10–16 sec. for completion.
e.g. (i) Acid-base reaction : HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) Precipitation reaction : AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
2. Slow reactions : Reactions which occur very slowly, may take days, months or years.
e.g. : Rusting of iron
3. Moderate reactions : Reactions which proceed with a moderate speed, we can measure the rate
of these reactions easily.
e.g. (i) Organic reactions
H
(ii) Inversion of sugar : C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Sucrose Glucose fructose
In chemical kinetics (1) and (2) types of reaction do not studied.
Change in concentration of reactant or product
Rate of Reaction =
Time taken for this change
Decrease in concentation of R [R]
(i) Rate of disappearance of R = =–
Time taken t
Increase in concentration of product P [P]
(ii) Rate of appearance of P = =+
Time taken t
for the change in concentration of reactants '–ve' sign is used and for the change in concentration
of products '+ve' sign is used.
concentration mol L–1
Unit of rate of reaction : Rate = mol L–1s–1 (only for solution phase)
time sec .
–1
Rate = atm sec (only for gas phase)
Types of reaction : (i) Average rate of reaction (ravg) (ii) Instantaneous rate of reaction (rinst.)
Rate law : According to rate law "The rate of homogeneous chemical reaction is proportional to
node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
active mass of the reacting substances which take part in the reaction".
eg. 1 A + B C+D
A/c to Rate law Rate [A] [B]
eg. 2 aA + bB cC + dD
a,b,c,d are stoichiometric coefficients of reactants and products.
The rate expression, rate [A]x [B]y ....(i)
x, y can have any numerical value.
x, y may or may not be equal to the stoichiometric coefficient of reactant.
Eq.(i) can be written as
Rate = k[A]x [B]y ....(ii)
d[R]
or k[A]x [B]y . ...(iii)
dt
E
52 Chemistry
Eq. (iii) is known as differential rate equation.
where k = Rate constant.
eg.1 2NO(g) + O2 (g) 2NO2(g)
2
Rate = k [NO] [O2]
d[R]
= k [NO]2 [O2]
dt
Order of reaction : The sum of powers of the molar concentration of the reactants in the rate
law expression is called the order of that chemical reaction. Order of reaction can be 0,1,2,3...
and even a fraction.
eg. Rate [A]x [B]y (experimental)
x y
Rate = k[A] [B] over all order of reaction n = x + y
Molecularity : The total number of molecules, atoms, ion taking part in the chemical reaction is
known as molecularity of reaction. If one, two, three molecules take part in the reaction then the
reaction are known as unimolecular, bimolecular, trimolecular respectively.
eg. H2O2 H2O + O2 unimolecular
H2 + I2 2HI bimolecular
Pseudo first order reaction : Such reaction whose order of reaction is one but molecularity are
different then it is called as pseudo first order reaction.
H
eg. Inversion of cane sugar : C12H22O11 + C6 H 12 O6 C6H 12 O6
Glucose Fructose
Rate [C12H22O11]
order of reaction = 1 Molecularity = 1 + 1 = 2
Units of rate constant k : aA + bB Product
Rate = k[A]x [B]y x+y=n order of reaction
Rate concentration 1 (mol L–1 )1 n
k= = = = mol1–n Ln–1 s–1
[A]x [B]y time (concentration)n sec.
n = order of the reaction
Reaction Order Units of Rate const.
Zero order 0 mol L–1s –1
First order 1 s–1
Second order 2 mol –1 L s–1 node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
Zero order reaction : Zero order reaction means that the rate of the reaction is proportional to
zero power of the concentration of reactant. Reactant (R) Product (P)
[R]0
[R] slope = – k
x Rate
slope = k
(t) t concentration
[R]0 - [R] x
[R]= – k t + [R]0 k= = x = kt Rate = k[R]0 or Rate = k
t t
y –mx c
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CBSE 53
Example of first order reactions :
1130K
(i) 2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Pt
Au
(ii) 2HI(g) H2(g) + I2(g)
h
(iii) H2 + Cl2 2HCl
Half life of a reaction(t1/2) : The half life of a reaction is the time in which the concentration
of a reactant is reduced to one half of its initial concentration. It is represented as (t1/2).
Half life for zero order reaction :
t1/2
[R]0 slope = 1/2 k
t1/2 =
2K
concentration
[R]
0
First order reaction :

First order reaction means the rate of the reaction is proportional to the first power of the
concentration of the reactant. Reactant (R) Product (P)
ln[R]0
ln[R] slope = –k
k/2.303 Rate
t t concentration
Rate = k[R]1
2.303 [R]0 [R]0 kt or
n[R] = -kt + n[R]0 k= log10 or log =
t [R] [R] 2.303 Rate = k[R]
2.303 a
k= log10
t (a – x)
Example of first order reactions :
(i) C2 H 4 H 2 C2 H6 (g) ; Rate = k[C2H4]
(g) (g)
226 4 222
(ii) All radioactive reactions : 88 Ra 2 He 86 Rn Rate = k[Ra]
1
(iii) Decomposition of N2O5 : N 2O5 2NO2 O2 Rate = k[N2O5]
(g) (g) 2
(g)
Half life for first order reaction :
t1/2
0.693 0.693
t1 = k
2 k
concentration
Rate expression for first order reaction in gas phase :
Let us consider a typical first order gas phase reaction -
A B C
(g) (g) (g)
E
54 Chemistry
Let Pi be the initial pressure of A and Pt the total pressure at time t.
A B + C
(g) (g) (g)
at t = 0 Pi atm 0 atm 0 atm
At time t : (Pi – x) x x
If PA, PB, PC are the partial pressure of A, B and C respectively and Pt is total pressure.
PA 2Pi Pt
2.303 P 2.303 Pi
k log10 i k log10
t PA t 2Pi Pt
Factor affecting reaction rate :

(1) Concentration (2) Surface area (3) Exposure to radiation (4) Temperature (5) Catalyst
Collision Theory of Chemical reactions :
This theory was given by Max Trautz and William Lewis. According to it, for a reaction to occur
there must be collisions in between reacting molecules. Total number of collisions per second in
unit volume is called collision frequency(z). Generally its
Activated complex (transition state)
value is very high for gaseous reactions (1025 to 1028 Energy Barrier
[A.....B....C]
collisions/sec-cm3). Ea
Potential
Energy
A–B+C [A ....... B ....... C] A+B–C AB+C
(Reactant)
H
A+BC (product)
reactant Activated complex Product Reaction coordinates
molecules (most unstable) molecules
Relation between rate constant of first order reaction and activation energy :
K = Ae –Ea /RT K = rate constant; A = pre-exponential factor; lnA
R = Gas constant; T = Temperature (in k) nk slope = –Ea/R

equation (i) is known as Arrhenius Ea = Activation energy
Ea
nk=– + lnA
RT node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
Effect of catalyst : Rate constant of chemical reaction rises

to double by increase in temperature of 10°C.
Reaction path t
with catalyst reaction path Fraction of This area shows fraction of additional
without catalys molecules molecules which react at (t + 10)
Potential energy
Energy of Energy of activation (t+10)

without catalyst (NE/NT)
activation
with catalyst
Reactant
Products Kinetic energy
This area shows fraction

Reaction coordinate of molecules reacting at t
(NE = number of molecule with energy E ;

NT = Total number of molecules)
E
CBSE 55

1. A first order reaction has a rate constant 1.15 × 10 s . How long will 5g of this reactant take to
–3 –1
reduce to 3g ?
2.303 [R]0 2.303 5

Ans. We know that for a 1st order reaction, t log 3
log
k [R] 1.15 10 3
2.303
= 3
0.2219 444.38s = 444 s
1.15 10
2. Time required to decompose SO2Cl2 to half of its initial amount is 60 minutes. If the
decomposition is a first order reaction, calculate the rate constant of the reaction.
st 0.693
Ans. We know that for a 1 order reaction, t1/2 .
k
It is given that t1/2 = 60 min
0.693 0.693 –1 –2 –1
k = = 0.01155 min = 1.155 × 10 min
t1/ 2 60
3. The rate of the chemical reaction doubles for an increase of 10K in a absolute temperature from
298K. Calculate Ea.
Ans. It is given that T1=298 K T2=(298 + 10) K = 308 K
We also know that the rate of the reaction doubles when temperature is increased by 10°.
Therefore, let us take the value of k1= k and that of k2=2k
Also, R = 8.314 J K–1 mol–1
k2 Ea T2 T1
Now, substituting these values in the equation : log
k1 2.303R T1T2
2k Ea 10
We get : log
k 2.303 8.314 298 308
Ea 10
log 2
2.303 8.314 298 308
2.303 8.314 298 308 log 2
Ea = 52897.78 J mol–1 = 52.9 kJ mol–1
10
4. The decomposition of N2O5 in CCl4 at 318 K has been studied by monitoring the concentration
of N2O5 in the solution. Initially the concentration of N2O5 is 2.33 mol L–1 and after 184 minutes.
it is reduced to 2.08 mol L–1. The reaction takes place according to the equation
2N 2 O 5 (g) 4NO 2 (g) O2 (g)
Calculate the average rate of this reaction in terms of hours minutes and seconds. What is the
rate of production of NO2 during this period ?
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56 Chemistry
1 [N 2 O5 ] 1 (2.08 2.33) mol L 1

Ans. Average Rate =
2 t 2 184 min
= 6.79 × 10–4 mol L–1/min = (6.79 × 10–4 mol L–1 min–1) × (60 min/1h)
= 4.07 × 10–2 mol L–1/h = 6.79 × 10–4 mol L–1 × 1 min/60s = 1.13 × 10–5 mol L–1s–1
1 [NO 2 ]
It may be remembered that, Rate =
4 t
[NO2 ] 4
6.79 10 4 mol L 1 min 1
2.72 10 3 min 1
5. The following data were obtained during the first order thermal decomposition of N2O5(g) at
constant volume: 2N2O5(g) 2N2O4(g) + O2(g)
S. No. Time/s Total

Pressure/(atm)
1. 0 0.5
2. 100 0.512
Calculate the rate constant.
Ans. Let the pressure of N2O5(g) decrease by 2x atm. As two moles of N2O5 decompose to
give two moles of N2O4(g) and one mole of O2(g), the pressure of N2O4(g) increases by 2x atm
and that of O2 (g) increases by x atm.
2N2O5(g) 2N2O4(g) + O2(g)
Start t = 0 0.5 atm 0 atm 0 atm

At time t (0.5 – 2x) atm 2x atm x atm
p0t = p N2 O5 p N2O4 pO 2 = (0.5 –2x) + 2x + x = 0.5 + x
x pt 0.5
PN2 O5 0.5 2x = 0.5 – 2(Pt – 0.5) = 1.5 – 2Pt
t = 100s ; Pt = 0.512 atm

PN2 O5 1.5 2 0.512 0.476atm
2.303 p 2.303 0.5atm

Using equation, K log 1 log
t pA 100s 0.476 atm
2.303
0.0216 4.98 10 4 s 1
100s
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CBSE 57
6. Show that in a first order reaction, time required for completion of 99.9% is 10 times of half-life
(t1/2) of the reaction.
When reaction is completed 99.9%, [R]n = [R]0 – 0.999[R]0
2.303 [R]0
k log
t [R]
2.303 [R]0 2.303
log log103
t [R]0 0.999[R]0 t
t = 6.909/k
For half-life of the reaction, t1/2 = 0.693/k
t 6.909 k
10
t1/ 2 k 0.693
7. The first order rate constant for the decomposition of ethyl iodide by the reaction
C2H5I(g) C2H4 (g) + HI(g)
at 600K is 1.60 × 10–5 s–1. Its energy of activation is 209 kJ/mol. Calculate the rate constant of
the reaction at 700 K.
Ans. We know that
Ea 1 1
log k 2 log k1
2.303R T1 T2
Ea 1 1
log k 2 log k1
2.303R T1 T2
209000 J mol L 1 1 1
log(1.60 10 5 )
2.303 8.314 J mol L 1K 1
600K 700K
log k2 = – 4.796 + 2.599 = – 2.197
k2 = 6.36 × 10–3 s–1
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58 Chemistry
2 –6 –2 2 –1
1. For the reaction : 2A + B A2B the rate = k [A][B] with k = 2.0 × 10 mol L s . Calculate the
–1 –1
initial rate of the reaction when [A] = 0.1mol L . [B] = 0.2 mol L . Calculate the rate of
–1
reaction after [A] is reduced to 0.06 mol L .
Ans. The initial rate of the reaction is
2 –6 –2 2 –1 –1 –1 2 –9 –1 –1
Rate = k[A][B] = (2.0 × 10 mol L s ) (0.1 mol L ) (0.2 mol L ) = 8.0 × 10 mol L s .
–1 –1
when [A] is reduced from 0.1 mol L to 0.06 mol L , the concentration of A reacted = (0.1 – 0.06)
–1 –1
mol L = 0.04 mol L
1
Therefore, concentration of B reacted = 0.04 mol L 1 0.02 mol L 1
2
–1 –1
Then, concentration of B available, [B] = (0.2 – 0.02) mol L = 0.18 mol L
–1
After [A] is reduced to 0.06 mol L , the rate of the reaction is given by.
2 –6 –2 2 –1 –1 –1 2 –9 –1 –1
Rate = k [A][B] = (2.0 × 10 mol L s ) (0.06 mol L ) (0.18 mol L ) = 3.88 × 10 mol L s .
2. The decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is zero order reaction. What are the rate of
–4 –1 –1
production of N2 and H2 if k = 2.5 × 10 mol litre s .
Ans. 2NH3 N2 + 3H2.
1 d[NH3 ] d[N 2 ] 1 d[H 2 ]

Rate of reaction (r)= –
2 dt dt 3 dt
Rate (r) = k[NH3]° = k ( zero order reaction)
–4
= 2.5 × 10
d[N2 ] –4 –1 –1
= r = 2.5 × 10 mol lit s
dt
d[H2 ] –4 –4 –1 –1
= 3r = 3 × 2.5 × 10 = 7.5 × 10 mol lit sec
dt node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
3. The following results have been obtained during the kinetic studies of the reaction :
2A + B C+D
Experiment A/mol L–1 B/mol L–1 Initial rate of formation of D/mol L–1
I 0.1 0.1 6.0 × 10–3
II 0.3 0.2 7.2 × 10–2
III 0.3 0.4 2.88 × 10–1
IV 0.4 0.1 2.40 × 10–2
Determine the rate law and the rate constant for the reaction.
Ans. Let the order of the reaction with respect to A be x and with respect to B be y.
E
CBSE 59
Therefore, rate of the reaction is given by,
x y
Rate = k[A] [B]
According to the question,
–3 x y
6.0 × 10 = k[0.1] [0.1] ...(i)
–2 x y
7.2 × 10 = k[0.3] [0.2] ...(ii)
–1 x y
2.88 × 10 = k[0.3] [0.4] ...(iii)
–2 x y
2.40 × 10 = k[0.4] [0.1] ...(iv)
2
2.4 10 k[0.4]x [0.1]y
Dividing equation (iv) by (i), we obtain 3
6.0 10 k[0.1]x [0.1]y
x
[0.4]x 0.4 1
4 4 4 4x x 1
[0.1]x 0.1
Dividing equation (iii) by (ii), we obtain
2.88 10 1 k[0.3]x [0.4]y
7.2 10 2 k[0.3]x [0.2]y
y
0.4
4 4 2y 22 2y y 2
0.2
Therefore, the rate law is
2
Rate = k[A] [B]
Rate
k
[A][B]2
From experiment I, we obtain
6.0 10 3 mol L 1 min 1
k 6.0 L2 mol 2 min 1
2
0.1mol L 1 0.1mol L 1
from experiment II, we obtain

7.2 10 2 mol L 1 min 1
k 2
= 6.0 L2 mol–2 min–1
0.3mol L 1 0.2 mol L 1
2.88 10 1 m ol L 1 min 1
from exp. III, we obtain, k 2
= 6.0 L2 mol–2 min–1.
1 1
0.3mol L 0.4mol L
2.40 10 2 mol L 1 min 1

From exp. IV, we obtain, k 1 1 2
= 6.0 L2 mol–2 min–1.
(0.4 mol L )(0.1mol L )
Therefore, rate constant, k = 6.0 L2 mol–2 min–1.
E
60 Chemistry
14
4. The half life for radioactive decay of C is 5730 years. An archaeological artifact contained
14
wood had only 80% of the C found in a living tree. Estimate the age of the sample.
0.693 0.693 1
Ans. Here, k years
t2 5730
2.303 a
t= log
k (a x)
14
t1/2 of C = 5730 yr ; Also, a = 100, (a - x) = 80
2.303 5730 100

t= log = 1845 yr.
0.693 80
5. The rate constant for a first order reaction is 60 s–1. How much time will it take to reduce the
initial concentration of the reactant to its 1/16th value ?
2.303 [R]0 2.303 1
Ans. It is known that, t log 1
log
k [R] 60s 1 / 16
2.303
1
log16 = 4.6 × 10–2 s (approximately)
60s
Hence, the required time is 4.6 × 10–2 s.
6. For a first order reaction, show that time required for 99% completion is twice the time required
for the completion of 90% of reaction.
Ans. For a first order reaction, the time required for 99% completion is
2.303 100 2.303 2.303
t1 log log100 2
k 100 99 k k
For a first order reaction, the time required for 90% completion is
2.303 100 2.303 2.303
t2 log log10
k 100 90 k k
Therefore, t1 = 2t2
Hence, the time required for 99% completion of a first order reaction is twice the time required
for the completion of 90% of the reaction.
7. A first order reaction takes 40 min for 30% decomposition. Calculate t1/2.
Ans. For a first order reaction,
2.303 [R]0
t log
k [R]
2.303 100 2.303 10 3 1
k log log 8.918 10 min
40 min 100 30 40 min 7
Therefore, t1/2 of the decomposition reaction is
0.693 0.693
t1/ 2 min 77.7 min (approx)
k 8.918 10 3
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CBSE 61
8. The following data were obtained during the first order thermal decomposition of SO2Cl2 at a
constant volume.
SO2Cl2(g) SO2(g) + Cl2(g)
Experiment Times/s–1 Total pressure/atm
1 0 0.5
2 100 0.6
Calculate the rate of the reaction when total pressure is 0.65 atm.
Ans. The thermal decomposition of SO2Cl2 at a constant volume is represented by the following
equation.
SO2Cl2(g) SO2(g) + Cl2(g)
At t = 0 Pi 0 0
At t = t Pi – x x x
After time, t, total pressure, Pt = (Pi – x) + x + x
Pt = Pi + x x = Pt – P i
Therefore, Pi – x = Pi – (Pt – Pi) = 2Pi – Pt
2.303 P 2.303 Pi
For a first order reaction, k log i log
t Pi x t 2Pi Pi
2.303 0.5
When t = 100 s, k log 2.231 10 3 s 1
100s 2 0.5 0.6
When Pt = 0.65 atm,
Pt = Pi + x 0.65 = Pi + x
x = 0.65 – Pi = 0.65 – 0.5 = 0.15 atm
Therefore, when the total pressure is 0.65 atm, Pressure of SOCl2 is
PSO2Cl2 Pi x = 0.5 – 0.15 = 0.35 atm
Therefore, the rate of equation, when total pressure is 0.65 atm, is given by,
Rate = k PSO2Cl2 = (2.23 × 10–3 s–1) (0.35 atm) = 7.8 × 10–4 atm s–1
9. Consider a certain reaction A Products with k = 2.0 × 10–2 s–1. Calculate the concentration of A
remaining after 100s if the initial concentration of A is 1.0 mol L–1.

