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Keywords: With the increasing market share of lithium-ion battery in the secondary battery market and their applications in
Lithium-ion battery electric vehicles, the recycling of the spent batteries has become necessary. The number of spent lithium-ion
Spent cathode material batteries grows daily, which presents a unique business opportunity of recovering and recycling valuable
Recycling
metals from the spent lithium-ion cathode materials. Various metals including cobalt, manganese, nickel,
Hydrometallurgy
aluminum, and lithium can be extracted from these materials through leaching with chemicals such as hydro
chloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3 ), sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), oxalate (H2 C2 O2 ), DL-malic acid (C4 H5 O6 ), citric
acid (C6 H8 O7 ), ascorbic acid (C6 H8 O6 ), phosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) or acidithiobacillus ferrooxidans. This paper
provides a comprehensive review on the available hydrometallurgical technologies for recycling spent lithium-
ion cathode materials. The recycling processes, challenges and perspectives reported to date and recycling
companies in the market are summarized. To accelerate the development of battery recycling technology toward
commercialization, some potential research directions are also proposed in this paper.
* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: jjung@shu.edu.cn (J.C.-Y. Jung), jiujun.zhang@i.shu.edu.cn (J. Zhang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2020.102217
Received 28 October 2020; Received in revised form 20 December 2020; Accepted 22 December 2020
Available online 27 January 2021
2352-152X/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
cles for other applications such as electricity energy storage (battery recover titanium as titanium oxide (TiO2 ) [11, 12]. Electrolyte can be
second use) and through recycling lithium-ion batteries to obtain the extracted by vacuum distillation or extracted by sub- and supercritical
important metals once they have finished their lifecycle. Industry ana carbon dioxide (CO2 ) extraction using a flow-through or batch autoclave
lysts have predicted that by 2030, the worldwide number of spent setup. Sub- and supercritical CO2 extraction has demonstrated that up to
lithium-ion batteries will hit 2 million metric tons per year [6]. Recy 90% of the electrolyte can be recovered from spent lithium ion batteries.
cling these spent lithium-ion batteries can provide a source of [13-16]. The recovered electrolyte contented conducting salt, and the
lithium-ion battery materials such as lithium, nickel, cobalt, manganese, decomposed electrolyte can be purified with a weakly basic anion ex
and aluminum [7]. Spent lithium-ion batteries recycling processes change resin [16].
usually first go through sorting the batteries by battery chemistries As identified, the spent cathode material can contain up to 7 wt
followed by deep discharge to avoid violent reaction from the charged percent (wt%) lithium, as shown in Fig. 3. Also shown in Fig. 3, the spent
electrode materials exposed to the air. During discharge, positive lithium nickel cobalt aluminum (NCA) battery contains up to 31wt% of
charged lithium ions move from anode through electrolyte and sepa cathode material [17].
rator to cathode, making spent cathode material enriched with lithium. Furthermore, Fig. 4 shows the main components of lithium cobalt
The discharged batteries then go through physical dissemble, as shown oxide (LCO) battery, lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC)
in Fig. 2, before undergone electrolyte extraction, high-temperature battery, and lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery, where the cathode
melting-and-extraction, smelting, direct recycling, or chemical/hy material accounts for 41wt%, 26wt%, and 25wt% of the battery,
drometallurgy extraction. Spent cathode materials can be separated respectively. [18] Recycling these spent cathode materials can not only
from current collectors by using dimethylacetamide, N-methyl-pyr recycle lithium but also recover nickel, cobalt, manganese, and
olidinone, N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), or acetone at 60 ◦ C to aluminum.
dissolve the binder. Chow et al. [8] reported that battery cathode ma
terials can be detached from aluminum foil by soaking cathodes in mild 2. Hydrometallurgy treatments
sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ). Zhang et al. [9] reported a patented complex
aqueous peeling agent, namely exfoliating and extracting solution Hydrometallurgy extraction process, or chemical leaching, which is
(AEES), which could weaken the mechanical interlocking force and practiced commercially in China, for example, offers a less energy-
Coulombic force between cathode materials and foils, and separately intensive alternative and lower capital costs. These processes
recovered Al foil, Cu foil, and active materials. employed regents such as hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3 ),
Li et al. [10] investigated replacing organic NWP solvent with water sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ), and hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ) for extracting and
during electrode fabrication in order to simplify the recycling process, separating cathode metals, generally run below 100 ◦ C and can recover
and found that water-processed electrodes exhibited a comparable lithium in addition to the other transition metals [19].
