I.

Abstract

The paper sought to discuss the life of Thoralf Albert Skolem, a Norwegian
mathematician, and his huge contributions in the discipline of mathematics
(mathematical logic and set theory to be specific). He was passionately productive in
publishing more than 180 papers in his lifetime on topics such as Lattice theory,
Diophantine equations, Löwenheim-Skolem theorem, Modern Axiom Set Theory and
Primitive Recursive Functions. His notions are strongly dependent on finitism as Skolem
completely disagrees with infinite mathematical theories.

II. Introduction

A class of functions on the natural figures studied in computability theory are

primitive recursive functions, a branch of modern mathematical logic which was initially
known as the recursive function Theory (Dean, 2020). There are functions from the real
numbers (not negative integer) to the natural numbers. These are numerical-theoretical
functions.

For starters, all primitive recursive, factorial and exponential functions and the
returning function of the nth prime function are addition and division (Brainerd &
Landweber, 1974). The primitive recursive functions are used in programming
languages consisting mainly of basic arithmetic operators, components and
comparisons (If-Then, Equals, Less-Than) and limited loops (For-loop).

Primitive recursive functions are one of Thoralf Albert Skolem’s significant

contributions in mathematics. Same as other formulas, theories and theorems
formulated by other mathematicians, these are applied not only in different branches of
mathematics but also in various areas of study. The paper will tackle his life and, most
especially, his noteworthy contributions in the field of mathematics, peculiarly in
mathematical logic and set theory.

III. Main Section

Life
rd
Thoralf Skolem was born on the 23 of May 1887 in Sandsvaer, Buskerud. His
parents were primary school teachers, Helene Olette Vaal and Even Skolem; his clan
was originally farmers.

Skolem took his last exam in Kristiania (later renamed Oslo) and passed the
examination in 1905, which led him directly to study maths and sciences at the
University of Kristiania (Oslo). In 1909, Skolem worked as an assistant student for
Kristian Birkeland, a prominent physicist. His first physics paper was written with
Birkeland. Skolem failed his state test and succeeded in 1913. He received the best
grade, particularly for his thesis, and because of his distinctive achievement, it was
reported to the King of Norway. Skolem remained as an assistant to Birkeland and they
travelled to Sudan in the same year to observe the zodiacal light. Despite working on
physics as assistant of Birkeland, he continued research in mathematics. He proved
remarkable results on lattices during this time. He studied during the winter semester in
Göttingen where he went in 1915. Driven by the First World War in Göttingen, he
returned to Kristiania in serious difficulties. He was recruited to the university as a
research associate. However, he didn't graduate as a surgeon. In 1918, he was chosen
as a mathematical instructor or professor of college in Kristiania in the Norwegian
Academy of Sciences and Letters.
Edith Wilhelmine Hasvold was married to Skolem on May 23, 1927. Until 1930 he
went to the Christian Michelsen Institute in Bergen as a research associate, he kept
working at the University of Oslo. There he was willing, without managerial or teaching
duties to perform independent study. His study therefore has a condition: he must live in
Bergen, and he cannot enter the statistical literature of the research institute. He worked
until he returned to Oslo, a university professor in Mathematics, in 1938 at the age of
51.

For several years, Norsk Matematisk Tidsskrift was the president and editor of
the Norwegian Mathematical Society. He has also edited the modern Mathematica
Scandinavica newspaper since its inception. He has received many awards from Det
Kongelige Norske Vitenskabers Selskab, such as the 'Chairman of the First Class,' the
1954 Royal Order of St. Olav,' and the 1962 Trondheim Gunnerus prize.

Skolem retired in 1957, but continued doing high-quality analysis. In the following
years, he traveled several times to the USA since, before his inesperate, abrupt death
at 76 years of age on the 23rd of March 1963, he declined invitations to lecture in many
universities.

Works

Skolem spent his entire life researching alone in the discipline of mathematical
logic and set theory, publishing more than 180 papers on concepts like Diophantine
equations and group theory. But his most notable works are Skolem-Löwenheim
theorem, method of elimination of quantifiers, Skolem functions, Lattice Theory, Axioms
of set theory and non-standard models of arithmetic, primitive recursive arithmetic and
set theory.

Skolem first worked on Lattice theory. He initialized in defining a free distributive

Lattice made by n elements. in 1912. In 1919, he proved that every implicit bar is
distributive and that a finite bar is inferred in a partial conversation. Formulas have been
used to express ideas, and whether a formula can be met is a normal issue. In proposal
logic this is simple, but complex when we are talking about quantifiers. These findings
were discovered again by other mathematicians in the 1930s.
 Skolem worked on Diophantine equations. We can calculate using new variables
in diophantine equations, which demonstrate that the degree 2 equations method is
adequate. We begin, for example,

3 2
x ❑ + y ❑ z=0

then insert new variables r, s, t and the equation systems.

2
x =r

rx=s

2
y =t

s+tz=0

If, and only if, the first system is solvable.

Skolem did a related thing in logic, in an analogy to this. Let’s say we begin with
the formula,

∀ x . ∃ y . ∀ z . Rxyz

and then change it with conjunction of universally quantified equivalences with new
predicates S, T, and U.

∀ z . Rxyz ⇔ Sxv

∃u . Sxu ⇔ Tx

∀ v .Tv ⇔U

For certain bounded variables, and replacing biconditionals with conditionals and
modifying names

∀ z . Rxyz ⇐ Sxv

∀ a . Rxya ⇒ Sxv
 ∃u . Sxu ⇐ Tx

∃b . Sxb ⇒Tx

∀ v .Tv ⇐U

∀ c . Tc ⇒ U

We can get the quantifiers with ∀-quantifiers beyond the ∃-quantifiers beginning with an
outermost prenex form by writing this method out in prenex form.