Ans. Since the unit of k is s–1, the given reaction is a first order reaction.
2.303 [A]0
Therefore, k log
t [A]
2.303 1.0 2.303
2.0 10 2 s 1
log 2.0 10 2 s 1
log[A]
100s [A] 100s
2.0 10 2 100
log[A]
2.303
2.0 10 2 100
[A] anti log 0.135mol L 1 (approx.)
2.303
Hence, the remaining concentration of A is 0.135 mol L–1.
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62 Chemistry
10. The decomposition of A into product has value of k as 4.5 × 103 s–1 at 10°C and energy of
activation 60 kJ mol–1. At what temperature would k be 1.5 × 104 s–1 ?
k2 Ea T2 T1
Ans. From Arrhenius equation, we obtain, log
k1 2.303R T1T2
1.5 10 4 6.0 10 4 J mol 1 T2 283

log
4.5 103 2.303 8.314 JK 1mol 1
283T2
T2 283
0.5229 3133.627
283T2
0.5229 283T2
T2 283
3133.627
0.9528 T2 = 283
T2 = 297.019 K = 297 K = 24° C
Hence, k would be 1.5 × 104 s–1 at 24° C
11. The time required for 10% completion of a first order reaction at 298K is equal to that required
for its 25% completion at 308 K. Calculate Ea.
2.303 a
Ans. For a first order reaction, t log
k a x
2.303 100 0.1054
At 298K, t1 log
k1 90 k1
2.303 100 0.2877

At 308K, t 2 log
k2 75 k2
According to the question, t = t'

0.1054 0.2877 k2
2.73
k1 k 2` k1
From Arrhenius equation, we obtain
k2 Ea T2 T1
log
k1 2.303 R T1T2
Ea 308 298
log 2.73
2.303 8.314 298 308
2.303 8.314 298 308 log 2.73

Ea = 76640.26 J mol–1 = 76.64 kJ mol–1
308 298
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CBSE 63
12. The rate of a reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from 293 K to 313 K. Calculate
the energy of activation of the reaction assuming that it does not change with temperature.
k2 Ea T2 T1
Ans. From Arrhenius equation, we obtain, log
k1 2.303R T1T2
It is given that, k2 = 4k1
T1 = 293 K
T2 = 313 K
4k1 Ea 313 293
Therefore, log
k1 2.303 8.314 293 313
20 Ea
0.6021
2.303 8.314 293 313
0.6021 2.303 8.314 293 313
Ea = 52863.33 J mol–1 = 52.86 kJ mol–1
20
Hence, the required energy of activation is 52.86 kJ mol–1
13. What is the effect of adding a catalyst on :
(a) Activation energy (Ea), and (b) Gibbs energy ( G) of a reaction ?
Ans. (a) Decreases [1]
(b) No change [1]
14. A first order reaction takes 20 minutes for 25% decomposition. Calculate the time when 75% of
the reaction will be completed.
(Given : log 2 = 0.3010, log 3 = 0.4771, log 4 = 0.6021)
Ans. t 2.303 [A]0
log
k [A]
2.303 100 ...(i) [1/2]
20 min log
k 75
2.303 100 ...(ii) [1/2]
t log
k 25
Divide (i) equation by (ii)
2.303 00
log
20 k 75 log 4 / 3 [1]
t 2.303 00 log 4
log
k 25
20/t = 0.1250/0.6021
t = 96.3 min
15. For a reaction : 2NH3(g) Pt N2(g) + 3H2(g)
Rate = k
(i) Write the order and molecularity of this reaction.
(ii) Write the unit of k.
Ans. (i) zero order , bimolecular/ unimolecular [1]
(ii) mol L–1 s–1 [1]
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64 Chemistry
16. The rate constant for the first order decomposition of H2O2 is given by the following equation :
1.0 10 4 K
log k 14.2
T
Calculate Ea for this reaction and rate constant k if its half-life period be 200 minutes.
(Given : R = 8.314 JK–1 mole–1)
Ans. log k = log A – Ea/2.303RT [1]
Ea / 2.303 RT = 1 × 104 k/ T
Ea =1.0 × 104 × 2.303 × 8.314
=191471.4 J/mol [1]
t1/2 = 0.693/ k k = 0.693/200
= 0.0034 min–1 / 3.4 × 10–3 min–1 [1]
17. For the hydrolysis of methyl acetate in aqueous solution, the following results were obtained :
t/s 0 30 60
[CH 3COOCH3 ]mol L 1 0.60 0.30 0.15
(i) Show that it follows pseudo first order reaction as the concentration of water remains
constant.
(ii) Calculate the average rate of reaction between the time interval 30 to 60 seconds
Ans. (i) A0 = 0.60 A = 0.30 when t = 30s
2.303 [A ] [1/2]
k log 0
t [A]
2.303 0.60 [1/2]

k log node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
30 0.30
2.303 2.303
k log 2 0.3010
30 30
0.693 1 [1/2]
k 0.231 s
30
When A0 = 0.60
A = 0.15 when t = 60s
2.303 0.60 [1/2]
k log
t 0.15
E
CBSE 65
2.303 0.60 [1/2]
k log
60 0.15
2.303 2.303
k log 4 0.6021
60 60
1.3866 1 [1]
k 0.231s
60
As for both cases k is approximately same reaction is of pseudo first order
(ii) Average rate during the interval 30 – 60 sec = Change in concentration [1/2]
Change in time
0.15 0.30 [1/2]
60 30
0.15 [1/2]
0.005 mol L 1S 1
30
18. (a) For a reaction A + B P, the rate is given by
Rate = k [A]2 [B]
(i) How is the rate of reaction affected if the concentration of A is doubled ?
(ii) What is the overall order of reaction if B is present in large excess ?
(b) A first order reaction taken 23.1 minutes for 50% completion. Calculate the time required
for 75% completion of this reaction.
(Given : log 2 = 0.301, log 3 = 0.4771, log 4 = 0.6021)
Ans. (a) (i) Rate increases by 4 times [1]
(ii) 2nd order [1]
(b) Reaction is 50% completed in 23.1 min i.e. Half-life is 23.1 min
0.693
k
t1/2
0.693 1 [1]
0.03 min
23.1
2.303 [A ] [1]
k log 0
t [A]
1 2.303 100 [1]

0.03min log
t 25
2.303
0.03 log 4
t
2.303 1.3866 = 46.22 min [1]
t 0.6021
0.03 0.03
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66 Chemistry
EXERCISE-3 RACE
Rate [A]x [B]y
This form of equation is known as differential rate equation, where k is a proportionality
constant called rate constant. The equation like which relates the rate of a reaction to
concentration of reactants is called rate law or rate expression. Thus, rate law is the expression
in which reaction rate is given in terms of molar concentration of reactants with each term
raised to some power, which may or may not be same as the stoichiometric coefficient of the
reacting species in a balanced chemical.
(a) Identify the reaction order from each of the following rate constant. k = 2.3 × 10–5 L mol–1 s–1
(i) first order (ii) zero order (iii) second order (iv) pseudo first order
(b) For a reaction, A + B Product; the rate law is given by, r = k [ A]1/2 [B]2 . What is the order.
of the reaction ?
(i) 1.5 (ii) 2.5 (iii) 2.0 (iv) 0
(c) The slope in the plot of ln [R] v/s time gives
k k
(i) + k (ii) (iii) – k (iv)
2.303 2.303
(where [R] is the final concentration of reactant)
(d) The unit of rate constant is:
(i) (conc.)1–n time–1 (ii) (conc.)n time–1
(iii) (conc.)n–1 time–1 (iv) (conc.)1–n time
Question 2 to 6 Note :- In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a
reason. choose the correct answer out of the following choices –
(i) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct statements, and Reason (R) is the correct node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics

2. Assertion : Order of the reaction can be zero or fractional
Reason : We cannot determine order from balanced chemical equation.
3. Assertion : Order and molecularity are same
Reason : Order is determined experimentally and molecularity is the sum of the stoichiometric
coefficient of rate determining elementary step.
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CBSE 67
4. Assertion : The rate constant of a zero order reaction has same units as the rate of reaction.
Reason : Rate constant of a zero order reaction does not depend upon the units of concentration.
5. Assertion : Half life period of a reaction of first order is independent of initial concentration.
2.303
Reason : Half life period for a first order reaction t1/ 2 log 2 .
k
6. Assertion : An increase in surface area increases the rate of reaction.
Reason : Stronger the intermolecular attractive forces, faster is the rate of reaction.
Type 3 : Multiple choice question (one correct answer) (Questions 7 to 16):-
7. Which of the following statements is not correct about order of a reaction.
(i) The order of a reaction can be a fractional number.
(ii) Order of a reaction is experimentally determined quantity.
(iii) The order of a reaction is always equal to the sum of the stoichiometric coefficients of
reactants in the balanced chemical equation for a reaction.
(iv) The order of a reaction is the sum of the powers of the molar concentration of the reactants
in the rate law expression.
8. Which of the following statement is correct ?
(i) The rate of a reaction decreases with passage of time as the concentration of reactants decreases.
(ii) The rate of a reaction is same at any time during the reaction.
(iii) The rate of a reaction is independent of temperature change.
(iv) The rate of a reaction decreases with increase in concentration of reactant(s).
9. Rate law for the reaction A + 2B C is found to be : Rate = k [A][B]
Concentration of reactant ‘B’ is doubled, keeping the concentration of ‘A’ constant, the value of
rate constant will be______.
(i) the same (ii) doubled (iii) quadrupled (iv) halved
10. A first order reaction is 50% completed in 1.26 × 1014 s. How much time would it take for 100%
completion ?
(i) 1.26 × 1015 s (ii) 2.52 × 1014 s
(iii) 2.52 × 1028 s (iv) infinite
11. The value of rate constant of a pseudo first order reaction ____________.
(i) depends on the concentration of reactants present in small amount.
(ii) depends on the concentration of reactants present in excess.
(iii) is independent of the concentration of reactants.
(iv) depends only on temperature
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68 Chemistry
12. Which of the following statement is applicable to a balanced chemical equation of an elementary
reaction ?
(i) Order is same as molecularity.
(ii) Order is less than the molecularity.
(iii) Order is greater than the molecularity.
(iv) Molecularity can be zero.
13. At high pressure the following reaction is zero order,
1130 K
2NH 3 (g) Platinum catalyst
N 2 (g) 3H 2 (g)
Which of the following option is incorrect for this reaction ?

(i) Rate of reaction = Rate constant
(ii) Rate of the reaction depends on concentration of ammonia.
(iii) Rate of decomposition of ammonia will remain constant until ammonia disappears completely.
(iv) Further increase in pressure will change the rate of reaction.
14. Which of the following graph is correct for a first order reaction?
concentration[P]
k
t1/2 t1/2 slope =
2.303
Molar
[R]0
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv) log
[R]
[R]0 [R]0 Time
Time
15. In any unimolecular reaction ______________.

(i) Two reacting species is involved in the rate determining step.
(ii) The order and the molecularity of slowest step are equal to one.
(iii) The molecularity of the reaction is one and order is zero.
(iv) Both molecularity and order of the reaction are one.
16. Rate law can be determined from balanced chemical equation if _______.
(i) reverse reaction is involved.
(ii) it is an elementary reaction.
(iii) it is a sequence of elementary reactions.
(iv) any of the reactants is in excess.
ANSWER–KEY
Q. No. 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. (iii) (ii) (iii) (i) (ii) (iv) (i) (i) (iii) (iii) (i)
Q. No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. (ii) (iv) (ii) (i) (ii) (iv) (ii) (ii)
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CBSE 69

1. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow : (CBSE 2022 Term – II)
The rate of reaction is concerned with decrease in concentration of reactants or increase in the
concentration of products per unit time. It can be expressed as instantaneous rate at a particular
instant of time and average rate over a large interval of time. A number of factors such as
temperature, concentration of reactants, catalyst affect the rate of reaction. Mathematical
representation of rate of a reaction is given by rate law : Rate = k[A]x [B]y x and y indicate how
sensitive the rate is to the change in concentration of A and B. Sum of x + y gives the overall
order of a reaction.
When a sequence of elementary reactions gives us the products, the reactions are called complex
reactions. Molecularity and order of an elementary reaction are same. Zero order reactions are
relatively uncommon but they occur under special conditions. All natural and artificial
radioactive decay of unstable nuclei take place by first order kinetics.
(a) What is the effect of temperature on the rate constant of a reaction ?
(b) For a reaction A + B Product, the rate law is given by, Rate = k[A]2 [B]1/2. What is the order
of the reaction ?
(c) How order and molecularity are different for complex reactions ?
(d) A first order reaction has a rate constant 2 × 10–3 s–1. How long will 6g of this reactant take
to reduce to 2g ?
OR
14
The half life for radioactive decay of C is 6930 years. An archaeological artifact containing
wood had only 75% of the 14C found in a living tree. Find the age of the sample.
[log 4 = 6021; log 3 = 0.4771; log 2 = 0.3010 log 10 = 1] [1+1+1+2]
Ans. (a) With increase in temperature effective no. of collision, increases due to increase in kinetic
energy of molecules. Hence, Rate of reactions increase. [1]
2 1/2
(b) Rate = k[A] [B] [½]
1
Order = 2 +
2
Order(n) 2.5 [½]
(c) Order is determined by show step of the reaction and molecularity determined by
elementary step of the reaction.
2.303 R0
(d) k= log [1]
t R
2.303 6
t= 3
log [½]
2 10 2
t = 549.38 sec. [½]
OR
0.693
t1/2 [1]
k
0.693
k= [1]
6930
k = 10–4 year–1 [1]
2.303 100
t= 4 1
log [1]
10 year 75
t 496 years [1]
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70 Chemistry
2. A biochemical reaction was carried out in the absence of enzyme and the rate of reaction was
found to be 10–6 min–1. If the same reaction is now carried out in the presence of enzyme, then the
Ea for the reaction will be : [1]
(A) same
(B) Greater than 10–6 min–1
(C) Lower than 10–6 min–1
(D) Data insufficient, Ea cannot be predicted
Ans. (D)
3. Define rate constant and give the mathematical relation between rate constant and half–life
period for a first order reaction. [2]
Ans. Rate constant :
In a chemical reaction –
n1A + n2B m1C + m2D
according to law of mass action
n1 n2
Rate k A B
but according to rate law (experimental concept)
Rate = k[A]x[B]y
if [A] = [B] = 1 mol/L
then, Rate = k
Rate of reaction at unit concentration of reactants is called as rate constant or specific reaction rate. node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
Rate constant does not depend on concentration of reactant but it depends on temperature and
catalyst. [1]
Half-life Period for first order reaction : The time in which half of the initial amount of
reactant is consumed.
At t = t1/2 ; x = a/2 ; a–x = a/2
1 a n2 2.303 0.693
t1/2 = n or t1/2 = = (log2) or t1/2
k a/2 k k k
0.693
k [1]
t1/2
Half-life period for first order reaction is independent of the initial concentration of reactant.
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CBSE 71
4. A first order reaction has a rate constant 4.9 × 10–3 s–1. How long will 4 g of this reactant take to
reduce to 3 g ? [log 4 = 0·6020, log 3 = 0·4771. [3]
OR
The hydrolysis of sucrose is represented by the following chemical equation :
C12H22O11 + H2O (excess) C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
For the above equation, predict
(a) molecularity,
(b) order, and
(c) rate of reaction in terms of all the reactants and products. [1 × 3 = 3]
2.303 [R]0
Sol. t log [½]
k [R]
2.303 4
3 1
log [½]
4.9 10 s 3
= 0.47 × 103 (log 4 – log 3} = 0.47 × 103 (0.6020 – 0.4771) [½]
3 3
= 0.47 × 10 × 0.125 = 0.0587 × 10 = 58.7 sec [½]
OR
d[C12 H 22 O11 ] d[H 2 O] d(C6 H12 O6 ) d(C6 H12 O6 )
(a) 2 (b) 1 (c) Rate
dt dt dt dt
5. Will the rate constant of the reaction depend upon T if the Ea (activation energy) of the reaction
is zero ? [1] (CBSE 2020)
Ans. No.
6. Assertion (A): The molecularity of the reaction H2 + Br2 2HBr [2] (CBSE 2020)
Reason (R) : Two molecules of the reactants are involved in the given elementary reaction.
Ans. (i) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct statements, and Reason (R) is the correct
explanation of the Assertion (A).
7. Analyse the given graph, drawn between concentration of reactant vs. time: [1 × 2 = 2]
(CBSE 2020)
1.6
Concentration of reactant
0.8
0.4
0.2
0 10 20 30
time
(a) Predict the order of reaction.