electrochemical performance with NMP-based electrode and the elec This paper reviews the various hydrometallurgy methods developed
trode materials were easier to recycle. in the recent ten years for recycling cathode materials of lithium-ion
Other than cathode material enriched in lithium, anode material like batteries from various battery chemistries including Lithium Cobalt
lithium titanate (LTO) and battery electrolyte, LiPF6 , LiBF4 , or LiClO4 , Dioxide, LiCoO2 (LCO), Lithium Manganese Dioxide, LiMn2 O4 (LMO),
also enrich with lithium. Recycling cathode material, LTO, and elec Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide, LiNiMnCoO2 (NMC), and
trolyte can provide a sustainable lithium source. Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide, LiNiCoAlO2 (NCA), and
LTO can be treated with hydrochloric acid (HCl) to extract Li and Lithium iron Phosphate LiFePO4 (LFP), to recover cobalt, nickel, man
2
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Fig. 4. Components of a lithium-ion battery with LCO, NMC, and LFP cathode [18].
ganese, and lithium. Fig. 5 shows the hydrometallurgy process for tanks to leach out Li+ , Ni2+ , Co2+ , Mn2+ , Fe2+ , and Al3+ . In the impurity
recycling battery cathode materials. The process can be categorized into removal section, the unwanted impurity will be removed through pH
4 sections, which are leaching, impurity removal, metal like Ni, Co, Mn adjustment. After impurity removal, the solution is transferred to metal
recovery, and lithium recovery. As shown in Fig. 5, the spent cathode recovery section where metal can be recovered via a chemical precipi
material is first slurried with weak acid and then transferred to the tation or a solvent extraction. After metal recovery, the remaining
leaching tanks. Acid and reducing agent are then added into the leaching lithium enriched solution is transferred to the lithium recovery section
3
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Fig. 5. Schematic of the hydrometallurgy process for recycling battery cathode materials.
where lithium can be recovered by chemical precipitation using sodium The leached Co2+ , Mn2+ , and Ni2+ could be recovered through se
carbonate or by crystallization by distillation. lective precipitation as metal hydroxides could slowly increase the
The valuable metals, mainly cobalt, manganese, nickel, and lithium leachate pH using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) [22]. The precipitation of
can be extracted from the spent lithium-ion cathode materials through Mn2+ , Ni2+ , and Co2+ began at pH of 1, 2, and 3, and was completely
leaching treatment, as summarized in Table 1. precipitated at pH 12, 8, and 10, respectively. The leached Li+ could be
Once the valuable metals have been leached, the metals can be precipitated as lithium carbonate via adding sodium carbonate
recovered through a series of processes including sedimentation, pre (Na2 CO3 ) after the leachate clear of Co2+ , Mn2+ , and Ni2+ .
cipitation, and solvent extraction. After the leaching treatment, the Alternatively, the manganese can be selectively recovered from the
recovered materials can be reformulated to regenerate lithium cathode leachate using potassium permanganate (KMnO4 ) via the following
material. redox reaction [24]:
The hydrochloric acid leaches Co, Mn, Ni, and Li according to the recovered as cobalt hydroxide by raising the leachate pH to 11 via
following reactions [20, 21-23]: NaOH, and Li was recovered as Li2 CO3 via adding Na2 CO3 .
Fig. 6 illustrates the recover flow sheet with the two alternatives. It
2LiCoO2 +8HCl→2LiCl + 2CoCl2 +2H2 O + Cl2 (1) should be noted that the employed HCl as a leaching agent possibly gen
erates toxic chlorine gas (Cl2 ) as a byproduct as shown in Eqs. (1) to (3).
2LiMn2 O4 +16HCl→2LiCl + 4MnCl2 +8H2 O + 3Cl2 (2)
6LiNi1/3 Mn1/3 Co1/3 O2 +24HCl→6LiCl + 2NiCl2 +2MnCl2 +2CoCl2 +12H2 O + 3Cl2 (3)
4
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Table 1
Reported Leaching Processes for Recycling Spent Cathode Materials of Lithium-ion batteries with LCO, LMO, NMC, and NCA chemistries.
No Leaching Treatment Leach Temp ( ◦ C) Leach Efficiency (%) Reference Number [#]
1
34 C6 H8 O6 (1.25 mol L − ) 70 98 97 73
(Ascorbic Acid)
1 1
35 C6 H6 O3 S (1.3 mol L − ) CH2 O2 (1.5 mol L − ) 50 99 97 74
D Bioleaching Agent Additives
36 Acidithiobacillus Ferrooxidans S + Fe 30 10 65 75
37 Mesophilic potential sulfur-oxidizing bacteria 25 79
2.2. Nitric acid as a hydrometallurgy treatment reagent Their studies showed that when leaching with 1 M HNO3 , the
leaching efficiency of Co and Li could reach to 40% and 75%, respec
Castillo et al. [25] studied the leaching of LiMn2 O4 from spent tively. The leaching efficiency was improved significantly when adding
lithium-ion battery using nitric acid (HNO3 ). The leaching reactions are H2 O2 to the leachate. Lee et al. [27] reported that with 1 M HNO3 and
illustrated as follows: 1.7 vol% H2 O2 at 75 ◦ C, up to 99% of Co and Li could be leached in 30
min. They believed the improvement of leaching efficiency was due to
LiMn2 O4 +10HNO3 →2Mn(NO3 )2 +LiNO3 +5NO2 +5H2 O + 2O2 (5)
the addition of H2 O2 acting as a reducing agent to reduce Co3+ to Co2+ ,
They stated that 100% of Li and up to 95% of Mn could be leached Mn3+ to Mn2+ , which were readily dissolved in HNO3 .