∀ x ∀ y ∀ z ∀b ∀ v ∀a ∀u∀c

and a quantifier-free matrix inside

Mxyzuvabc

We say we have a kind of formula ∀∗∃∗ and the reduction of certain formulas in
fulfillment. Here is the first finding for Skolems on quantifiers. For calculating
mathematical formulas, it is necessary to consider the formula of the form ∀∗∃∗ given
we are enabled to add new predicates.

The Löwenheim Theorem was continued by Skolem, leading to the 1920

Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem. It says that if a theory has a model in the calculus of first
order predicates then it has an accounting model. If a formula is satisfactory, in a
countable domain it is satisfactory. His evidence of this consequence used the axiom he
preferred to make practical relations, but later in 1922 and 1928 he presented evidence
of the lemma of König.

In 1922 and 1929, Skolem revised the axiomatic set theory of Zermelo. Zermelo
used the unanalyzed notion of a definite proposition with his Aussonderung Axiom and
substitution axiom Fraenkel. Skolem used ordinary first order formulas in axiom
schemes. He also used the Löwenheim-Skolem theorem to demonstrate what was
known as the paradox of Skolem: if the axiomatic system of Zermelo for set theory is
consistent it must be satisfactory in the countable region. As a fundamental theory,
Skolem was not interested in set theory. He noticed that, since set theory has a model,
it has a quantifiable model. It does not work as a fundamental theory, in his opinion.

The finitist mathematician, Skolem, distrusts the endless, particularly Alfred North
Whitehead's and Bertrand Russell's book Principia Mathematica, which minimizes the
number of primitive notions, axioms and rules on inference. This prompted him to
establish an excellent theory of recursive functions to refuse the inexplicability of the
infinite by a recurrent style of thought without adding apparently variable ones to
limitless expansion regions. Its data structure consists of natural numbers from 1 to the
successor. It used two systems for designing numerical theory, one to describe artifacts
by prim. In that theory of numbers he developed using two methods, one for identifying
objects by primitive recidivism and the other for proving the properties of the objects
described by the first system. He specified the prime numbers and developed a
significant number theory for them.

Under this context, Skolem showed how number theory can be built up to the
primary decomposition. The primitive recursive definition of addition and multiplication
was used by both Grassman (1860) and Dedekind (1890), but Skolem was the first to
use it to express a substantive field of knowledge. Skolem demonstrated how to use
free variable logic instead of quantifying. He used "defining equations" with primitive
recursive functions as well as quantifying formulas free of variables.

Skolem did not use all primitive recursive functions in the development of the
theory of numbers. In particular, he used small sums.

IV. Summary and Conclusion

Summary

Thoralf Skolem was born on the 23 rd May 1887 in Buskerud, Norway and is a
mathematician who made a significant contribution to mathematics, especially to set
theory and logic. He was awarded the highest grade for his thesis, which was reported
to the King of Norway, thanks to his university distinction in mathematics at Kristiana
University (Oslo). After college, he remained a research fellow in mathematics and
became a professor in his alma mater. He married Wilhelmine Hasvold on 23 May
1927. He has been chairman of the Norwegian Society and publisher of the Norwegian
Mathematical Journal for many years. He continued his investigation after retirement in
1957 when he was 70 years old, and was also invited to speak at some universities in
the United States many times until he was 76 years old and, at this age, he accidentally
died on March 23, 1963.

Skolem published less than 200 papers on his own, focusing on the area of
mathematics. Some of his significant works are the concepts of Axioms of set theory,
primitive recursive arithmetic, method of elimination of quantifiers, Skolem functions,
Skolem-Löwenheim theorem, Lattice Theory, Diophantine equations. All of the
mathematical ideas he developed greatly rely on finitism as he is totally skeptical of
infinite mathematics.

Conclusion

Skolem’s passion for his work is the reason for his dedication to continuously do
research. He never left his job for the betterment of the field of study he is in. He never
stopped forming and improving theories or ideas which had a huge contribution in the
discipline of set theory and mathematical logic. Like many other mathematicians, he is a
modern one who had no other desire but to make notable developments in
mathematics, mostly on fundamental concepts. Truly, he is an extensively
knowledgeable person who willingly shared his God-given intellect to teach and inspire
others, especially the young generations living today.
V. References

Brainerd, W.S., & Landweber, L.H. (1974). Theory of Computation. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-
09585-0

Dean, W. (2020). Recursive Functions. Stanford University. Retrieved on January 15,

2021 from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/recursive-functions/

Gabbay D., et al. (2009). Handbook of the History of Logic. The Netherlands: North
Holland. Retrieved on January 3, 2021 from https://books.google.com.ph/books?
id=IMgg0Uc00I4C&lpg=PA127&dq=thoralf%20albert
%20skolem&lr&pg=PA127#v=onepage&q=thoralf%20albert%20skolem&f=false

Jervell, H. (n.d.). Thoralf Skolem 1887-1963. University of Oslo. Retrieved on January

10, 2021 from
https://www.uio.no/studier/emner/matnat/ifi/nedlagte-emner/INF5170/v14/
skolem.pdf

O'Connor, J.J., & Robertson E. F. (2005). Thoralf Albert Skolem. Scotland: University of
St. Andrews. Retrieved on December 28, 2020 from https://mathshistory.st-
andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Skolem/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoralf_Skolem