(b) Theoretically, can the concentration of the reactant reduce to zero after infinite time ?
Explain.
Ans. (a) Ist order
(b) No, due to exponential relation / the curve never touches the x-axis.
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72 Chemistry
8. How will the rate of the reaction of affected when (CBSE 2020)
(a) Surface area of the reactant is reduced,
(b) Catalyst is added in a reversible reaction, and
(c) Temperature of the reaction is increased ? [3]
Ans. (a) Decreases (b) Increases (c) Increases
9. Define order of reaction. Predict the order of reaction in the given graphs : [2]
(a) t1/2 (b) t1/2 (CBSE 2019)
[R]0 [R]0
where [R]0 is the initial concentration of reactant and t1/2 is half-life.
Ans. It is defined as the sum of powers to which the concentration terms are raised in the rate law
equation.
(a) First order (b) zero order
10. The following data were obtained for the reaction : [3]
A + 2B C (CBSE 2019)
Experiment [A]/M [B]/M Initial rate of formation of C/M min–1
1 0.2 0.3 4.2 × 10–2
2 0.1 0.1 6.0 × 10–3
3 0.4 0.3 1.68 × 10–1
4 0.1 0.4 2.40 × 10–2

(a) Find the order of reaction with respect to A and B.

(b) Write the rate law and overall order of reaction.
(c) Calculate the rate constant (k).
p q
Ans. Rate = k[A] [B]
On solving,
(a) Order with respect to A = 2, B = 1 [1]
2 1
(b) Rate = k[A] [B] ; overall order = 3 [1]
–2 2
(c) Experiment-1 4.2 × 10 = k(0.2) (0.3) ; k = 3.5
–3 2
Experiment-2 6.2 × 10 = k(0.1) (0.1) ; k=6 [1]
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CBSE 73
11. A first order reaction is 50% completed in 40 minutes at 300 K and in 20 minutes at 320 K.
Calculate the activation energy of the reaction. (Given : log 2 = 0.3010, log 4 = 0.6021,
R = 8.314 JK–1 mol–1). (CBSE 2018)
2.303 100 2.303
Ans. T1 = 300 K ; K1 log log 2 0.0575 0.3010 0.0173 [1/2]
t1 100 50 40
2.303 2.303
T2 = 320 K ; K 2 log 2 log 2 0.1151 0.3010 0.0346 [1/2]
t2 20
K2 Ea T2 T1
log [1]
K1 2.303R T1T2
0.0346 Ea 320 300

log
0.173 2.303 8.314 320 300
20E a 0.3010 2.303 8.314 320 300
log2 = Ea [1/2]
2.303 8.314 320 300 20
Ea = 27663.79 J mol–1 = 27.663 kJ mol–1 or kJ/mol [1/2]
12. For the reaction, (CBSE 2018)
2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g),
the rate of formation of NO2 (g) is 2.8 × 10–3 M s–1. Calculate the rate of disappearance of
N2O5(g).
Ans. Given Reaction :
2N2O5(g) 4NO2(g) + O2(g),
[NO 2 ]
(given 2.8 10 3 M / sec. or M sec–1)
t
Rate of the Reaction
1 [N 2 O 5 ] 1 [NO2 ] [O 2 ]
[1/2]
2 t 4 t t
1 [N 2 O5 ] 1 [NO 2 ]
[1/2]
2 t 4 t
[N 2 O5 ] 2 [NO 2 ]
t 4 t
1 3
2.8 10 M sec–1 [1/2]
2
[N 2O 5 ] 3
1.4 10 M sec–1 or M/sec. [1/2]
t
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74 Chemistry

1. Explain the Molecularity of a reaction. [1]
2. Define ‘order of a reaction’. [1]
3. Define 'rate of a reaction'. [1]
4. For a reaction A + B P, the rate law is given by, [2]
r = k[A]1/2 [B]2
What is the order of this reaction?
5. A reaction is of second order with respect to a reactant. How is its rate affected if the
concentration of the reactant is (i) doubled (ii) reduced to half ? [2]
6. For a chemical reaction R P, the variation in the concentration (R) vs. time (t) plot is given as
(i) Predict the order of the reaction. (ii) What is the slope of the curve ? [2]
(R)
7. For a reaction A + B P, the rate is given by Rate = k [A] [B] 2 [2]

(i) How is the rate of reaction affected if the concentration of B is doubled ?
(ii)What is the overall order of reaction if A is present in large excess ?
8. A first order reaction is found to have a rate constant k = 5.5 × 10–14 s–1. Find the half-life of the
reaction. [3]
9. The decomposition of NH3 on platinum surface is a zero order. What would be the rates of
production of N2 and H2 if k = 2.5 × 10–4 mol–1 Ls–1 ? [3]
10. The half-life for decay of radioactive 14C is 5730 years. archaeological artifact containing wood
had only 80% of the 14C activity found in a living tree. Calculate the age of the artifact. [3] node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
11. The decomposition of phosphine, (PH3) proceeds according to the following equation: [5]
4 PH3 (g) P4 (g) + 6 H2 (g)
It is found that the reaction follow the following rate equation:
Rate = k [PH3]
The half-life of PH3 is 37.9 s at 120ºC.
(i) How much time is required for 3/4th of PH3 to decompose?
(ii) What fraction of the original sample of PH3 remains behind after 1 minute?
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CBSE 75
MOCK TEST SOLUTIONS

1. The number of reacting species (atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in an elementary reaction
which must collide simultaneously in order to bring about a chemical reaction is called
molecularity of a reaction.
2. The sum of powers of the concentration of the reactants in the experimental rate law expression
is called the order of that chemical reaction.
3. The rate of a reaction can be defined as the change in concentration of a reactant of product in
unit time.
4. Order : 2.5
5. Let, the concentration of the reactant be [A] = a.
Rate of reaction, R = k[A]2 = ka2
(i) If concentration of the reactant is doubled, [A] = 2a
Then, rate of reaction is R = k[2a]2 = 4ka2 = 4R.
So, the rate of reaction would increase by 4 times.
1
(ii) If the concentration of the reactant is reduced to half, [A] a
2
2
a2 ka 2 R
Then, rate of reaction is R = k[A] = k
2 4 4
So, the rate of reaction is reduced to ¼ times.
6. (i) Zero order (ii) Slope = – k
7. (i) A + B P
Rate, R1 = k[A] [B]2
R2 = k[A] [2B]2 4k[A] [B]2
R2 = 4R1
So, Rate of reaction increase by 4 times.
(ii) A B P Rate [A]0
excess
So, the overall order of reaction will be 2.

0.693 0.693
8. t1/2 = = 0.126 × 1014 sec.
k 5.5 10 14
9. 2NH3 N2 + 3H2
1 d NH 3 d N2 1 d[H 2 ]
Rate of reaction (r) = – =
2 dt dt 3 dt
Rate (r) = k[NH3]° = k ( zero order reaction) = 2.5 × 10–4
d N2
= r = 2.5 × 10–4 mol lit–1s–1
dt
d H2
= 3r = 3 × 2.5 × 10–4 = 7.5 × 10–4 mol lit–1 sec–1
dt
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76 Chemistry
2.303 a
10. t= log t1/2 of 14C = 5730 yr
k (a x)
0.693 –1
k= yr Also a = 100, (a – x) = 80
5730
2.303 5730 100 10
t= log 19042 log
0.693 80 8
19042 × {log 10 – log 8} 19042 × {1– 0.9030}
19042 × 0.097 = 1847 years
11. (i) Here t1/2 = 37.9 s
Let initial concentration = a
3
x a
4
2.303 a
Using the formula, t log
k a x
2.303 a 0.693 t1/2 a
t log k t 2.303 log
0.693 3 t1/2 0.693 1
a a a
t1/ 2 4 4
2.303 t1/2 2.303 t1/2 2 log 2 2.303 37.9 2 0.3010
t log 4 t [ t1/2 = 37.9s]
0.693 0.693 0.693
52.544
75.82 sec.
0.693
(ii) Here, t = 1 min = 60s and t1/2 = 37.9s
2.303 [R]0 0.693
Using the formula, t log and k
k [R] t1/ 2
2.303 [R]0 t1/ 2 [R]0

t log t 2.303 log node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\04_Chemical Kinetics
0.693 [R] 0.693 [R]

t1/ 2
2.303 37.9 [R]0

1 log
0.693 [R]
[R]0 1 0.693 0.693
log 0.0079
[R] 2.303 37.9 87.28
[R]0
antilog (0.0079) 1.018
[R]
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CBSE 77
D & F BLOCK ELEMENTS : (CHAPTER-8)

CHAPTER AT A GLANCE
Introduction
Elements having partially or fully filled d-orbitals in ground or most common oxidation state are
called d-block elements. These are also called transition elements because their properties are
intermediate of s-and p-block elements. General electronic configuration of this block is (n - 1)1-10 ns1-2.
Transition Metals of d-block Elements
3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th
group group group group group group group group group group
Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn
Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd
La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg
General Properties of the Transition Elements

(i) Melting point : s-block metals < d-block metals
In a series on increasing number of unpaired e– mpt increases upto Cr then decreases.
Sc < Ti < V < Cr > Mn < Fe > Co > Ni > Cu > Zn
Zn Cd Hg
Melting point (data based)
Half filled d 5
weak metallic bond
Fully filled d10
weak metallic bond
Cu Ag Au
E.N. Exception Zn < Cd < Hg
(ii) Density : s-block metals < d-block metals.
3d series Sc < Ti < V < Cr < Mn < Fe < Co Ni < Cu Zn
Density in a Group 3d < 4d << 5d

node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\08_D & F block
(iii) Metallic character : They are solid, hard, ductile, malleable, good conductor of heat and
electricity and exhibit metallic lusture, high tensile strength. Hg is liquid
Elect. cond. Ag Cu Au Al
p block
d block
(iv) Atomic and Ionic Radii
In transition metals, left to right net nuclear charge increases due to poor shielding effect. Due to
this, the atomic and ionic radii for transition elements for a given series show a decreasing trend
for first five elements and then becomes almost constant for next five elements of the series.
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78 Chemistry
(v) Enthalpies of Atomisation
Transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of atomization because of large number of unpaired
electrons in their atoms. They have stronger interatomic interaction and hence, stronger bond.
(vi) Ionisation Enthalpies
• In a series from left to right, ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in nuclear
charge.
• The irregular trend in the first ionization enthalpy of the 3d metals, though of little
chemical significance, can be accounted for by considering that the removal of one electron
alters the relative energies of 4s and 3d orbitals.
(vii) Oxidation States
Transition metals shows variable oxidation state due to two incomplete outermost shells. Only
stable oxidation states of the first row transition metals are Sc(+3), Ti(+4), V(+5), Cr(+3, +6),
Mn(+2, +7), Fe(+2, +3), Co(+2, +3), Ni(+2), Cu(+2), Zn(+2)
• Some more stable oxidation states of d-block elements
Cu +2 Mn +2 Pt +4 Ag +1
Cr +3 Sc +3 Au +3 Ni +2
• Common oxidation states
Ti(+4), V(+5) Cr(+3,+6) Mn(+2,+4,+7)
Fe(+2, +3), Co(+2,+3) Ni (+2) Pt (+2+4)
• In p-block lower oxidation states of heavier elements are more stable while in d-block
heavier element, higher oxidation state are more stable.
eg. In VIB gp Mo(+6) & W(+6) are more stable than Cr(+6)
(viii) Trends in the Standard Electrode Potentials node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\08_D & F block
• Transformation of the solid metal atoms to M2+ ions in solution and their standard electrode
potentials.
• If sum of the first and second ionization enthalpies is greater than hydration enthalpy
standard potential will be positive and reactivity will be lower and vice-versa.
(ix) Trends in Stability of Higher Oxidation States
The higher oxidation numbers are achieved in TiX4, VF5 and CrF6. The + 7 state for Mn is not
represented in simple halides but MnO3F is known and beyond Mn no metal has a
trihalide except FeX3 and CoF3 and increasing order of oxidizing power in the series
VO2+ < Cr2O72– < MnO4.
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CBSE 79
(x) Magnetic Properties
• When a magnetic field is applied to substances, mainly two types of magnetic behavior are
observed : diamagnetism and paramagnetism. Paramagnetism due to presence of unpaired
electrons, each such electron having a magnetic moment associated with its spin angular
momentum.
• The magnetic moment is determined by the number of unpaired electrons.
Magnetic moment = n(n 2)
where, n = number of unpaired electrons.

If all electrons are paired, substance will be diamagnetic and magnetic moment will be
zero.
(xi) Formation of Coloured Ions
• The d-orbitals are non-degenerated in presence of ligands. When an electron from a lower
energy d-orbital is excited to a higher energy d-orbital, the energy of required wavelength
is absorbed and rest light is transmitted out.
• This is achieved by absorption of light in the visible spectrum, rest of the light is no longer
white.
Colourless – Sc3+, Ti4+, Zn2+ etc
Coloured – Fe3+ yellow , Fe2+ green, Cu2+ blue, Co3+ blue & vacant d-orbitals etc
(xii) Formation of Complex Compounds
• Transition metals have small size high nuclear charge which facilitates the acceptance of
lone pair of electron from ligands.
(xiii) Catalytic Properties
• Transition metals have two outermost shells incomplete and ability to adopt multiple
oxidation states and to form complexes, therefore used as a catalyst.