with 2 M HNO3 at 80 ◦ C in 120 min. Lee et al. [26, 27], and Li et al. [28] Using lower concentration of HNO3 in the leach is of particular in
studied the reductive leaching of LiCoO2 and LiMn2 O4 using a lower terest to the battery recycle industry as it reduces the reagent con
concentration of nitric acid (HNO3 ) with hydrogen peroxide (H2 O2 ). The sumption in the following material recovery steps. Fig. 7 shows the flow
leaching reaction of LiMn2 O4 is illustrated as follows: sheets of HNO3 leach and HNO3 + H2 O2 leach. The drawback of using
HNO3 to leach is that leaching with HNO3 generates NOx . NOx , if
2LiMn2 O4 +10HNO3 + H2 O2 →2LiNO3 +4Mn(NO3 )2 +6H2 O + 2O2 (6)
5
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Fig. 6. Two alternative flowsheets (Red and Blue) to recover Li, Mn, Co, and Ni from HCl leach [20, 21, 22, 24].
6
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
2LiNi0.8 Co0.15 Al0.05 O2 +4SO2 +2H2 SO4 →Li2 S2 O6 +2(Ni, Co, Al)S2 O6 +2H2 O
Fig. 7. HNO3 leach flowsheets [25-28]. (22)
(Ni, Co, Al)SO4 and (Ni, Co, Al)S2 O6 represent a mixed metal sulfate
capacity of 173.4 mAh/g at 0.1C discharge under a calcination tem and a mixed metal dithionate respectively.
perature of 850 ◦ C and 93.6% capacity retention after 100 cycles at 1C. Granata et al. [46] and Pagnanelli et al. [47] reported using glucose
Wang et al. [42] and Vieceli et al. [43] reported the leaching of spent (C6 H12 O6 ) as reducing agent in H2 SO4 leaching according to the
lithium-ion cathode materials using H2 SO4 and sodium thiosulfate following reaction:
(Na2 S2 O3 ) as the reducing agent. It concluded that the leaching effi
24LiCoO2 + C6 H12 O6 +36H2 SO4 →12Li2 SO4 +24CoSO4 +6CO2 +42H2 O
ciency of Co and Li could be increased at higher acid concentration. The
(23)
leaching rates of Co, Cu, and Li were increased first and then decreased
afterwards with increasing Na2 S2 O3 concentration. The optimum con Glucose is a low cost and non-hazardous chemical and was first
ditions, at which 99.95% Co and 99.71% Li were obtained, were 3 M proposed for Mn reducing leaching of pyrolusite ores [48, 49] and zinc
H2 SO4 and 0.25 M Na2 S2 O3 at 90 ◦ C for 3 h with liquid/solid ratio at manganese dioxide alkaline battery [50]. It was discovered that the
15:1. The following illustrates the reaction equation: leaching solution contained high concentrations of formic acid along
with mono-carboxylic poly‑hydroxyl acids like glyceric acid and glycolic
8LiCoO2 +Na2 S2 O3 +11H2 SO4 →4Li2 SO4 +8CoSO4 +Na2 SO4 +11H2 O
acids, suggesting that glucose was oxidized. The use of glucose as the
(13)
reducing agent should be an innovative and environmentally friendly
Long et al. [44] introduced SO2 as the reducing agent in the H2 SO4 option in H2 SO4 leaching of spent lithium-ion battery cathode materials.
leach. The advantages of using SO2 were found to be faster reaction rate, Pagnanelli et al. [47] reported that 88% extraction of Co could be ob
higher initial leach pH, low consumption of H2 SO4 , and high leaching tained with glucose as a reducing agent. The leached lithium, cobalt, and
efficiency. They reported that with 1.5 M H2 SO4 and SO2 sparging at 40 other metals can be recovered through many methods such as chemical
– 50 ◦ C for 3 h, solid/liquid ratio at 1:12, and 0.15 MPa pressure, 99.1% precipitation, solvent extraction, and crystallization. In this regard,
7
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Fig. 8 shows the flowsheets. a cobalt lithium enriched leachate. Nan et al. [54] used Acorga M5640
Chemical precipitation can selectively precipitate the metals. For and Cyanex 272 to effectively extract 98% of the copper and 97% of the
example, for leachate containing Mn2+ , Ni2+ , and Co2+ , precipitation cobalt from sulfate solution. Their work also demonstrated that Acorga
can be achieved using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium sulfide M5640 and Cyanex 272 could be recycled after striping with H2 SO4 .
(Na2 S) based on each metal’s hydroxide solubility or sulfide solubility at Zhang et al. [20] conducted a batch solvent extraction using 0.90 M of
certain pH values. For example, in order to separate Mn from Ni and Co PC-88A with Kerosene at an O:A ratio of 0.85:1 and pH 6.7 to extract
in the solution, NaOH and Na2 S solutions were used based on different cobalt from lithium enriched solution and found that 99.99% purity of
hydroxide solubility and sulfide solubility of metals at a certain pH [42, Co could be obtained after H2 SO4 stripping.
43]. For Mn precipitation, the concentrated Na2 CO3 solution was used. Zante et al. [55] used solvent extraction to individually extract Mn2+ ,
For the final stage, the Na2 CO3 solid was used. Cobalt, nickel and Co2+ , Ni2+ , and Li+ . Mn2+ was first removed using N,N,N’,N’-tetra
manganese could be totally precipitated from the solution at pH above (noctyl) diglycolamide (TODGA) extractant diluted in an ionic liquid
10 and leaving on lithium in the solution. and then stripped with water. Second, Co2+ was extracted using tri-hexyl
Solvent extraction can be employed to selectively extract cobalt [51]. tetradecylphosphonium chloride ([P66614][Cl]) and then stripped with
The extraction of metal was based on the following mechanism [52]: water. Third, Ni2+ was recovered using deep eutectic solvents (DES)
M2+ − +
(24) made of carboxylic acids and lidocaine and stripped with sodium oxa
Aq + AOrg + 2(HA)2Org →MA2 3HAOrg + HAq
late. Finally, Li+ was precipitated by chemical precipitation. Sun et al.
where A−Org + 2(HA)2Org represents the extractant saponified by the [56] selectively extracted lithium using benzo-15-crown-5 ether
(B15C5). At pH of 6.0, temperature of 30 ◦ C, and 120 min of extraction
following reaction:
time, the extraction rate of Li+ was 37%, and the extraction rate of Ni2+
/
Na+ +
Aq + 1 2(HA)2Org →NaAOrg + HAq (25) was 5.18%, and about zero for Co2+ and Mn2+ .
Crystallization to recover Co2+ was studied by Ferreira et al. [31],
The efficiency of metal extraction was calculated by the distribution who reported that by evaporating 85% H2 O from the leachate contain
coefficient of metal in aqueous and organic phases. When the solution ing 11.3 g/L Co, 0.6 g/L Al, and 1.2 g/L Li, a purified monohydrated
containing Co2+ and Ni2+ , the distribution coefficient (D) can be illus CoSO4 ⋅H2 O was produced with only 0.4% Al, and 0.6% Li contamina
trated as follows: tion. Granata et al. [46] recovered 80% lithium as carbonate by evap
/ orating 80% of H2 O to obtain a purity higher than 98% Li2 CO3 crystal
DCo = [Co]Org [Co]aq (26)
after removing Co2+ , Ni2+ , and Mn2+ through precipitation using
/ carbonate
DNi = [Ni]Org [Ni]aq (27)
2.4. Oxalate as a hydrometallurgy treatment reagent
where metal concentration in organic phase can be determined by a
mass balance considering the residual concentration in aqueous phase.
Oxalate is a common organic acid and can be dissolved in warm H2 O.
The index of extraction selectivity (β) of Co over Ni can then be calcu
Sun et al. [57] used oxalate to leach cobalt and lithium into leachate,
lated by the following equation:
where cobalt was then precipitate out as cobalt oxalate.
β = DCo /DNi (28) The reaction between LiCoO2 and oxalate is a multiphase reaction.
The following shows the leaching reactions using oxalate:
Lupi et al. [53] reported that Co could be extract from nickel with
Cyanex 272 [di-(2,4,4-trimethylpentyl) phosphoric acid] in Kerosene. 7H2 C2 O4 + 2LiCoO2(s) →2LiHC2 O4 + 2Co(HC2 O4 )2 + 4H2 O + 2CO2(g)
Granata et al. [39] tested two extractants, D2HEPA and Cyanex 272, and (29)
found that Cyanex 272 could selectively extract Co completely before
extracting Ni. Dorella et al. [33] used Cyanex 272 to extract cobalt from 4H2 C2 O4 +2LiCoO2(s) →Li2 C2 O4 +2CoC2 O4(s) +4H2 O + 2CO2(g) (30)
8
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
During the oxalate leaching process, carbon dioxide was evolved soluble at pH from 8.5 to 10.5. As such, Ni2+ , Co2+ , Li+ , and Mn2+ can be
from oxalate that converted Co3+ to Co2+ then promoted the dissolution selectively recovered.