• Transition metals also provide larger surface area for the reactant to be adsorbed.
(xiv) Formation of Interstitial Compounds
• Small size of non-metals (H, C, N) fit into the voids of crystalline solid of transition metals
and form interstitial compounds.
(xv) Alloy Formation
• Alloy is the homogeneous mixture of two or more metals. Transition metals have
approximate same size therefore, in molten form they can fit to each other crystalline
structure and form homogeneous mixture and form the alloy.
E.g., Brass (copper-zinc) and bronze (copper-tin) etc.
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80 Chemistry
Atomic radius
3d series Sc > Ti > V> Cr >Mn Fe CO Ni Cu < Zn
Smallest radius – Ni
e.g.% Ti < Zr Hf
Largest radius – La
Zn, Cdm Hg of group 12 have full d10 configuration in their ground state as well as in their
common oxidation states thus, they are not regarded as transition metals.
Cu+ is unstable in aqueous solution and undergoes disproportionation.
+
2Cu Cu 2 Cu; Cu 2 is more stabe than Cu due to much more (-) ve H (hydration) of
Cu2+ (aq) than Cu+. This is more than requires to compensate high lE2 of Cu.
Transition elements exhibit colour due to d-d transition, structure defects and charge transfer.
Electrons of lower energy level of d-orbital absorb energy from visible region for excitation to
higher level.
The Inner Transition Elements (f-Block)
The f-block consists of the two series, lanthanoids and actinoids. Lanthanoids are known as rare
earth metals and actinoids are known as radioactive elements (Th to Lr).
Lanthanoids
General characteristics
General configuration [Xe] 4f1–14, 5d0–1, 6s2.
Atomic and ionic size from left to right, decreases due to increase in nuclear charge. This is
known as lanthanoid contraction.
Oxidation states Ce4+; (Some elements) is favoured by its noble gas conguration, but it is
a strong oxidant reverting to the common + 3 state.
Lanthanoid are very reactive metals like alkaline earth metals.
+O2
M2O 3
+N2
MN
+S
M
Lanthanide metal +C MC2
(M) +X MX3
+H2O M(OH)3+H2
Misch metals, contain lanthanoids about 90-95% (Ce 40-5%, Lanthanum and neodymium
44%) iron 4.5%, calcium, carbon and silicon about 10.5% are used in cigarette and gas
lighters, toys, tank and tracer bullets.
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CBSE 81

1. Silver atom has completely filled d orbitals (4d10) in its ground state. How can you say that it is a
transition element ?
Ans. Ag has a completely filled 4d orbital (4d105s1) in its ground state. Now, silver displays two
oxidation states (+1 and +2). In the +1 oxidation state, an electron is removed from the s-orboital.
However, in the +2 oxidation state, an electron is removed from the d-orbital.
Thus, the d-orbital now becomes incomplete (4d9). Hence, it is a transition element.
2. In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomization of zinc is the lowest, i.e., 126
kJ mol–1. Why?
Ans. There are some unpaired electrons that account for their stronger metallic bonding. Due to the
absence of these unpaired electrons, the inter-atomic electronic bonding is the weakest in Zn and
as a result, it has the least enthalpy of atomization.
3. Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the largest number of oxidation states and
why ?
Ans. Mn (Z = 25) = 3d5 4s2
Mn has the maximum number of unpaired electrons present in the d-subshell (5 electrons).
Hence, Mn exhibits the largest number of oxidation states, ranging from +2 to +7.
4. The E (M2+/M) value for copper is positive (+0.34V). What is possibly the reason for this?
Ans. The E (M2+/M) value of a metal depends on the energy changes involved in the following:
1. Sublimation: The energy required for converting one mole of an atom from the solid state
to the gaseous state.
M(s) M(g) s
H(Sublimation energy)
2. Ionization: The energy required to take out electrons from one mole of atoms in the
gaseous state.
M(g) M2+(g) i
H(Ionization energy)
3. Hydration: The energy released when one mole of ions are hydrated.
M2+(g) M2+(aq) hyd

H(Hydration energy)
Now, copper has a high energy of atomization and low hydration energy. Hence, the E (M2+/M)
value for copper is positive.
5. Why is the highest oxidation state of a metal exhibited in its oxide or fluoride only?
Ans. Both oxide and fluoride ions are highly electronegative and have a very small size. Due to these
properties, they are able to oxidize the metal to its highest oxidation state.
6. Which is a stronger reducing agent Cr2+ or Fe2+ and why ?
Ans. The following reactions are involved when Cr2+ and Fe2+ act as reducing agents.
Cr2+ Cr3+, Fe2+ Fe3+
Cr2+ is a better reducing agent that Fe3+.
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82 Chemistry
7. Explain why Cu+ ion is not stable in aqueous solutions ?
Ans. In an aqueous medium, Cu2+ is more stable than Cu+. This is because although energy is required
to remove one electron from Cu+ to Cu2+, high hydration energy of Cu2+ compensates for it.
Therefore, Cu+ ion in an aqueous solution is unstable. It disproportionates to give Cu2+ and Cu.
8. Actinoid contraction is greater from element to element than lanthanoid contraction. Why?
Ans. In actinoids, 5f orbitals are filled. These 5f orbitals have a poorer shielding effect than 4f orbitals
(in lanthanoids). Thus, the effective nuclear charge experienced by electrons in valence shells in
case of actinoids is much more that that experienced by lanthanoids. Hence, the size contraction
in actinoids is greater as compared to that in lanthanoids.
9. On what ground can you say that scandium (Z = 21) is a transition element but zinc (Z = 30) is
not ?
Ans. On the basis of incompletely filled 3d orbitals in case of scandium atom in its ground state (3d1),
it is regarded as a transition element. On the other hand, zinc atom has completely filled
d orbitals (3d10) in its ground state as well as in its oxidised state, hence it is not regarded as a
transition element.
10. Why do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of atomisation ?
Ans. Because of large number of unpaired electrons in their atoms they have stronger interatomic
interaction and hence stronger bonding between atoms resulting in higher enthalpies of
atomisation.
11. Why is Cr2+ reducing and Mn3+ oxidising when both have d4 configuration ?
Ans. Cr2+ is reducing as its configuration changes from d4 to d3, the latter having a half-filled t2g level.
On the other hand, the change from Mn2+ to Mn3+ results in the half-filled (d5) configuration
which has extra stability.
12. How would you account for the increasing oxidising power in the series
VO2 Cr2 O72 MnO 4 ?
Ans. This is due to the increasing stability of the lower species to which they are reduced.
13. For the first row transition metals the Eo values are :
Eo V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\08_D & F block
(M2+/M) –1.18 – 0.91 –1.18 – 0.44 – 0.28 – 0.25 +0.34

Explain the irregularity in the above values.
Ans. The E–(M2+/M) values are not regular which can be explained from the irregular variation of
ionisation enthalpies ( 1H1 + 1H2) and also the sublimation enthalpies which are relatively much
less for manganese and vanadium.
14. Why is the E value for the Mn3+/Mn2+ couple much more positive than that for Cr3+/Cr2+ or
Fe3+/Fe2+ ? Explain.
Ans. Much larger third ionisation energy of Mn (where the required change is d5 to d4) is mainly
responsible for this. This also explains why the +3 state of Mn is of little importance.
15. Name a member of the lanthanoid series which is well known to exhibit +4 oxidation state.
Ans. Cerium (Z = 58)
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CBSE 83

1. Why are Mn2+ compounds more stable than Fe2+ towards oxidation to their +3 state ?
Ans. Electronic configuration of Mn2+ is [Ar]18 3d5. (half filled stability)
Electronic configuration of Fe2+ is [Ar]18 3d6. (After losing one electron gain half filled stability).
2. What is lanthanoid contraction ? What are the consequences of lanthanoid contraction ?
Ans. With the increase in atomic number, the number of electrons in the 4f orbital also increases. The
4f electrons have poor shielding effect. Therefore, the effective nuclear charge experienced by
the outer electrons increases. This results in a steady decrease in the size of lanthanoids with the
increase in the atomic number. This is termed as lanthanoid contraction.
Consequences of lanthanoid contraction
(i) There is similarity in the properties of second and third transition series.
(ii) Separation of lanthanoids is possible due to lanthanide contraction.
(iii) It is due to lanthanide contraction that there is variation in the basic strength of lanthanide
hydroxides. (Basic strength decreases from La (OH)3 to Lu (OH)3.)
3. What are the characteristics of the transition elements and why are they called transition elements
? Which of the d-block elements may not be regarded as the transition elements ?
Ans. Transition elements are those elements in which the atoms or ions (in stable oxidation state)
contain partially filled d-orbital. These elements lie in the d-block and show a transition of
properties between s-block and p-block. Therefore, these are called transition elements.
Elements such as Zn, Cd and Hg cannot be classified as transition elements because these have
completely filled d-subshell.
4. In what way is the electronic configuration of the transition elements different from that of the
non-transition elements ?
Ans. Transition metals have a partially filled d-orbital. Therefore, the electronic configuration of
transition elements is (n–1) d1-10 ns0 - 2.
The non-transition elements either do not have a d- orbital or have a fully filled d-orbital.
Therefore, the electronic configuration of non-transition elements is ns1-2 or ns2 np1-6.
5. Explain giving reasons :
(i) Transition metals and many of their compounds show paramagnetic behaviour.
(ii) The enthalpies of atomisation of the transition metals are high.
(iii) The transition metals generally form coloured compounds.
(iv) Transition metals and their many compounds act as good catalyst.
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84 Chemistry
Ans. (i) Transition metals show paramagnetic behaviour. Paramagnetism arises due to the presence
of unpaired electrons with each electron having a magnetic moment associated with its spin
angular momentum and orbital angular momentum.
(ii) Transition elements have high effective nuclear charge and a large number of valence
electrons. Therefore, they form very strong metallic bonds. As a result, the enthalpy of
atomization of transition metals is high.
(iii) Due to d-d transition.
(iv) The catalytic activity of the transition elements can be explained by two basic facts.
(a) Owing to their ability to show variable oxidation states and form complexes,
transition metals form unstable intermediate compounds. Thus, they provide a new
path with lower activation energy, Ea, for the reaction.
(b) Transition metals also provide a suitable surface for the reactions to occur.
6. What are interstitial compounds ? Why are such compounds well known for transition metals ?
Ans. Transition metals are large in size and contain lots of interstitial sites. Transition elements can
trap atoms of other elements (that have small atomic size), such as H, C, N, in the interstitial sites
of their crystal lattices. The resulting compounds are called interstitial compounds.
7. Describe the preparation of potassium dichromate from iron chromite ore. What is the effect of
increasing pH on a solution of potassium dichromate ?
Ans. Potassium dichromate is prepared from chromite ore (FeCr2O4) in the following steps.
Step (1) : Preparation of sodium chromate
4FeCr2O4 + 16NaOH + 7O2 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8H2O

Step (2) : Conversion of sodium chromate into sodium dichromate
2Na2CrO4 + conc. H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\08_D & F block
Step (3) : Conversion of sodium dichromate to potassium dichromate

Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
Potassium dichromate being less soluble than sodium dichromate is obtained in the form of
orange coloured crystals and can be removed by filtration.
The dichromate ion (Cr2O72–) exists in equilibrium with chromate (CrO42) ion at pH 4. However,
by changing the pH, they can be interconverted
2CrO24 2H pH 4
Cr2 O27 H2O
Chromate ion( Yellow) Dichromate ion(Orange)
On increasing pH, Cr2O27 2OH 2CrO24 H2 O
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CBSE 85
8. Compare the chemistry of actinoids with that of the lanthanoids with special reference to :
(i) electronic configuration (ii) atomic and ionic sizes
(iii) oxidation state (iv) chemical reactivity.
Ans. (i) Electronic configuration : The general electronic configuration for lanthanoids is [Xe]54 4f1-14
5d0-1 6s2 and that for actinoids is [Rn]86 5f1-14 6d0-1 7s2.
(ii) Atomic and Ionic sizes : Similar to lanthanoids, actinoids also exhibit actinoid contraction
(overall decrease in atomic and ionic radii). The contraction is greater due to the poor shielding
effect of 5f orbitals.
(iii) Oxidation states : The principal oxidation state of lanthanoids is (+3). However, sometimes
we also encounter oxidation states of +2 and +4. This is because of extra stability of fully-filled
and half-filled orbitals. Actinoids exhibit a greater range of oxidation states. This is because the
5f, 6d, and 7s levels are of comparable energies.
(iv) Chemical reactivity : In the lanthanide series, the earlier members of the series are more
reactive. They have reactivity that is comparable to Ca. With an increase in the atomic number,
the lanthanides start behaving similar to Al. Actinoids, on the other hand, are highly reactive
metals, especially when they are finely divided.
9. How would you account for the following :
(i) Of the d4 species, Cr2+ is strongly reducing while manganese(III) is strongly oxidising.
(ii) Cobalt(II) is stable in aqueous solution but in the presence of complexing reagents it is
easily oxidised.
(iii) The d1 configuration is very unstable in ions.
2+ 4
Ans. (i) Cr is strongly reducing in nature. It has a d configuration. While acting as a reducting
agent, it gets oxidized to Cr3+ (electronic configuration, d3). This d3 configuration can be
written as t 2g
3
configuration, which is a more stable configuration. In the case of Mn3+ (d4),
it acts as an oxidizing agent and gets reduced to Mn2+ (d5). This has an exactly half- filled
d-orbital and is highly stable.
(ii) Co(II) is stable is aqueous solutions. However, in the presence of strong field complexing
reagents, it is oxidized to Co(III). Although the 3rd ionization energy for Co is high, but the
higher amount of crystal field stabilization energy (CFSE) released in the presence of
strong field ligands overcomes this ionization energy.
(iii) The ions in d1 configuration tend to lose one more electron to get into stable d0
configuration. Also, the hydration or lattice energy is more than sufficient to remove the
only electron present in the d-orbital of these ions. Therefore, they act as reducing agents.
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86 Chemistry
10. What is meant by 'disproportionation' ? Give two examples of disproportionation reaction in
aqueous solution.
Ans. It is found that sometimes a relatively less stable oxidation state undergoes an oxidation - reduction
reaction in which it is simultaneously oxidised and reduced. This is called disproportionation.
For example,
(1) 3CrO34 8H 2CrO24 Cr 3 4H2 O

Cr(V ) Cr(VI) Cr(III)
Cr(V) is oxidized to Cr(VI) and reduced to Cr(III).
(2) 3MnO24 4H 2MnO 4 MnO 2 2H 2 O

Mn(VI) Mn( VII) Mn(IV )
Mn (VI) is oxidized to Mn (VII) and reduced to Mn (IV).
11. Give examples and suggest reasons for the following features of the transition metal chemistry :
(i) The lowest oxide of transition metal is basic, the highest is amphoteric/acidic.
(ii) A transition metal exhibits highest oxidation state in oxides and fluorides.
(iii) The highest oxidation state is exhibited in oxoanions of a metal.
Ans. (i) In the case of a lower oxide of a transition metal, the metal atom has a low oxidation state.
This means that some of the valence electrons of the metal atom are not involved in
bonding. As a result, it can donate electrons and behave as a base.
On the other hand, in the case of a higher oxide of a transition metal, the metal atom has a
high oxidation state. This means that the valence electrons are involved in bonding and so,
they are unavailable. There is also a high effective nuclear charge.
As a result, it can accept electrons and behave as an acid.

For example, MnIIO is basic and Mn2VII O 7 is acidic.
(ii) Oxygen and fluorine act as strong oxidising agents because of their high electronegatives
and small sizes. Hence, they bring out the highest oxidation states from the transition
metals. In other words, a transition metal exhibits higher oxidation states in oxides and
fluorides. For example, in OsF6 and V2O5, the oxidation states of Os and V are +6 and +5
respectively.
(iii) Oxygen is a strong oxidising agent due to its high electronegativity and small size. So,
oxo-anions of a metal have the highest oxidation state. For example, in MnO4–, the
oxidation state of Mn is +7.
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CBSE 87
12. What are alloys ? Name an important alloy which contains some of the lanthanoid metals.
Mention its uses.
Ans. An alloy is a solid of two or more elements in a metallic matrix. It can either be a partial solid
solution or a complete solid solution. Alloys are usually found to possess different physical
properties than those of the component elements.
An important alloy of lathanoids is Mischmetal. It contains lanthanoids (94-95%), iron (5%), and
traces of S, C, Si, Ca and Al.
Uses :
(1) Mischmetal is used in cigarettes and gas lighters.
(2) It is used in flame throwing tanks.
(3) It is used in tracer bullets and shells.
13. (a) Account for the following :
(i) Transition metals show variable oxidation states.
(ii) Zn, Cd and Hg are soft metals.
(b) Write one similarity and one difference between the chemistry of lanthanoid and actinoid
elements.
Ans. (a) (i) Vailability of partially filled d-orbitals/comparable energies of ns and (n-1) d orbitals
(ii) Completely filled d-orbitals/absence of unpaired d electrons cause weak metallic bonding
(b) Similarity-both are stable in +3 oxidation state/both show contraction/irregular electronic
configuration (or any other suitable similarity) Difference-actinoids are radioactive and
lanthanoids are not/actionoids show wide range of oxidation states but lanthanoids don't
(or any other orrect difference).
14. (a) Following are the transition metal ions of 3d series :
Ti4+, V2+, Mn3+, Cr3+
(Atomic numbers : Ti = 22, V =23, Mn = 25, Cr = 24)
Answer the following :
(i) Which ion is most stable in an aqueous solution and why ?
(ii) Which ion is a strong oxidising agent and why ?
(iii) Which ion is colourless and why ?