of Co. Sun et al. [57] also investigated the addition of H2 O2 on pro Zheng et al. [58] reported leaching NMC with NH3 , ammonium
moting the Co leaching efficiency through the following reactions: sulfate (NH4 )2 SO4 and Na2 SO3 . Ni, Co and Li could be selectively
leached out from cathode scrap powder. With 4 M NH3 , 1.5 M
6H2 C2 O4 + 2LiCoO2(s) + 3H2 O2 →2LiHC2 O4 + 2Co(HC2 O4 )2 + 6H2 O
(NH4 )2 SO4 and 0.5 M Na2 SO3 at 353 K, 10 g/L pulp density and 300 min
+ 2O2(g) of retention time, more than 98% of Ni, Co, and Li could be selectively
(31) leached with 6.3% of Mn.
Wu et al. [59] reported that leaching 2% pulp density spent
3H2 C2 O4 +2LiCoO2(s) + H2 O2 →Li2 C2 O4 +2CoC2 O4(s) +4H2 O + O2(g) (32) Ni/Co/Al-containing material (NCA) with NH3 and Na2 SO3 and using
The experimental data suggested that H2 O2 had little influence on ammonia bicarbonate (NH4 HCO3 ) as a pH buffer could obtain 60.5%
the leaching of LiCoO2 with oxalate. The oxalate leaching efficiency with leaching efficiency for Li, 81% for Co while Al was hardly leached.
and without H2 O2 was 96.3% and 96.7%, respectively. They concluded
that the optimized leaching conditions using oxalate was 1.0 M oxalate 2.6. DL-malic acid as a hydrometallurgy treatment reagent
at 80 ◦ C for 120 min with solid/liquid ration of 50 g/L. Fig. 9 shows the
proposed flowsheet. DL-malic acid is a natural organic acid and a member of the C4-
dicarboxylic acid family [60] with ionization constants of
K1 = 4.0 × 10− 4 and K2 = 9.0 × 10− 6 [61]. DL-malic acid degrades easily
2.5. Ammonia with sodium sulfite as the hydrometallurgy treatment under aerobic and anaerobic conditions thus its waste can be treated
reagent easily. Li et al. [62] investigated leaching LiCoO2 with DL-malic acid.
The reaction between DL-malic acid and LiCoO2 is a multiphase reac
Leaching spent cathode material, Ni/Mn/Co containing cathode tion. The following shows the leaching reactions:
material (NMC), with ammonia (NH3 ) requires sodium sulfite (Na2 O3 )
12C4 H6 O5(aq) +4LiCoO2(S) →4LiC4 H5 O5(aq) +4Co(C4 H5 O5 )2(aq) +6H2 O + O2(g)
as a reductant to reduce Co3+ to Co2+ . The Ni2+ and Co2+ will react with
ammonia according to the following equations while Mn and ammonia (35)
reaction is not favorable.
2+
12C4 H5 O−5(aq) + 4LiCoO2(S) + 4Li+
(aq) + 4Co(aq) →4Li2 C4 H4 O5(aq)
Ni2+ +nNH3 →Ni(NH3 )n 2+ (33)
+ 8CoC4 H4 O5(aq) + 6H2 O + O2(g) (36)
2+
6C4 H5 O−5(aq) + 2LiCoO2(S) + 2Li+
(aq) + 2Co(aq) + H2 O2 →2Li2 C4 H4 O5(aq)
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J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Zhuang et al. [71] reported using phosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) and citric
acid mixture to leach spent NMC cathode material. With 0.2 M
Fig. 10. Proposed flowsheet for DL-malic Acid Leaching [60, 62, 63].
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J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
phosphoric acid and 0.4 M citric acid with a solid to liquid (S/L) ratio of
20 g/L at 90 ◦ C for 30 min of retention time, leaching efficiency of 100%
for Li, 93.38% for Ni, 91.63% for Co, and 92.00% for Mn can be ach
ieved, respectively.
Chen et al. [72] reported using H3 PO4 with H2 O2 to leach Li2 CoO2 .
By using 0.7 M H3 PO4 and 4 vol% H2 O2 , liquid to solid ratio of 20 mL
g − 1 at 40 ◦ C for 60 min of retention time, Co could be recovered as
cobalt phosphate Co3 (PO4 )2 precipitate while Li remaining in the
leachate with the following reactions:
Co2+ (aq) +Li+ (aq) +PO4 3−(aq) →1 / 3Co3 (PO4 )2(s) +1 / 3Li3 PO4(s) (45)
On the other hand, excess H3 PO4 could result in Co3 (PO4 )2 re-
dissolving back into the leachate according to the following equation:
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J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
without Cu to 99.9% in 6 days with 0.75 g/L Cu. The result indicated Table 2
that the copper ions could enhance the oxidation of LiCoO2 . The Comparison of hydrometallurgy treatments.