(b) Complete the following reactions :
(i) 2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5 S2–
(ii) KMnO4 heat
Ans. (a) (i) Cr3+, half filled t32g

(ii) Mn3+, due to stable d5 configuration in Mn2+
(iii) Ti4+, No unpaired electrons
(b) (i) 2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5S2– 2Mn2+ + 8H2O
(ii) 2KMnO4 K2MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
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15. (a) Account for the following
(i) Mn shows the highest oxidation state of +7 with oxygen but with fluorine it shows the
highest oxidation state of +4.
(ii) Zirconium and Hafnium exhibit similar properties.
(iii) Transition metals act as catalysts.
(b) Complete the following equations:
(i) 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2
(ii) Cr2O72 + 14H+ + 6I–
Ans. (a) (i) Ability of oxygen to form multiple bond .
(ii) Due to lanthanoid contraction.
(iii) Due to variable oxidation state/unpaired electrons
(b) (i) 2MnO2 + 4KOH + O2 2K2MnO4+ 2H2O
(ii) Cr2O72 – + 14 H+ +6I– 2Cr3++ 7H2O + 3I2
16. The elements of 3d transition series are given as:
Answer the following:
(i) Write the element which is not regarded as a transition element. Give reason.
(ii) Which element has the highest m.p ?
(iii) Write the element which can show an oxidation state of +1.
(iv) Which element is a strong oxidizing agent in +3 oxidation state and why ?
Ans. (i) Zn, because of not having partially filled d-orbital in its ground state or ionic state.
(ii) Cr
(iii) Cu
(iv) Mn, because Mn+2 has extra stability due to half filled d-orbital
17. (i) Transition metals form coloured compounds. Why?
(ii) Complete the following equation :
2MnO–4 + 16 H + 5C2O 4
+ 2–
Ans. (i) Due to d – d transition / due to presence of unpaired electrons in d – orbitals which absorb
light in visible region
(ii) 2MnO4– + 16H+ + 5C2O42 – 2Mn2+ + 8H2O + 10CO2
18. How is the variability in oxidation states of d-block different from that of the p-block elements ?
Ans. In transition elements, oxidation states differ from each other by unity whereas in case of
p- block elements, the oxidation states differ by units of two / In transition elements, the higher
oxidation states are more stable for heavier elements in a group. In p – block elements, the lower
oxidation states are more stable for heavier members due to inert pair effect. (Any one difference)
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CBSE 89
EXERCISE-3 RACE
Type 1 : Passage question 1 :
The d-block of the periodic table contains the elements of the groups 3 – 12 and are known as
transition elements. In general, the electronic configuration of these elements is (n – 1) d1–10 ns1–2.
The d-orbitals of the penultimate energy level in their atoms receive electrons giving rise to the
three rows of the transition metals i.e., 3d, 4d and 5d series. However, Zn, Cd and Hg are not
regarded as transition elements. Transition elements exhibit certain characteristic properties like
variable oxidation states, complex formation, formation of coloured ions and alloys, catalytic
activity, etc. Transition metals are hard (except Zn, Cd and Hg) and have a high melting point.
(a) Zn, Cd and Hg non-transition elements due to :-
(i) Full filled nd10 (ii) Half filled nd5

3
(iii) nd orbital (iv) t2g3eg2
(b) Which transition metal of 3d series does not show variable oxidation states ?
(i) Zn (ii) Sc (iii) Mn (iv) Cr
(c) The melting points of transition metals are high ?
(i) Unpaired electrons (ii) Paired electrons
(iii) Both (i) & (ii) (iv) None of these
(d) Cu2+ ion coloured while Zn2+ ion is colourless in aqueous solution due to :-
(i) e– jump from eg to t2g (ii) d-d transition

Question 2 to 6 :- Note : In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a

reason. choose the correct answer out of the following choices –
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90 Chemistry
2. Assertion : Cu2+ iodide is not known.
Reason : Cu2+ oxidises I– to iodine.
3. Assertion : Transition metals have low melting points.
Reason : The involvement of greater number of (n – 1)d and ns electrons in the interatomic
metallic bonding.
4. Assertion : Separation of Zr and Hf is difficult.
Reason : Because Zr and Hf lie in the same group of the periodic table.
5. Assertion : Cu cannot liberate hydrogen from acids.
Reason : Because it has positive electrode potential.
6. Assertion : The highest oxidation state of osmium is +8.
Reason : Osmium is a 5d-block element
7. Electronic configuration of a transition element X in +3 oxidation state is [Ar]3d5. What is its
atomic number ?
(i) 25 (ii) 26 (iii) 27 (iv) 24
8. Which of the following oxidation state is common for all lanthanoids ?
(i) +2 (ii) +3 (iii) +4 (iv) +5
9. Transition elements show magnetic moment due to spin and orbital motion of electrons. Which
of the following metallic ions have almost same spin only magnetic moment ?
(i) Co3+ (ii) Cr2+ (iii) Mn2+ (iv) Cr3+
10. Which of the following statements is not correct ?
(i) Copper liberates hydrogen from acids.
(ii) In its higher oxidation states, manganese forms stable compounds with oxygen and fluorine. node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\08_D & F block
(iii) Mn3+ and Co3+ are oxidising agents in aqueous solution.

(iv) Ti2+ and Cr2+ are reducing agents in aqueous solution.
11. Interstitial compounds are formed when small atoms are trapped inside the crystal lattice of
metals. Which of the following is not the characteristic property of interstitial compounds?
(i) They have high melting points in comparison to pure metals.
(ii) They are very hard.
(iii) They retain metallic conductivity.
(iv) They are chemically very reactive.
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CBSE 91
12. The electronic configuration of Cu(II) is 3d9 whereas that of Cu(I) is 3d10. Which of the following
is correct ?
(i) Cu(II) is more stable
(ii) Cu(II) is less stable
(iii) Cu(I) and Cu(II) are equally stable
(iv) Stability of Cu(I) and Cu(II) depends on nature of copper salts
13. The magnetic nature of elements depends on the presence of unpaired electrons. Identify the
configuration of transition element, which shows highest magnetic moment.
(i) 3d7 (ii) 3d5 (iii) 3d8 (iv) 3d2
14. Which of the following is amphoteric oxide ?
Mn2O7, CrO3, Cr2O3, CrO, V2O5, V2O4
(i) V2O5, Cr2O3 (ii) Mn2O7, CrO3 (iii) CrO, V2O5 (iv) V2O5, V2O4
15. Transition elements form binary compounds with halogens. Which of the following elements will
form MF3 type compounds?
(i) Cr (ii) Co (iii) Cu (iv) Ni
16. Generally transition elements form coloured salts due to :-
(i) presence of unpaired e– (ii) Presence of paired e–

ANSWER KEY
Q. No. 1(a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. (i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i) (iv) (ii) (i) (ii) (ii) (ii)
Q. No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. (iv) (i) (iii) (i) (ii) (i) (ii) (i)
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1. Account for the following : (CBSE_Term-II_2022)
(i) Cr2+ is a strong reducing agent.
(ii) Ti3+ is coloured whereas Sc3+ is colourless in aqueous solution.
(iii) Zn, Cd and Hg are not called transition elements. [1×3=3]

2+ 4
Ans. (i) Cr is strongly reducing in nature. It has a d configuration. While acting as a reducting
3+ 3 3
agent, it gets oxidized to Cr (electronic configuration, d ). This d configuration can be
written as t 2g
3
configuration, which is a more stable configuration.
3+ –
(ii) Sc is colourless is due to the absence of unpaired e as it attains 3d° configuration while
+3 1
Ti has 3d -configuration
(iii) Due to completely filled d-orbitals in their ground state as well as in oxidized state.
2. What is Lanthanoid contraction ? What is the cause of Lanthanoid contraction ? Write two
consequences of Lanthanoid contraction. [3]
(CBSE_Term-II_2022)
Ans. A regular decrease (contraction) in the atomic and ionic radii of lanthanoides with increasing
atomic number is known as lanthanoid contraction.
Alloy containing lanthanoid metals is mischmetal.
Consequences of lanthanoid contraction
(i) There is similarity in the properties of second and third transition series.
(ii) Separation of lanthanoids is possible due to lanthanide contraction.
(iii) It is due to lanthanide contraction that there is variation in the basic strength of lanthanide
hydroxides. (Basic strength decreases from La (OH)3 to Lu (OH)3.)
3. Calculate the number of unpaired electrons in the following gaseous ions:
(Compartment _CBSE 2021)
3+ 3+
Mn and Cr (Atomic number of Cr = 24, Mn = 25)
Which one of them is most stable in aqueous solution and why ?
Ans. The number of unpaired electrons in Mn3+ = 4
The number of unpaired electrons in Cr3+ = 3
Cr3+ is most stable in aqueous solution due to t 32g half field stability.
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4. Explain all the steps along with the chemical equation which are used in the preparation of
K2Cr2O7 from chromite ore. (Compartment _CBSE 2021)
Ans. Potassium dichromate is prepared from chromite ore (FeCr2O4) in the following steps.
Step (1) : Preparation of sodium chromate
4FeCr2O4 + 16NaOH + 7O2 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8H2O
Step (2) : Conversion of sodium chromate into sodium dichromate
2Na2CrO4 + conc. H2SO4 Na2Cr2O7 + Na2SO4 + H2O
Step (3) : Conversion of sodium dichromate to potassium dichromate
Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
Potassium dichromate being less soluble than sodium dichromate is obtained in the form of
orange coloured crystals and can be removed by filtration.
5. Out of the following transition elements, the maximum number of oxidation states are shown by
(CBSE 2020)
(A) Sc (Z = 21) (B) Cr (Z = 24) (C) Mn (Z = 26) (D) Fe (Z = 26)
Ans. (C)
6. (a) Account for the following : (CBSE 2020)
(i) Copper (I) compounds are white whereas Copper (II) compounds are coloured. [1×3=3]
(ii) Chromates change their colour when kept in an acidic solution.
(iii) Zn, Cd, Hg are considered as d-block elements but not as transition elements.
(b) Calculate the spin-only moment of Co2+ (Z = 27) by writing the electronic configuration of
Co and Co2+
OR
(a) Give three points of difference between lanthanoids and actinoids. [3]
(b) Give reason and select one atom/ion which will exhibit asked property : [1 × 2 = 2]
(i) Sc+3 or Cr3+ (Exhibit diamagnetic behaviour)
(ii) Cr or Cu (High melting and boiling point)
Ans. (a) (i) Cu+1 (3d10) compounds are white because of absence of unpaired electrons while Cu+2 (3d9)
compounds are coloured due to unpaired e-/shows d-d transition.
(ii) chromate (CrO42–) changes to dichromate (Cr2O72-) ion in acidic medium.
(iii) due to completely filled d-orbitals in their ground state as well as in oxisized state.
(b) Co = [Ar]4s23d7, Co+2 = [Ar]3d7
= n(n 2) = 3(3 2) 15 3.92 B.M.
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OR
(a) Lanthanoids Actinoids
(1) most of them are not radioactive All are radioactive
(2) don't show a wide range of oxidation state Show a wide range of oxidation states
(3) Most of their ions are colourless ,
Most of their ions are coloured
(b) (i) Sc+3, because of absence of unpaired electron
(ii) Cr, because of presence of strong intermetallic bonding than Cu.
7. When FeCr2O4 is fused with Na2CO3 in the presence of air it gives a yellow solution of compound
(A). Compound (A) on acidification gives compound (B). Compound (B) on reaction with KCl
forms an orange coloured compound (C). An acidified solution of compound (C) oxidises
Na2SO3 to (D). Identify (A), (B), (C) and (D). [2]
(CBSE 2019)
Ans. A = Na2CrO4 ; B = Na2Cr2O7 ; C = K2Cr2O7 ; D = Na2SO4
(a) Transition metals form complex compounds. (CBSE 2019)
2+ 2+
(b) E° values for (Zn / Zn) and (Mn / Mn) are more negative than expected.
(c) Actinoids show wide range of oxidation states.
Ans. (a) Due to small size, high ionic charge and availability of d-orbital
(b) Due to stable 3d10 configuration in Zn2+ and 3d5 configuration in Mn2+.
(c) Due to comparable energies of 5f, 6d and 7s orbitals/level
(a) Transition metals have high enthalpies of atomization. (CBSE 2019)
(b) Manganese has lower melting point even though it has a higher number of unpaired
electrons for bonding.
(c) Ce4+ is a strong oxidising agent.
Ans. (a) Because of strong interatomic interactions/strong metallic bonding between atoms.
(b) Due to stable 3d5 configuration, interatomic interaction is poor between unpaired electrons.
(c) Because Ce is more stable in +3 oxidation state.
10. Give reasons : (CBSE 2018)
0
(a) E value for Mn /Mn couple is much more positive than that for Fe /Fe .
3+ 2+ 3+ 2+
(b) Iron has higher enthalpy of atomization than that of copper.

(c) Sc3+ is colourless in aqueous solution whereas Ti3+ is coloured.

Ans. (a) E° value for Mn3+/Mn2+ couple is much more positive than that for Fe3+/Fe2+, due to the Mn2+
have higher stability than M3+ due to half-filled d5 configuration.
(b) Iron has higher enthalpy of atomization than that of copper because Iron has higher number
of unpaired e– than Cu due to which extent of covalent bonding is more.
(c) Sc3+ is colourless is due to the absence of unpaired e– as it attains 3d° configuration while
Ti+3 has 3d1-configuration
11. Complete and balance the following chemical equations : (CBSE 2018)
2
(a) Fe MnO 4 H (b) MnO4 H2O I
Ans. 5Fe2 MnO4 8H Mn 2 4H 2O 5Fe 3
2MnO4 H 2O I 2MnO 2 2OH IO3
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CBSE 95

1. Mn3+ is a good oxidizing agent. Why ? [1]
2. Name a member of the lanthanoid series which is well known to exhibit + 4 oxidation state. [1]
3. Transition metals form a large number of complexes. [1]
4. Although ‘F’ is more electronegative than ‘O’. the highest Mn fluoride In MnF4, whereas the
highest oxide is Mn2O7. Why ? [2]
Out of Mn3+ and Cr3+ , which is more paramagnetic and why ? (Atomic nos. : Mn = 25, Cr = 24) [2]
6. (a) Transition metals form coloured compounds. Why? [2]
(b) Transition metals act as catalysts.
7. (a) Mn shows the highest oxidation state of +7 with oxygen but with fluorine it shows the highest
oxidation state of +4. [2]
(b) Copper (I) compounds are white whereas Copper (II) compounds are coloured.
8. The elements of 3d transition series are given as: [3]
Answer the following:
(i) Write the element which is not regarded as a transition element. Give reason.
(ii) Which element has the highest m.p. ?
(iii) Write the element which can show an oxidation state of +1.
9. Following are the transition metal ions of 3d series : [3]
4+ 2+ 3+ 3+
Ti , V , Mn , Cr
(Atomic numbers : Ti = 22, V =23, Mn = 25, Cr = 24)
Answer the following :
(i) Which ion is most stable in an aqueous solution and why ?
(ii) Which ion is a strong oxidising agent and why ?
(iii) Which ion is colourless and why ?
0 3+ 2+ 3+ 2+
(a) E value for Mn /Mn couple is much more positive than that for Fe /Fe .
(b) Iron has higher enthalpy of atomization than that of copper.
(c) Sc3+ is colourless in aqueous solution whereas Ti3+ is coloured.
11. (a) Account for the following : [5]
(i) Transition metals show variable oxidation states.
(ii) Zn, Cd and Hg are soft metals.
(iii) Eo value for the Mn3+/Mn2+ couple is highly positive (+1.57 V) as compared to Cr3+/Cr2
(b) Write one similarity and one difference between the chemistry of lanthanoid and actinoid
elements.
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96 Chemistry
MOCK TEST SOLUTIONS
1. Mn3+ easily changes to Mn2+ and Mn2+ is more stable due to half-filled d5 configuration and
hence Mn3+ is oxidising.
2. Ce+4
3. Due to high nuclear charge presence of vacant d-orbital and variable oxidation state it have great
tendency to from complex.
4. This is because F can form only one bond and structure of MnF4 is which is tetrahedral but
F
F Mn F
F
In Mn2O7 as 0 is present which can form 2 bonds or 1 and 1 bond so 0 can be present in
between two Mn atoms giving it a structure.
O O
Mn Mn
O O O
O
O
Such budge cannot

be formed by F
5. Mn+3 due to four unpaired electron in their 3d orbital.
6. (a) Due to d - d transition / due to presence of unpaired electrons in d - orbitals which absorb
light in visible region.
(b) Due to variable oxidation state/unpaired electrons.
7. (a) Ability of oxygen to form multiple bond.
(b) Cu+1 (3d10) compounds are white because of absence of unpaired electrons while Cu+2 (3d9)
compounds are coloured due to unpaired e¯/shows d-d transition.
8. (i) Zn, because of not having partially filled d-orbital in its ground state or ionic state.
(ii) Cr
(iii) Cu
9. (i) Cr3+, half filled t32g
(ii) Mn3+, due to stable d5 configuration in Mn2+
(iii) Ti4+, No unpaired electrons
10. (a) E° value for Mn3+ / Mn2+ couple is much more positive than that for Fe3+ / Fe2+, due to the
Mn2+ have higher stability than M3+ due to half filled d5 configuration.
(b) Iron has higher enthalpy of atomization than that of copper because Iron has higher number
of unpaired e¯ than Cu due to which extent of covalent bonding is more.
(c) Sc3+ is colourless is due to the absence of unpaired e¯ as it attains 3d° configuration while Ti+3
has 3d1-configuration
11. (a) (i) Availability of partially filled d-orbitals/comparable energies of ns and (n-1) d orbitals
(ii) Completely filled d-orbitals/absence of unpaired d electrons cause weak metallic bonding
(iii) Because Mn2+ has d5 as a stable configuration whereas Cr3+ is more stable due to stable t32g
(b) Similarity-both are stable in +3 oxidation state/both show contraction/irregular electronic
configuration (or any other suitable similarity) Difference-actinoids are radioactive and
lanthanoids are not/actionoids show wide range of oxidation states but lanthanoids don't (or any
other correct difference).
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CBSE 97
COORDINATION COMPONDS : (CHAPTER-9)

Complex Compound
Representation of coordination compound
K 4 [Fe(CN)6] C.N.
(coordination no.)
Ionisation sphere / Counter Ion
Coordination sphere / Entity
Central metal atom/ion
Ligand
Double salts—are the addition compounds that lose their identity in solution. They exist only in
solid state and have properties same as those of constituent compounds,
e.g. Mohr's salt Feso4. (NH4)2SO4. 6H2O, Potash alum K2SO4. Al2 (SO4)3 24H2O
Coordination compounds or complexes — don't completely lose their identity in solution. They
exist in solid state as well as in solution. Their properties are different from their constituents.
denticity — The number of donor sites present in a ligand is called their denticity e.g. en
(ethylene diamine) is a bidentate (didnetate) ligand and EDTA4– is a hexadentate ligand.
Monodentate : have only one donor sites.
Eg. H2O, NH 3
Bidentate : Contain two donor sites.
Eg. CH 2=CH 2, COO—
|
—
COO
Co-ordination compound are the compounds in which the central metal atom is linked to a
number of ions are neutral molecules by co-ordinate bond.
Ligand : The donar atoms, molecules or ions which donate a pair of electrons to the metal atom
and form a co-ordinate bond with it are called ligands.
Ambidentate ligand : Unidentate ligands with more than one co-ordinating atoms. e.g.
node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\09_Coordination Compounds
–CN—, and –NC—, –SCN — and –NCS—, NO2 — and ONO—, –OCN— and NCO—.
These ligands are responsible for linkage isomerism.
Polydentate ligand : Those ligands which possess two or more than two donar atoms which can
link to metal ions are called polydentate ligands. e.g. EDTA4–. (ethylene diamine tetra acetate)
ion hexadentate ligand.
Chelating ligand: These are the polydentate ligands which bind to the central metal to form a
puckered ring structure. Chelation leads to extra stability, for example, EDTA (ethylene diamine
tetra acetate).
On the basis of crystal field splitting energy (CFSE) ligands are of 2 types –
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98 Chemistry
(1) Strong ligands : They possess high CFSE values e.g. –CO, CN, NH3, H2O etc.
(2) Weak ligands : They possess less CFSE values e.g. –F–, Cl–, Br–, I– etc.
LIGANDS
On the basis On the basis On the basis of

of charge of denticity —
lp donation/accepting e s
Neutral Monodentate
Classical Non-classical
Anionic Bidentate
Cationic Polydentate
Flexidentate e— acid
Ambidentate donating ligand ligand
Bonding in Coordination Compounds
Werners Theory
(i) In complex compounds, metal atom exhibit two types of valencies. primary valency and
secondary valency.
Primary valency Secondary Valency
It is oxidation no. of metal. It is coordination number
It is variable It is non variable.
Satisfied by anions (present in Satisfied by ligands
coordination or ionisable sphere). (present in coordination sphere)
Ionisable Nonionisable
Ionic nondirectional Directional decide geometry
of complex ion.
Represented by dotted line in Represented by solid lines in
Werner structure. Werner structure.
Valence Bond Theory
According to this theory, the metal atom or ion under the influence of ligands form inner orbital
and outer orbital complex. These hybridized orbitals are allowed to overlap with ligand orbitals
that can donate electron pairs for bonding.
Coorination No. Type of hybrid orbital
2 sp
2
3 sp
square planar -dsp2
4
tetrahedral -sp3
dsp3
5
sp3d
3 2
sp d - outer orbital complex (high spin)
6 2 3
d sp - inner orbital complex (low spin)
Coordination No. 4: Example
2— 3
[NiCl4] sp -----Tetrahedral
2— 2
[Ni(CN)4] dsp ----- Square planar
[Ni(CO)4] sp3 -----Tetrahedral
2+ 3
[Zn(NH3)4] sp -----Tetrahedral
2+ 2
[Cu(NH3)4] dsp -----Square planar
Coordination No. 6 : Example
[Fe(CN) 6]4— d2sp3
[Fe(CN) 6]3— d2sp3
[Co(NH 3) 6]3+ d2sp3
[Ni(H 2O) 6]2+ sp3d2
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CBSE 99
Crystal Field Theory
The five d-orbitals are split into lower and higher energy level due to approach of ligands is
known as crystal field theory. The five d-orbitals in a gaseous metal atom/ion have same energy.
Crystal field splitting in octahedral coordination entities.
• Energy separation is denoted by o (the subscript o is for octahedral).
• The energy of the two eg orbitals (higher energy orbitals) will increase by (3/5) o and that
of the three t2g (lower energy orbitals) will decrease by (2/5) o.
• If o < p, the fourth electron enters one of the eg, orbitals giving the configuration t 32ge1g .
Ligands for which o < p are known as weak field ligands and form high spin complexes.
• If o > p, it becomes more energetically favourable for the fourth electron to occupy a t2g
orbital with configuration t 42geg . Ligands which produce this effect are known as strong
field ligands and form low spin complexes, where p represents the energy required for
electron pairing in a single orbital.
Isomerism in Coordination Compounds

Stereo isomerism and structural isomerism are the two principal types of isomerisms which are
known among coordination compounds.
Stereo Isomerism
It occurs due to different arrangements of ligands around central metal atom. It is of two types :
geometrical isomerism and optical isomerism.
Geometrical Isomerism
It arises in heteroleptic complexes due to different possible geometric arrangements of the

ligands. Important examples of this behavior are found in square planar and octahedral
complexes.
Optical Isomerism
• It arises when mirror images cannot be superimposed on one another. These mirror images
are called as enantiomers. The two forms are called dextro (d) and laevo (l).
• Optical isomerism is common in octahedral complexes but at least one didentate ligand
should be present.
e.g., [Co(en)3]3+, [PtCl2(en)2]2+ etc.
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100 Chemistry
Structural Isomerism
In structural isomerism, isomers have different bonding pattern. Different types of structural
isomerism is as follows :
(i) Linkage isomerism, arises in a coordination compound containing ambidentate ligand.
e.g., [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2
[Co(NH3)5(ONO)]Cl2
(ii) Coordination isomerism, arises from the interchange of ligands between cationic and
anionic entities of different metal ions present in a complex.
e.g., [Co(NH3)6][Cr(CN)6] ; [Cr(NH3)6][Co(CN)6]
(iii) Ionisation isomerism, when the ionisable anion exchange with anion ligand.
e.g., [CO(NH3)5SO4]Br and [Co(NH3)5Br]SO4
(iv) Solvate isomerism, is also known as .hydrate isomerism. In this case water is involved as a
solvent.
e.g., [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3, [Cr(H2O)5Cl2.H2O, [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl.2H2O
Crystal field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities.
• In tetrahedral coordination entities, t = (4/9) o. Consequently the orbital splitting energies
are not sufficiently large for forcing pairing and, therefore, low spin configurations are
rarely observed.
• Due to less crystal field stabilization energy, it is not possible to pair electrons and so all
the tetrahedral complexes are high spin.
4
• The value of t
(CFSE for tetrahedral complexes) for tetrahedral complexes is t 0
9
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CBSE 101
Exercise-1 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds :
(i) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride
(ii) Potassium tetracyanonickelate (II)
(iii) Tris (ethane-1,2-diamine) chromium(III) chloride
(iv) Amminebromideochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II)
(v) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate
(vi) Iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II)
Ans. (i) Co(H 2 O) 2 (NH 3 ) 4 Cl3 (ii) K 2 Ni(CN) 4
(iii) Cr(en)3 Cl3 (iv) Pt(NH)3 BrCl(NO2 )
(v) PtCl 2 (en) 2 (NO 3 ) 2 (vi) Fe 4 Fe(CN) 6 3
2. Write the IUPAC name of the following coordination compounds :
(i) Co NH3 6
Cl3 (ii) Co NH3 5 Cl Cl2
(iii) K3 Fe CN 6
(iv) K3 Fe C2O4 3
(v) K 2 PdCl4 (vi) Pt(NH 3 ) 2 Cl(NH 2CH 3 ) Cl
Ans. (i) Hexamminecobalt(III) chloride

(ii) Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride
(iii) Potassium hexacyanoferrate(III)
(iv) Potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)
(v) Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)
(vi) Diamminechlorido(methylamine)platinum(II) chloride
3. Give evidence that [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 and [Co(NH3)5SO4]Cl are ionization isomers.

Ans. When ionization isomers are dissolved in water, they ionize to give different ions. These ions
then react differently
[CO(NH3)5Cl]SO4 + Ba2+ BaSO4
White precipitate
[CO(NH3)5Cl]SO4 + Ag+ No reaction
[CO(NH3)5SO4]Cl + Ba2+ No reaction
[CO(NH3)5SO4]Cl + Ag+ AgCl
White precipitate
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102 Chemistry
4. Explain on the basis of valence bond theory that [Ni(CN)4]2– ion with square planar structure is
diamagnetic and the [NiCl4]2– ion with tetrahedral geometry is paramagnetic.
Ans. Ni is in the +2 oxidation state i.e., in d8 configuration.
d8 configuration :
3d 4s 4p 4d
There are 4 CN– ions. Thus, it can either have a tetrahedral geometry or square planar geometry.
Since CN– ion is a strong field ligand, it causes the pairing of unpaired 3d electrons.
3d 4s 4p 4d
2
dsp
It now undergoes dsp2 hybridization. Since all electrons are paired, it is diamagnetic.
In case of [NiCl4]2–, Cl– ion is a weak field ligand. Therefore, it does not lead to the pairing of
unpaired 3d electrons. Therefore, it undergoes sp3 hybridization.
3d 4s 4p 4d
3
sp
Since there are 2 unpaired electrons in this case, it is paramagnetic in nature.
5. [NiCl4]2– is paramagnetic while [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic though both are tetrahedral. Why ?
Ans. Though both [NiCl4]2– and [Ni(CO)4] are tetrahedral, their magnetic characters are different. This
is due to a difference in the nature of ligands. Cl– is a weak field ligand and it does not cause the

pairing of unpaired 3d electrons. Hence, [NiCl4]2–is paramagnetic.
Ni+2
3d 4s 4p 4d
In Ni(CO)4, Ni is in the zero oxidation state i.e., it has a configuration of 3d8 4s2.
3d 4s 4p 4d
But CO is a strong field ligand. Therefore, it causes the pairing of unpaired 3d electrons. Also, it
causes the 4s electrons to shift to the 3d orbital, thereby giving rise to sp3 hybridization. Since no
unpaired electrons are present in this case, [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic.
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CBSE 103
6. '[Fe(H2O)6]3+ is strongly paramagnetic whereas [Fe(CN)6]3– is weakly paramagnetic. Explain.
3 3
Ans. In both Fe(H2O)6 and Fe(CN)6 , Fe exists in the +3 oxidation state i.e., in d5 configuration.
5
d
Since CN– is a strong field ligand, it causes the pairing of unpaired electrons. Therefore, there is
only one unpaired electron left in the d-orbital.
Therefore, = n(n 2) = 1(1 2) = 3 = 1.732 BM
On the other hand, H2O is a weak field ligand. Therefore, it cannot cause the pairing of electrons.
This means that the number of unpaired electrons is 5.
Therefore, n(n 2) = 5(5 2) = 35 = 6 BM

3 3
Thus, it is evident that Fe(H2O)6 is strongly paramagnetic, while Fe(CN)6 is weakly
paramagnetic.
7. Predict the number of unpaired electrons in the square planar [Pt(CN)4]2– ion.
2
Ans. Pt(CN)6
In this complex, Pt is in the +2 state. It forms a square planar structure. This means that it
undergoes dsp2 hybridization. Now, the electronic configuration of Pd(+2) is 5d8.
8
3d
CN– being a strong field ligand causes the pairing of unpaired electrons. Hence, there are no
2
unpaired electrons in Pt(CN) 4 .
8. The hexaquo manganese(II) ion contains five unpaired electrons, while the hexacyanoion
contains only one unpaired electron. Explain using Crystal Field Theory.
Ans.
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ [Mn(CN)6]4–
Mn is in the +2 oxidation state. Mn is in the +2 oxidation state.
The electronic configuration is d5. The electronic configuration is d5.
The crystal field is octahedral. Water is a weak The crystal field is octahedral. Cyanide is a
field ligand. Therefore, the arrangement of the strong field ligand. Therefore, the arrangement
2 4
electrons in Mn(H 2O)6 is t2g3eg2. of the electrons in Mn(CN)6 is T2g5eg0.
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104 Chemistry
9. On the basis of the following observations made with aqueous solutions, assign secondary
valences to metals in the following compounds :
Ans. (i) Secondary 4; (ii) Secondary 6; (iii) Secondary 6; (iv) Secondary 6; (v) Secondary 4
10. Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds :
(a) Tetraammineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride
(b) Potassium tetrahydroxidozincate (II)
(c) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate (III)
(d) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III)
(e) Tetracarbonylnickel(0)
Ans. (a) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)Cl]Cl2 (b) K2[Zn(OH)4]
(c) K3[Al(C2O4)3] (d) [CoCl2(en)2]+ (e) [Ni(CO)4]
11. Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds:
(a) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)] (b) K3[Cr(C2O4)3]
(c) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl (d) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl
(e) Hg[Co(SCN)4]
Ans. (a) Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)
(b) Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)
(c) Dichloridobis(ethane-1, 2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride
(d) Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride
(e) Mercury tetrathiocyanatocobaltate(III)
12. Why is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes having two different types
of unidentate ligands coordinated with the central metal ion ?
Ans. Tetrahedral complexes do not show geometrical isomerism because the relative positions of the
unidentate ligands attached to the central metal atom are the same with respect to each other.
13. Draw structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4]– Solution Out of the two, (a)
cis - [CrCl2(ox)2]3- is chiral (optically active).
NH3 NH
NC NH NC CN
Ans. Fe Fe
NC CN NC C
CN NH3
cis
trans
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CBSE 105
14. Out of the following two coordination entities which is chiral (optically active )?
(a) cis-[CrCl2(ox)2]3–
(b) trans-[CrCl2(ox)2]3–
Ans. The two entities are represented as

– –
3 3
Cl
Cl
Cr ox Cr ox
Cl
Cl
3- 3-
(a) cis-[CrCl2(ox)2] (b) trans-[CrCl2(ox)2]
Out of the two, (a) cis - [CrCl2(ox)2]3- is chiral (optically active).
15. The spin only magnetic moment of [MnBr4]2– is 5.9 BM. Predict the geometry of the complex ion ?
Ans. Since the coordination number of Mn2+ ion in the complex ion is 4, it will be either tetrahedral
(sp3 hybridisation) or square planar (dsp2 hybridisation). But the fact that the magnetic moment of
the complex ion is 5.9 BM, it should be tetrahedral in shape rather than square planar because of
the presence of five unpaired electrons in the d orbitals.

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106 Chemistry
Exercise-2 NCERT EXERCISE

1. Explain with two examples each of the following: coordination entity, ligand, coordination
number, coordination polyhedron, homoleptic and heteroleptic.
Ans. (i) Coordination entity :
A coordination entity is an electrically charged radical or species carrying a positive or
negative charge. In a coordination entity, the central atom or ion is surrounded by a suitable
number of neutral molecules or negative ions (called ligands). For example :
2 3
Ni(NH 3 )6 , Fe(NH 3 )6 etc. cationic complex
2
PtCl 4 , Ag(CN)2 etc. anionic complex
4
Ni CO 4
, Co(NH3 )4 Cl2 etc. neutral complex
(ii) Ligands :
The neutral molecules or negatively charged ions that surround the metal atom in a
coordination entity or a coordinal complex are known as ligands. For example Cl–, H2O,
H2N CH2CH2NH2 etc.
(iii) Coordination number :
The total number of ligands (either neutral molecules or negative ions) that get attached to
the central metal atom in the coordination sphere is called the coordination number of the
central metal atom. It is also referred to as its ligancy.
For example :
(a) In the complex, K2[PtCl6], there as six chloride ions attached to Pt in the coordinate sphere.
Therefore, the coordination number of Pt is 6.
(b) Similarly, in the complex [Ni(NH3)4]Cl2, the coordination number of the central atom (Ni)
is 4.
(iv) Coodination polyhedron :
Coordination polyhedrons about the central atom can be defined as the spatial arrangement
of the ligands that are directly attached to the central metal ion in the coordination sphere.
For example :
L
L L
M L M
(a) (b)
L
L L
Square planar L Tetrahedral
(v) Homoleptic complexes :
These are those complexes in which the metal ion is bound to only one kind of a donor
group.
3 2
For e.g. Co(NH3 )6 , PtCl 4 etc.
(vi) Heteroleptic complexes :
Heteroleptic complexes are those complexes where the central metal ion is bound to more
than one type of a donor group.
2
For e.g. Co(NH3 )4 Cl2 , Co(NH3 )5 Cl
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CBSE 107
2. What is meant by unidentate, didntate and ambidentate ligands ? Give two examples for each.
Ans. (a) Unidenatate ligands : Ligands with only one donor sites are called unidentate ligands. For
e.g., N H3,Cl — etc.
(b) Didentate ligands : Ligands that have two donor sites are called bidentate ligands. For e.g.,
(i) Ethane-1, 2-diamine (ii) Oxalate ion
H2N—CH2 COO—
2–
(C2O ) or
H2N—CH2 4
COO
—
(c) Ambidentate ligands :

Ligands that can attach themseleves to the central metal atom through two different atoms are
called ambidentate ligands. For example :
O
M—N Nitro group
(i)
O
(The donor atom is N)
M—O—N = O Nitrito group
(The donor atom is oxygen)

M—SCN Thiocyanato
(ii)
(The donor atom is S)
M—NCS Isothiocyanato
(The donor atom is N)

3. List various types of isomerism possible for coordination compounds, giving an example of each.
Isomerism in coordination compounds
Ans.
Stereoisomerism Structural isomersim
Geometrical Optical Solvate Linkage Coordination Ionization

isomerism isomerism isomerism isomerism isomerism isomerism
(a) Geometrical isomerism :

This type of isomerism is common in heteroleptic complexes. It arises due to the different
possible geometric arrangements of the ligands. For example :
Cl NH3 Cl NH3
Pt Pt
Cl NH3 NH3 Cl
Cis-isomer Trans-isomer
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108 Chemistry
(b) Optical isomerism :

This type of isomerism arises in chiral molecules. Isomers are mirror images of each other and
are non-superim posable.
en en
en Co Co en
en en
3+ 3+
[Co(en)3] Mirror [Co(en)3]
(dextro) (Laevo)
(c) Linkage isomerism :
This type of isomerism is found in complexes that contain ambidentate ligands.
For example : [Co(NH3)5(NO2)]Cl2 and [Co(NH3)5(ONO)Cl2
Yellow form Red form
(d) Coordination isomerism :
This type of isomerism arises when the ligands are interchanged between cationic and anionic
entities of different metal ions present in the complex. For example
[Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6] and [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6]
(e) Ionization isomerism :
This type of isomerism arises when a counter ion replaces a ligand within the coordination
sphere. For example
[Co(NH3)5 SO4] Br and [Co(NH3)5Br] SO4
(f) Solvate isomerism :
Solvate isomers differ by whether or not the solvent molecule is directly bonded to the metal ion
or merely present as a free solvent molecule in the crystal lattice.
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3, [Cr(H2O)5Cl]Cl2. H2O, [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl. 2H2O
Violet Blue-green Dark green
4. How many geometrical isomers are possible in the following coordination entities ?
(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]3+ (ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3]
Ans. (i) For [Cr(C2O4)3]3–, no geometrical isomer is possible as it is a bidentate ligand.
O O
O Cr O
O O
(ii) [Co(NH3)3Cl3], Two geometrical isomers are possible.