following equations illustrates the catalytic mechanisms: Hydrometallurgy Chemical Advantage Disadvantage
Treatment used
2+
Cu +2LiCoO2 →CuCo2 O4 +2Li +
*chemical (56)
Leaching 1 HCl Chemical Equipment
inexpensive corrosion, Cl
CuCo2 O4 +6Fe3+ →6Fe2+ +Cu2+ +2O2 +2Co2+ *chemical (57) contamination
2 HNO3 High extraction Dissolve Al,
4Fe2+ + O2 +4H+ →4Fe3+ +2H2 O *microbial (58) rate on Co and Li oxidize Mn and
Co, NOx in
The work from Mishra et al. [75], Xin et al. [76], and Zeng et al. [77] discharge
indicated that it was possible to recover metal from spent lithium-ion 3 H2 SO4 chemical sulfate ion has
cathode material by acidophilic bacteria. Huang et al. [79] reported inexpensive solubility
limitation
using potential sulfur-oxidizing bacteria with a
4 H3 PO4 Low acid Phosphate has
bio-electro-hydrometallurgical platform to recover Li, Mn, and Co from consumption, very limited
spent lithium ion batteries. The bioleaching process and selective solubility
adsorption by PC-88A/TOA-modified granular activated carbon are 5 Organic acid Environmental Lower extraction
both incorporated into an electrokinetics approach to achieve maximum friendlier rate
6 Bioleaching Environmental Low kinetic, low
recoveries of 91.45%, 93.64% and 87.92% for Co, Li, and Mn respec friendlier extraction rate
tively. The proposed chemical reactions are as follows: Precipitation NaOH, LiOH, Low energy pH adjustment
Na2 CO3 , consumption, low difficult to
+
Fe2 O3 +6H →2Fe +3H2 O3+
(59) Li2 Co3 cost control, metals
often co-
FeS2 +14Fe3+ +8H2 O→15Fe2+ +2SO2−4 +16H+ (60) precipitated
Solvent extraction D2EHPA, Able to extract Process very
Cyanex 272, individual metal complicated,
FeS2 +6Fe3+ +3H2 O→7Fe2+ + S2 O2−3 +6H+ (61) Acorga ions, high multiple
M5640, PC- separation extraction stages,
S2 O2−3 +8Fe3+ +5H2 O→8Fe2+ +2SO2−4 +10H+ (62) 88A, efficiency, low high cost of
TODGA, energy solvents,
P66614-Cl, consumption generated
2FeS2 +7O2 +2H2 O→2Fe2+ +4SO2−4 +4H+ (63)
DES wastewater and
emission, Toxic
Li2 CoMn3 O8 +2H2 SO4 →Li2 SO4 +CoSO4 +3MnO2 +2H2 O (64) solvents needed
to be waste
4H+ +MnO2 +2Fe2+ →Mn2+ +2Fe3+ +2H2 O (65) treated
12
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Table 3
Process summary to direct regeneration of LiFePO4 .
No Process Additives Heat treated time Temp ( Li Heating Inner Reference
(h) ◦
C) Source Atmosphere
1 Hydrothermal LiOH, L-ascorbic acid, Dodecyl benzene sulphonic acid 6 160 LiOH 80
sodium (SDBS)
2 Thermal ball milling Sucrose, Li2 Co3 2 800/650 Li2 Co3 H2 / Ar 81
3 Ball milling Li2 Co3 N/A Li2 Co3 82
Heat treatment 700 N2
4 Heat treatment Glucose, Li2 Co3 2 900 Li2 Co3 83
5 Heat treatment LiFePO4 8 700 LiFePO4 84
6 Heat treatment Li2 Co3 1 650 Li2 Co3 H2 / Ar 85
7 Heat treatment 1 650 N/A H2 / Ar 86
8 Leaching + reprecipitate H3 PO4 9 85 87
Heat treatment Li2 Co3 Li2 Co3 N2
9 Annealing 10 700 88
Leaching 6 M HCl, NH4 OH
Ball milling LiOH, Sucrose LiOH
Heat treatment 8 700 H2 / Ar
Table 4
Hydrometallurgy Process to leach and recover Li from spent LiFePO4 .
No Leaching Metal Recovery (Precipitation, SX, Ion exchange) Reference
Chemical Time Temp ( Pulp Density Li Leaching Chemical Temp ( Yield
(h) ◦
C) Efficiency (%) ◦
C) (%)
membrane to form LiOH. Li+ could then be recovered through adding Cardarelli et al. [108] used a freezing method to harden the polymer
Na2 CO3 to form Li2 CO3 . electrolyte and comminute the cooled and hardened material before the
Table 4 shows the comparison of the leach and metal recover oper comminuted material subjected to incineration, leaching and precipi
ation conditions of the hydrometallurgy process. tation to recover lithium and vanadium.