NH3 H3N NH3
Cl NH3 Cl
Co Co
Cl NH3 Cl Cl
Cl NH3
Facial Meridional
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CBSE 109
5. Draw the structure of optical isomers of :
(i) [Cr(C2O4)3]3– (ii) [PtCl2(en)2]2+ (iii) [Cr(NH3)2Cl2(en)]+
Ans. (i) [Cr(C2O4)3]3–
en en
en Co Co en
en en
3– 3–
[Cr(OX)3] Mirror [Cr(OX)3]
(dextro) (Laevo)
(ii) [PtCl2(en)2]2+
Cl Cl
Cl
en Pt en
Pt
en en
Mirror
(iii) [Cr(NH3)2Cl2(en)]+
en en
H3N NH3
Cr Cr
H3 N Cl Cl NH3
Cl Cl
Mirror
6. Draw all the isomers (geometrical and optical) of :

(i) [CoCl2(en)2]+ (ii) [Co(NH3)Cl(en)2]2+ (iii) [Co(NH3)2Cl2(en)]+
Ans. (i) [CoCl2(en)2]+
Cl Cl
en Co en Co en
en
Cl Cl
Mirror
+
Trans [CoCl2(en)2] isomer-optically inactive
(Superimposable mirror images)
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
en Co Co en
en en
Mirror
+
Cis [CoCl2(en)2] isomer-optically active
(non-superimposable mirror images)
In total, three isomers are possible.
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110 Chemistry
(ii) [Co(NH3)Cl(en)2]2+
Cl Cl
NH3
en en en
Co Co
NH3 en
Trans Cis
Cl Cl
NH3 H3N
en Co Co en
en en
Cis Mirror
Trans - isomers are optically inactive.
Cis - isomers are optically active.
(iii) [Co(NH3)2Cl2(en)]+
Cl Cl
Cl Cl
en Co Co en
NH3 NH3
NH3 NH3
Mirror
7. Write all the geometrical isomers of [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(py)] and how many of these will exhibit
optical isomers ?
Ans. [Pt(NH3)(Br)(Cl)(py)]
H3N Cl H3N Br H3N Cl
Pt Pt Pt
Py Br Py Cl Br Py
From the above isomers, none will exhibit optical isomers. Tetrahedral complexes rarely show node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\09_Coordination Compounds
optical isomerization. They do so only in the presence of unsymmetrical chelating agents.

8. Discuss the nature of bonding in the following coordination entities on the basis of valence bond
theory :
(i) [Fe(CN)6]4– (ii) [FeF6]3– (iii) [Co(C2O4)3]3– (iv) [CoF6]3–
Ans. (i) [Fe(CN)6]4–
In the above coordination complex, iron exists in the +2 oxidation state.
Fe2+ : Electronic configuration is 3d6
Orbitals of Fe2+ ion :
3d 4s 4p
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CBSE 111
As CN— ion is a strong field ligand, it causes the pairing of the unpaired 3d electrons.
3d 4s 4p
Since there are six ligands around the central metal ion, the most feasible hybridization is d2sp3.
d2sp3 hybridized orbitals of Fe2+ are :
3d 4s 4p
d sp
2 3
6 electron pairs from CN ions occupy the six hybrid d2sp3 orbitals.
–
Then,
3d 4s 4p
6 pairs of electrons from 6CN—ions
Hence, the geometry of the complex is octahedral and the complex is diamagnetic (as there are
no unpaired electrons).
(ii) [FeF6]3–
In this complex, the oxidation state of Fe is +3.
Orbitals of Fe+3 ion :
3d 4s 4p 4d
There are 6 F ions. Thus, it will undergo d sp or sp d hybridization. As F– is a weak field ligand,
– 2 3 3 2
it does not cause the pairing of the electrons in the 3d orbitals. Hence, the most feasible
hybridization is sp3d2.
sp3d2 hybridized orbitals of Fe3+ it are :
3d 4s 4p 4d
sp3d2
3d 4s 4p 4d
sp3d2
6 electron pairs from F—ions
Hence, the geometry of the complex is found to be octahedral.

(iii) [Co(C2O4)3]3–
Cobalt exists in the +3 oxidation state in the given complex.
Orbitals of Co3+ ion :
3d 4s 4p 4d
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112 Chemistry
Oxalate ion is a weak field ligand. Therefore, it cannot cause the pairing of the 3d orbital
electrons. As there are 6 ligands, hybridization has to be d2sp3.
d2sp3 hybridized orbitals of Co3+.
3d 4s 4p
d sp2 3
The 6 electron pairs from the 3 oxalate ions (oxalate anion is a bidentate ligand) occupy these
d2sp3 orbitals.
3d 4s 4p
6 pairs
electron pairs from
of electrons 3 oxalate
from 6CN—ions
ions
Hence, the geometry of the complex is found to be octahedral.
(iv) [CoF6]3–
Cobalt exists in the +3 oxidation state.
Orbitals of Co3+ ion :
3d 4s 4p 4d
Again, fluoride ion is a weak field ligand. It cannot cause the pairing of the 3d electrons. As a
result, the Co3+ ion will undergo sp3d2 hybridization.
sp3d2 hybridized orbitals of Co3+ ion are :
3d 4s 4p 4d
sp d
3 2
3d 4s 4p 4d
sp3d2 node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\09_Coordination Compounds
6 electron pairs from F— ions
Hence, the geometry of the complex is octahedral and paramagnetic.

9. Draw figure to show the splitting of d obitals in an octahedral crystal field.
Energy dx2– y2,dz2
z eg
y +3/5
Barycentre
Ans. –2/5
x
Average energy t2g
of the d orbitals dxy dyz dxz
in a spherical field
Splitting of the d
Metal orbitals in a
d orbitals octahedral crystal field
dx2–y2 –dz2, dxydyzdxz
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CBSE 113
10. What is spectrochemical series ? Explain the difference between a weak field and a strong field
ligand.
Ans. A spectrochemical series is the arrangement of common ligands in the increasing order of their
crystal - field splitting energy (CFSE) values. The ligands present on the R.H.S of the series are
strong field ligands while that on the L.H.S are weak field ligands. Also, strong field ligands
cause higher splitting in the d orbitals that weak field ligands.
I–< Br– <S2– <SCN– <Cl– <N3– <OH– <C2O42– <~H2O < NCS– <edta4– < NH3 < en– <CN– < CO
11. What is crystal field splitting energy ? How does the magnitude of o
decide the actual
configuration of d-orbitals in a coordination entity ?
Ans. The degenerate d-orbitals (in a spherical field environment) split into two levels i.e., eg and t2g in
the presence of ligands. The splitting of the degenerate levels due to the presence of ligands is
called the crystal – field splitting while the energy difference between the two levels (eg and t2g) is
called the crystal - field splitting energy. It is denoted by 0.
After the orbitals have split, the filling of the electrons takes place. After 1 electron (each) has
been filled in the three t2g orbitals, the filling of the fourth electron takes place in two ways. It can
enter the eg orbitals (giving rise to t2g3 eg1 like electron configuration) or the pairing of the
electrons can take place in the t2g orbitals (giving rise to t2g4 eg0 like electronic configuration). If
the 0 value of a ligand is less than the pairing energy (P), then the electrons enter the eg orbital.
On the other hand, if the 0 value of a ligand is more than the pairing energy (P), then the
electrons enter the t2g orbital.
12. [Cr(NH3)6]3+ is paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]2– is diamagnetic. Explain why ?
Ans. In [Cr(NH3)6]3+, Cr is in the +3 oxidation state i.e., d3 configuration. Since there are three unparied
electrons in 3d– orbitals.
Cr3+
3d 4s 4p 4d
d2sp3
Therefore, it undergoes d2sp3 hybridization and the electrons in the 3d orbitals remain unpaired.
Hence, it is paramagnetic in nature.
In [Ni(CN)4]2– Ni exists in the +2 oxidation state i.e., d8 configuration.
Ni2+
3d 4s 4p
CN– is a strong field ligand. It cause the pairing of the 3d orbital electrons. Then, Ni2+ undergoes
dsp2 hybridization.
3d 4s 4p
dsp 2
As there are no unpaired electrons, it is diamagnetic.
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114 Chemistry
13. A solution of [Ni(H2O)6]2+ is green but a solution of [Ni(CN)4]2– is colourless. Explain.

Ans. In [Ni(H2O)6]2+, H2 O is a weak field ligand. Therefore, there are unpaired elecrons in Ni2+. In this
complex, the 3d electrons from the lower energy level can be excited to the higher energy level
i.e., the possibility of d-d transition is present. Hence, [Ni(H2O)6]2+ is coloured.
In [Ni(CN)4]2– the electrons are all paired as CN– is a strong field ligand. Therefore, d-d transition
is not possible is [Ni(CN)4]2–. Hence, it is colourless.
14. Discuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls.
Ans. The metal -carbon bonds in metals carbonyls have both and characters. A bond is formed
when the carbonyl carbon donates a lone pair of electrons to the vacant orbital of the metal. A
bond is formed by the donation of a pair of electrons from the filled metal d orbital into the
vacent anti-bonding * orbital (also known as back bonding of the carbonyl group). The bond
strengthens the bond and vica - versa. Thus, a synergic effect is created due to this metal -
ligand bonding. This synergic effect strengthens the bond between CO and the metal.
M C O
Synergic bonding in metal carbonyls

15. Give the oxidation state, d- orbital occupation and coordination number of the central metal ion
in the following complexes :
(i) K3[Co(C2O4)3] (ii) cis-[Cr(en)2Cl2]Cl
(iii) (NH4)2[CoF4] (iv) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4
Ans. (i) K3[Co(C2O4)3]
The central metal ion is Co3+.
Its coordination number is 6.
The oxidation state can be given as : x – 6 = –3 x = +3
3+
The d orbitals occupation for Co is t2geg .
6 0
(ii) cis-[Cr(en)2Cl2]Cl
The central metal ion is Cr3+.
The coordination number is 6. node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\09_Coordination Compounds
The oxidation state can be given as : x + 2(0) + 2(–1) = +1 x – 2 = +1 x = +3

The d orbitals occupation for Cr3+ is t32g .
(iii) (NH4)2[CoF4]
The central metal ion is Co2+.
The coordination number is 4.
The oxidation state can be given as : x – 4 = –2 x = +2
The d orbitals occupation for Co2+ is eg4 t2g3.
(iv) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4
The central metal ion is Mn2+.
The coordination number is 6.
The oxidation state can be given as : x + 0 = +2 x = +2
The d orbitals occupation for Mn2+ is t2g eg .
3 2
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CBSE 115
16. Write down the IUPAC name for each of the following complexes and indicate the oxidation
state, electronic configuration and coordination number. Also give stereochemistry and magnetic
moment of the complex :
(i) K[Cr(H2O)2(C2O4)2]. 3H2O (ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 (iii) CrCl3(py)3 (iv) Cs[FeCl4]
(v) K4[Mn(CN)6]
Ans. (i) K[Cr (H2O)2 (C2O4)2]. 3H2O
IUPAC Name: Potassium diaquadioxalatochromate (III) trihydrate.
Oxidation state of chromium = +3
Electronic configuration : 3d3: t2g3
Coordination number = 6
Shape : octahedral
Stereochemistry :
OH2 OH2
OH2 OH2
O O O O
O O O OH2
Cr Cr
Cr Cr O O
O O
O O O O
O OH2 OH2
OH2
Trans Cis Trans optically inactive
OH2 OH2
O OH2 H2O O
Cr Cr
O O O O
O O
Cis optically active

Magnetic moment, n n 2
= 3 3 2 = 5 ~4BM
(ii) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2
IUPAC name : Pentaamminechloridocobalt (III) chloride

Oxidation state of Co = +3
Shape : octahedral.
Electronic configuration : d6: t2g6.
Stereo chemistry :
OH2 OH2
O OH2 H2O O
Cr Cr
O O O O
O O
Cis optically active

Magnetic Moment = 0
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116 Chemistry
(iii) CrCl3(py)3
IUPAC name : Trichloridotripyridinechromium (III)
Oxidation state of chromium = +3
Electronic configuration for: d 3 t 23 g
Shape : octahedral.
Stereochemistry :
Cl Cl
Py Cl Py Cl
Cr Cr
Py Cl Py Py
Py Cl
Facial isomer Meriodional isomer
Both isomers are optically active. Therefore, a total of 4 isomers exist.
Magnetic moment, n(n 2) = 3(3 2) = 15 ~ 4BM
(iv) Cs[FeCl4]
IUPAC name: Caesium tetrachloroferrate (III)
Oxidation state of Fe =+3
Electronic configuration d5: eg2t2g3
Shape : tetrahedral
Stereochemistry : optically inactive
Magnetic moment :
n(n 2) = 5(5 2) = 35 ~ 6BM
(v) K4[Mn(CN)6]
IUPAC Name : Potassium hexacyanomanganate (II)
Oxidation state of manganese = +2
Electronic configuration :d5: t2g5
Shape : octahedral
Streochemistry : optically inactive
Magnetic moment, n(n 2) = 1(1 2) = 3 = 1.732 BM
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CBSE 117
17. Discuss briefly giving an example in each case the role of coordination compounds in :
(i) biological system
(ii) medicinal chemistry
(iii) analytical chemistry
(iv) extraction/metallurgy of metals
Ans. (i) Role of coordination compounds in biological system
We know that photosynthesis is made possible by the presence of the chlorophyll pigment.
This pigment is a coordination compound of magnesium.
(ii) Role of coordination compounds in medicinal chemistry
Certain coordination compounds of platinum (for example, cis-platin) are used for
inhibiting the growth of tumours.
(iii) Role of coordination compounds in analytical chemistry
During salt analysis, a number of basic radicals are detected with the help of the colour
changes they exhibit with different reagents.
(iv) Role of coordination compounds in extraction or metallurgy of metals
From [Au(CN)2]+ solution, gold is extracted by the addition of zinc metal.
18. Using IUPAC names write the formulae for the following :
(a) Tris (ethane-1,2-diamine)chromium(III)chloride
(b) Potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II)
Ans. (a) [Cr(en)3]Cl3 (b) K2[Zn(OH)4]
19. (a) What type of isomerism is shown by the complex [Co(NH3)5(SCN)]2+ ?
(b) Why is [NiCl4]2– paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]2– is diamagnetic ?
(Atomic number of Ni = 28)
(c) Why are low spin tetrahedral complexes rarely observed

Ans. (a) Linkage isomerism
(b) In [NiCl4]2–, due to the presence of Cl–, a weak field ligand no pairing occurs whereas in
[Ni(CN)4]2–, CN–is a strong field ligand and pairing takes place.
(c) Because of very low CFSE which is not able to pair up the electrons.
20. When a coordination compound NiCl2.6H2O is mixed with AgNO3, 2 moles of AgCl are
precipitated per mole of the compound. Write
(i) Structural formula of the complex
(ii) IUPAC name of the complex
Ans. (i) [Ni(H2O)6] Cl2 (ii) Hexaaquanickel(II) chloride
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118 Chemistry
21. (a) For the complex [Fe(CN)6]4–, write the hybridization, magnetic character and spin type of the
complex. (At. number : Fe = 26)

(b)Draw one of the geometrical isomers of the complex [Co(en)2Cl2]+ which is optically active.
Ans. (a) d2sp3,

Diamagnetic,
low spin
Cl +
Cl
(b) en Co
en
22. (i) Write down the IUPAC name of the following complex :
[Pt(NH3)(H2O)Cl2]
(ii) Write the formula for the following complex :

tris(ethan-1, 2-diamine)chromium(III) chloride
Ans. (i) Ammineaquadichloridoplatinum(II)
(ii) [Cr(en)3]Cl3
23. (i) What type of isomerism is shown by [Co(NH3)5ONO]Cl2?
(ii) On the basis of crystal field theory, write the electronic configuration for d4 ion if 0
< P.
(iii) Write the hybridization and shape of [Fe(CN)6]3–.
(Atomic number of Fe = 26)