Due to the low cost of iron phosphate, hydrometallurgical recycling
to recover individual materials like Fe, PO3−
4 and Li is not economic 3. Brief description of pyrometallurgical recycling process and
feasible. Direct recycling to regenerate LiFePO4 or direct generate recycling processes in the market
LiFePO4 during hydrometallurgical recycling should be the focus.
3.1. Pyrometallurgical recycling process
2.13. Lithium polymer battery recycle
Currently, there are several pyrometallurgy or smelting facilities that
Lithium metal polymer batteries consist an ultra-thin lithium metal commercially recycling Lithium-ion batteries. The pyrometallurgical
foil anode, a solid copolymer electrolyte containing a lithium salt, and a process often runs at near 1500 ◦ C to recover cobalt, nickel, and copper
lithium vanadium oxide cathode. To recycle lithium polymer battery, but not lithium, aluminum, or any organic compounds. Fig. 13 shows a
13
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Fig. 13. Schematic of pyrometallurgical recycling of spent lithium ion battery [109].
schematic of pyrometallurgy recycling process. [109] [116] investigated catalytic carbothermic reduction by heating the
Pyrometallurgical recycling process is capital intensive, in part mixture of LiCoO2 , graphite, and NaOH at 520 ◦ C for 180 min. Water
because of the need to treat the emission of toxic fluorine compounds leach of the heated mixture showed that 93% Li could be extracted while
released during the smelting. After the pyrometallurgy process, valuable Co retained in the solid.
metals are reduced and then recovered in the form of alloys. For
example, Umicore develops the pyrometallurgical and hydrometallur 3.2. AkkuSer
gical processes to recycle Ni, Co, and Li from spent lithium-ion batteries
[110]. Georgi-Maschler et al. [111] used a reductive smelting process to AkkuSer, a Finnish company, develops a Dry-Technology method to
recover valuable metals from the spent lithium-ion batteries. The Fe, Co, recycle high-grade cobalt Li-ion batteries. The Dry-Technology method
Ni, and Mn in the batteries were converted to alloys, and Li during the is a mechanical process and does not require any preprocessing steps for
reductive smelting reported to slag which could be recovered with discharging the Lithium-Ion batteries. The mechanical process is based
further leaching using H2 SO4 . Trager et al. [112] used vacuum evapo on two-stage crushing line followed by magnetic and mechanical sepa
ration and selective carrier gas evaporation at temperatures above ration unit. The outputs of the process are metal concentrates which are
1400 ◦ C to evaporate Li from the spent lithium-ion batteries. Liang et al. delivered as the raw material to metal refineries. The process uses no
[113] reported a high-temperature pyrolysis to regenerate spent water, chemicals or heating thus does not produce any related emis
LiFePO4 cathode materials with smooth material surface and small sions. [117]
particle sizes. Tang et al. [114] reported a vacuum pyrolysis approach to
recover Li and Co from the spent LiCoO2 . Wang et al. [115] roasted
Li2 CoO2 with NaHSO4 ⋅H2 O to selectively separate Li and Co. Wang et al.
14
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
American Manganese Inc., a company headquarter in British Lithion Recycling, a company headquarter in Quebec Canada, de
Columbia Canada, with its research partner Kemetco Research Inc., velops a hydrometallurgical recycling process solution that recovers
develops RecycLiCo™ process, a closed-loop, hydrometallurgical pro 95% of all components from lithium-ion batteries with battery chemis
cess with SO2 reductive leaching system and electrochemical process to tries from LCO, NMC, LMO, NCA, and LFP and regenerates materials
recycle cathode material scraps from cathode manufacturers and spent with high purity [123].
cathode materials. The process achieves near 100% recovery and battery
grade purity of materials such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and 3.8. LithoRec process - Duesenfeld
aluminum from varies cathode chemistries including NCA, NMC, LCO,
and LMO [118]. Duesenfeld GmbH, a company in Weendeburg Germany develops a
patented the mechanical, thermodynamic, and hydrometallurgical
process which adopts LithoRec process, as shown in Fig. 15. LithoRec
3.4. Brunpt recycling
process first deeply discharges the spent lithium-ion batteries and then
shreds the batteries under an inert atmosphere. Second, battery elec
Brunpt Recycling (Brunpt) is a subsidiary of Contemporary Amperex
trolyte that is consisted of a mixture of linear and cyclic carbonates, and
Technology Co. Ltd (CATL), one of the biggest lithium-ion battery
a conducting salt is extracted by vacuum distillation, sub- and super
manufacturers in China. Brunpt recycles spent cathode material through
critical CO2 extraction, dimethyl carbonate (DMC) liquid extraction, or a
a hydrometallurgical process with solvent extraction, which can achieve
thermal drying step. Third, subsequently iron parts are removed via
a recovery rate of nickel, cobalt, and manganese up to 99.3% [119].