Ans. (i) Linkage isomerism
(ii) t2g3 eg1 / Diagrammatic representation node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\09_Coordination Compounds
(iii) d2sp3, Octahedral
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CBSE 119
Exercise-3 RACE
In an octahedral coordination entity with six ligands surrounding the metal atom/ion, there will
be repulsion between the electrons in metal d orbitals and the electrons (or negative charges) of
the ligands. Such a repulsion is more when the metal d orbital is directed towards the ligand than
when it is away from the ligand. Thus, the dx2-y2 and dz2 orbitals.
Which point towards the axes along the direction of the ligand will experience more repulsion
and will be raised in energy; and the dxy, dyz and dxz orbitals which are directed between the
axes will be lowered in energy relative to the average energy in the spherical crystal field. Thus,
the degeneracy of the d orbitals has been removed due to ligand electron-metal electron
repulsions in the octahedral complex to yield three orbitals of lower energy, t2g set and two
orbitals of higher energy, eg set. ?
(a) The relation between t and O is :-
(i) t
= O
(ii) O
= t
(iii) O
= t
(iv) t
= O
(b) For SFL what is relation between pairing energy and crystal field splitting for octahedral :-
(i) O
>P (ii) O
<P (iii) O
=P (iv) None of these
(c) eg orbital experience more repulsion that t2g orbitals due to ?
(i) d orbital are on axis (ii) d orbital are on equatorial
(iii) d orbital between axis (iv) None of these
(d) Write the electronic configuration of d4 on the basis of SFL when O
< P :-
4 0 3 1 2 2
(i) t2g eg (ii) t2g eg (iii) t2g eg (iv) t2g0eg4
Question 2 to 6 Note :- In the following questions a statement of assertion followed by a reason.
Choose the correct answer out of the following choices –

2. Assertion : [Pt Cl2 (NH3)2] is square planner
Reason : Cl– is a weak field ligand
3. Assertion : [Cr(H2O)6]Cl2 and [Fe(H2O)6]Cl2 are reducing in nature.
Reason : Unpaired electrons are present in their d-orbitals.
4. Assertion : ([Fe(CN)6]3– ion shows magnetic moment corresponding to two unpaired electrons.
Reason : Because it has d2sp3 type hybridization.
5. Assertion : The [Ni (en)3]Cl2 has lower stability than [Ni (NH3)6]Cl2
Reason : In [Ni (en)3]Cl2 the geomectory of Ni is trigonal bipyramidal.
6. Assertion : [Ni(CO)4] is SP3 hybridized
Reason : It is diamagnetic in nature.
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120 Chemistry
Type 3 : Multiple choice quation (one correct answer) (Questions 7 to 16):-

7. When 1 mol CrCl3.6H2O is treated with excess of AgNO3, 3 mol of AgCl are obtained. The
formula of the complex is :
(i) [CrCl3 (H2O)3].3H2O (ii) [CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl.2H2O
(iii) [CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2.H2O (iv) [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3
8. The correct IUPAC name of [Pt(NH3)2Cl2] is :-
(i) Diamminedichloridoplatinum (II) (ii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum (IV)
(iii) Diamminedichloridoplatinum (0) (iv) Dichloridodiammineplatinum (IV)
9. The stabilisation of coordination compounds due to chelation is called the chelate effect. Which
of the following is the most stable complex species?
(i) [Fe(CO)5] (ii) [Fe(CN)6]3- (iii) [Fe(C2O4)3]3- (iv) [Fe(H2O)6]3-
10. A chelating agent has two or more than two donor atoms to bind to a single metal ion. Which of
the following is not a chelating agent?
(i) thiosulphato (ii) oxalato
(iii) glycinato (iv) ethane-1,2-diamine
11. Which of the following options are correct for [Fe(CN)6]3– complex?
(i) dsp2 hybridisation (ii) sp3d2 hybridisation
(iii) paramagnetic (iv) diamagnetic
12. Which of the following complexes are homoleptic ?
(i) [Co(NH3)6]3+ (ii) [Co(NH3)4 Cl2]+
(iii) [Ni(CN)2(NO)2]2– (iv) [Ni(NH3)4Cl2]
13. Which of the following complexes are heteroleptic ?
(i) [Cr(NH3)6]3+ (ii) [Fe(CN)6]4–
(iii) [Mn(CN)6]4– (iv) [Co(NH3)4Cl2]
14. Identify the incorrect statements for the behaviour of ethane-1, 2-diamine as a ligand.
(i) It is a neutral ligand. (ii) It is a didentate ligand.
(iii) It is a chelating ligand. (iv) It is a unidentate ligand.
15. How many ions are produced from the complex [Co(NH3)5Cl] Cl2 in solution ?
(i) 4 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 5
16. The oxidation state of Ni in [Ni(CO)4] is :-
(i) 0 (ii) 2 (iii) 3 (iv) 4
ANSWER–KEY
Q.No. 1.(a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Ans. (ii) (i) (i) (ii) (ii) (ii) (iv) (iv) (iii) (iv) (i)
Q.No. 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Ans. (iii) (i) (iii) (i) (iv) (iv) (iii) (i)
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CBSE 121
Exercise-4 Previous Years question
1. (a) Using valence bond theory, predict the hybridization and magnetic character of following :
[CoF6]3– [Atomic number of Co = 27] (CBSE-Term-II_ 2022)
+
(b) Write IUPAC name of the following complex : [CoBr2(en)2]
(c) How many ions are produced from the complex [Co(NH3)6]Cl2 in solution ? [1× 3=3]
3– 3 2
Ans. (a) [CoF6] Hybridization = sp d
Magnet character = Paramagnetic
(b) dibromidobis – ethane-1,2-diamine.cobalt(I)
(c) [Co(NH3)6]Cl2 [Co(NH3)6]3+ + 2Cl–
(aq. sol.) 3 ions produced
2. Draw the geometrical isomers of [CoCl2(en)2]+. (Compartment _CBSE 2021)
Cl Cl
Cl
en en Co
Ans. Co en
en Cl
Cis Trans Mirror
3. Assertion (A) : Linkage isomerism arises in coordination compounds becauses of ambidentate ligand.
Reason (R) : Ambidentate ligand like NO2 has two different donor atoms i.e., N and O.
(CBSE 2020)
Ans. (i) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are correct statement and Reason (R) is the correct
explanation of the Assertion(A)
4. Give the formulae of the following compounds : (CBSE 2020)
(i) Potassium tetra hydroxydozincate [II] (ii) Hexaammine platinium [IV] Chloride
Ans. (i) K2[Zn(OH)4] (ii) [Pt(NH3)6]Cl4
5. Write IUPAC name of the complex [Co(en)2(NO2)Cl]+. What type of structural isomerism is
shown by this complex ? [2]
OR
Using IUPAC norms, write the formulae for the following complexes : [2]
(a) Hexaaquachromium (III) chloride (b) Sodium trioxalatoferrate (III) (CBSE 2019)
Ans. Chloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)nitrito-N-cobalt(III)ion
Linkage isomerism
OR
(i) [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 (ii) Na3[Fe(OX)3]
6. (a) Although both [NiCl4]2– and [Ni(CO)4] have sp3 hybridisation yet [NiCl4]2– is paramagnetic
and [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic. Give reason. (Atomic no. of Ni = 28) [2]
(b) Write the electronic configuration of d5 on the basis of crystal field theory when
(i) 0 < P and (ii) 0 > P (CBSE 2019)
2
Ans. (a) In [NiCl4] , Cl is a weak field ligand due to which there are two unpaired electrons in 3d
orbital whereas in [Ni(CN)4]2, CN is a strong field ligand due to which pairing leads to no
unpaired electron in 3d-orbital/Or structural representation.
(b) (i) t2g3eg2 (ii) t2g5eg0
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122 Chemistry
7. Defind the following terms with a suitable example of each : [2]

(a) Chelate complex (b) Ambidentate ligand (CBSE 2019)
OR
(a) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride
(b) Dibromidobis(ethane-1, 2-diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate
Ans. (a) When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor atoms to bind a single metal
ion, it is said to be a chelate ligand. The number of such ligating groups is called the
denticity of the ligand. Such complexes, called chelate complexes
(b) Ligand which can ligate through two different atoms is called ambidentate ligand.
OR
(a) [Co(NH3)4(H2O)2] Cl3 (b) [Pt Br2(en)2] [NO3)2]
8. Using valence bond theory, write the hybridisation and magnetic character of the complex
[Fe(CN)6]4. (Atomic no. of Fe = 26) [2]
Ans. d2 sp3; Diamagnetic nature (CBSE 2019)
9. Defind the following terms with a suitable example of each : [2]
(a) Polydentate ligand (b) Homoleptic complex (CBSE 2019)
OR
(a) Potassium tri(oxalato)chromate(III)
(b) Hexaaquamanganese(II) sulphate
Ans. (a) Polydentate ligands range in the number of atoms used to bond to a central metal atom or ion.
e.g. EDTA
(b) Homoleptic complex are those which has all identical ligand. e.g. metal compound
OR
(a) K3 [Cr(OX)3] (b) [Mn(H2O)6]SO4
10. Write the coordination number and oxidation state of Platinum in the complex [Pt(en)2Cl2].
(CBSE 2018)
Ans. Given complex [Pt (en)2 Cl2]
Coordination no. = denticity × no. of ligands = 2 × 2 + 2× 1 = 6
Charge on ligand + oxidation state = charge on complex of metal ion –2 + x = 0
x 2
11. (a) Write the formula of the following coordination compound : (CBSE 2018)
Iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II)
(b) What type of isomerism is exhibited by the complex [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 ?
(c) Write the hybridisation and number of unpaired electrons in the complex [CoF6]3–.
(Atomic No. of Co = 27).
Ans. (a) Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
(b) [CO(NH3)5Cl]SO4 (Ionisation isomers)
(c) [COF6]–3 (i) Hybridisation Sp3d2 (ii) Unpaired e– 4 unpaired electrons.
E
CBSE 123
Exercise-5 MOCK TEST
1. Define Homoleptic complex. [1]
2. Write the hybridization and shape of [Fe(CN)6]3–. (Atomic number of Fe = 26) [1]
3. What do you mean by chealate ligand. [1]
4. Why is [NiCl4]2– paramagnetic while [Ni(CN)4]2– is diamagnetic ? (Atomic number of
Ni = 28) [2]
5. Why are low spin tetrahedral complexes rarely observed [2]
6. Write the coordination number and oxidation state of Platinum in the complex [Pt(en)2Cl2]. [2]
7. Write the hybridisation and number of unpaired electrons in the complex [CoF6]3–.
(Atomic No. of Co = 27). [2]

8. When a coordination compound NiCl2.6H2O is mixed with AgNO3, 2moles of AgCl are
precipitated per mole of the compound. Write [3]
(i) Structural formula of the complex
(ii) IUPAC name of the complex
9. Using IUPAC norms write the formulae for the following : [3]
(a) Tris (ethane-1, 2-diamine)chromium(III)chloride
(b) Potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II)
(c) Hexaammine platinium [IV] Chloride
10. For the complex [Fe(CN)6]4–, write the hybridization, magnetic character and spin type of the
complex. (At. number : Fe = 26) [3]
11. (a) What is meant by crystal field splitting energy ? On the basis of crystal field theory, write the
electronic configuration of d4 in terms of t2g and eg in an octahedral field when [5]
(i) 0
>P
(ii) 0
<P
(b) (i) Write the IUPAC name of the complex [Cr(NH3)4 Cl2]Cl.
(ii) Write IUPAC name of the complex [Co(en)2(NO2)Cl]+.
(iii) Why is [NiCl4]2– paramagnetic but [Ni(CO)4] is diamagnetic ?

(At. nos. : Cr = 24, Co = 27, Ni = 28)
E
124 Chemistry
MOCK TEST SOLUTIONS

1. Homoleptic complex are those which has all identical ligand. e.g. metal compound.
2. d2sp3, Octahedral
3. When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor atoms to bind a single metal ion,
it is said to be a chelate ligand. The number of such ligating groups is called the denticity of the
ligand. Such complexes, called chelate complexes.
4. In [NiCl4]2–, due to the presence of Cl¯, a weak field ligand no pairing occurs whereas in
[Ni(CN)4]2, CN¯ is a strong field ligand and pairing takes place.
5. Because of very low CFSE which is not able to pair up the electrons.
6. Given complex [Pt (en)2 Cl2]
Coordination no. = denticity × no. of ligands
=2×2+2×1=6
Charge on ligand + oxidation state = charge on complex of metal ion
–2+x=0
x = +2
7. [COF6]–3
(i) Hybridisation sp3d2 (ii) Unpaired e¯ 4 unpaired electrons.
8. (i) [Ni(H2O)6] Cl2 (ii) Hexaaquanickel(II) chloride
9. (i) [Cr(en)3]Cl3 (ii) K2[Zn(OH)4]
(iii) [Pt(NH3)6]Cl4
10. d2sp3, Diamagnetic, low spin
11. (a) The difference of energy two sets of d-orbitals (which are no longer degenerate under
different kinds of electric fields). node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\IOC\09_Coordination Compounds
Is called crystal field stabilization energy or (CFSE) represented by symbol 0

.
d4 when 0
> P t42g eg°.
d4 when 0
< P t32g eg1.
(b) (i) Tetraamminedichloridochromium(III) chloride.
(ii) Chloridobis(ethane-1, 2-diamine)nitrito-N-cobalt(III)ion.
(iii) In Ni(CO)4, Ni is in zero oxidation state whereas in NiCl42–, it is in +2 oxidation state.
In the presence of CO ligand, the unpaired d electrons of Ni pair up but Cl¯ being a weak
ligand is unable to pair up the unpaired electrons.........

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C h apter

CHEMISTRY (Code No. 043)

Unit IX : Coordination Compounds

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF DILUTE SOLUTIONS (CP)

(b) Elevation in Boiling Point

EXERCISE-1 INTEXT QUESTIONS

in water at STP is 0.195 m, calculate Henry's law constant.

PB = PBo X B = 700 × 0.60 = 420 mm

0.052 = Tbo 373.15

1.26g 0.083LbarK 1mol 1 300K 1

EXERCISE-2 NCERT EXERCISE

x1=0 Mole fraction x1=1

x1=0 Mole fraction x1=1

M = 1 × 40 + 2 × 35.5 = 111 g mol–1

Total number of ions produced = 3

(ii) Sugar crystals in hot water.

Q. No. 1 (a) (b) (c) (d) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

EXERCISE-4 PREVIOUS YEARS QUESTION

1. Increasing the temperature of an aqueous solution will cause : [1]

2. Which of the following conditions is correct for an ideal solution ? [1]

(a) Pure nitric acid to distil over first

(CBSE 2021 Compartment)

2. Define the Mole fraction. [1]

3. Define the Azeotrope. [1]

6. Explain the Boiling point elevation constant for a solvent. [2]

would be the molality and molarity of the solution ? [3]

(Density of solution = 1.2 g mL–1)

in 250 g of water. (Kf of water = 1.86 K kg mol–1) [3]

11. (a) Give reasons for the following : [5]

of macromolecules such as proteins and polymers.

(iii) Cooking is faster in pressure cooker than in cooking pan.

MOCK TEST SOLUTIONS

w2 (g) 1000 60 1000

Tf = t(solvent) - t(solution) ; t(solution) = t(solvent) – Tf

= 273.15 – 2.48 = 270.67 K

of molar of macromolecules as proteins & polymers.

animals are more compertable in cold water than in warm water.

(iii) Due to increase of pressure in cooker, boiling point of water increases

23.8 – PA = 23.8 × [(30 × 18)/60 × 846]

Galvanic cell or Voltaic cell Electrolytic cell.

concentration at 1bar pressure and 298K is known as standard electrode potential.

EQUILIBRIUM CONSTANT (Kc) FROM NERNST EQUATION :

GIBBS FREE ENERGY :

resistivity. Unit of ohm cm

Cell constant : G* ; Its unit is cm–1

so it cannot be extrapolated to obtain m

APPLICATIONS OF KOHLRAUSCH'S LAW :

m molar conductance at infinite dilution

Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride -ve

articles made of iron.

EXERCISE-1 INTEXT QUESTIONS

0.0591 Ni2 0.0591 0.160

Ans. Go = nFE cell = –2 × 96500 × 0.236 joule mol–1 = –45.55 kJ mol–1

(R = 8.314 J K–1 mol–1)

6.023 ×10 23 × 3600

F = 96487 C mol–1 and E(Cell) 1.1 V

RA 5.55 103 0.785 cm2

Molar conductivity, m cm3 L 1

= (119.0 + 152.6) S cm2 mol–1 = 271.6 S cm2 mol–1

= 266 S cm2 mol–1

Cu2+(aq) + 2e– Cu(s) node06\B0BB-BC\Kota\Board Material\Chemistry\Booklet\CBSE\Booklet Final_2022-23\Part-1\PC\03_Electrochemistry

We require 2F or 2 × 96487 C to deposit 1 mol or 63 g of Cu.

EXERCISE-2 NCERT EXERCISE