magnetic separation and transferred to scrap metal recycling. Fourth,
the residual non-magnetic material is fed to a zig-zag air classifier,
3.5. Direct recycling and onto direct recycling where the shredded material is further separated into two fractions
containing the current collectors and active materials and the other
Direct recycling, as shown in Fig. 14(1), separates different battery fraction consisting of the separator and plastic foils. Fifth, the active
active materials through physical processes like gravity separation and material, graphite, and the current collector are separated and collected
flotation without causing chemical changes to recover cathode materials by heating up to 400 – 600 ◦ C to remove the binder and using air jet
that are reusable. The reusable cathode materials are replenished with sieves. Sixth, the active material is fed to a hydrometallurgical step
lithium through a solid-state method topping up with stoichiometric where the active material is dissolved in an acidic mixture and lithium
addition of lithium. Also, the process resets transition metal oxidation can be leached out [124, 125].
numbers to the original spinel structures. However, contamination like
polyvinyl difluoride polymer that binds cathode-carbon mixtures and 3.9. Retriev technologies
transition metal dissolution have limited the development [120].
OnTo Technology LLC, a company in Oregon USA, develops a direct Retriev Technologies, a company in British Columbia Canada, de
recycling process with CO2 deactivation and hydrothermal process, as velops a process involving disassemble and dismantle spent lithium-ion
shown in Fig. 14(2) to directly reutilise the parts taken from the used battery pack followed by feeding the separated spent lithium-ion battery
batteries to make new lithium-ion batteries [120, 121]. cells and smaller packs (i.e. laptop, power tool, and cell phone) by
conveyor to an automated crusher. The crusher, which operates under a
liquid solution to prevent fugitive emissions and to reduce the reactivity
3.6. Li-Cycle
of processed batteries, produces three types of materials, which are
metal solids, metal-enriched liquid, and plastic fluff [126, 127].
Li-Cycle is a startup from Canada that uses a combination of me
Pending on the chemistry of spent lithium-ion batteries, the metal
chanical size reduction and hydro-metallurgical recovery techniques to
solids may contain various amounts of Cu, Al, and Co, which can all be
recycle lithium-ion batteries. Li-Cycle process breaks down the batteries
used as raw materials in new products. The metal-enriched liquid is
to inert battery materials and the mixed copper/aluminum metals. The
solidified using filtering technology and sent off-site for further metal
inert battery materials, which are consisted of a mix of cathode and
purification.
anode battery materials, including lithium, nickel and cobalt, as well as
graphite, copper and aluminum, are further treated with a hydromet
allurgical process to produce nickel sulfate, cobalt sulfate, manganese
carbonate, and lithium carbonate [122].
Fig. 14. (1) Direct recycling, (2) OnTo direct recycling process [120].
15
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
3.10. Sumitomo refined using a hydrometallurgical process to recycle the nickel and
cobalt for use as a battery material and the copper for electrolytic
Sumitomo Metal Mining Co. Ltd. (SMM), a company headquartered copper.
in Tokyo, develops a process to recover and recycle Cu and Ni from the
spent lithium-ion batteries by smelting and refining the metals, as shown
3.11. Umicore
in Fig. 16 [128].
The process that SMM developed selectively recovers nickel, cobalt
Umicore, a company headquartered in Brussels Belgium, develops a
and copper as an alloy by using a pyrometallurgical refining process
unique pyro-metallurgical treatment and a hydro-metallurgical process,
independent of the existing process to separate most of the impurities
as shown in Fig. 17 [129].
from the spent lithium-ion batteries. Then the alloy is leached and
The pyro-metallurgical phase converts spent lithium-ion batteries
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J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
Table 5
Current recycling companies in the market.
No Company Process Recycled Battery Energy Status@2020
Pre-treatment Mechanical Pyrometallurgy Hydrometallurgy Element Form Consumption
1 AkkuSer Sorting Size reduction, N/A N/A Co, Cu, Fe Low Pilot Plant
magnetic separation
2 American Sorting, active N/A N/A H2 SO4 , SO2 LiOH, Ni(OH)2 , Low Pilot Plant
Manganese material / Current reductive leach Co(OH)2 , Mn(OH)2 ,
collector separation Al
3 Brunpt Discharge, N/A N/A H2 SO4 , H2 O2 Ni, Co, Mn, Al Medium Commercial
Recycling Dismantling reductive leach, Plant
Solvent extraction
4 Duesenfeld Discharge, Crushing Calcination Undisclosed Li2 CO3 Metal Oxide High Pilot Plant
Disassembly Leaching reagent
5 Li-Cycle Discharge Size reduction N/A H2 SO4 , H2 O2 , NiSO4 , COSO4 , Medium Commercial
Magnetic separation reductive leach MnCO3 , Li2 CO3 Plant
Flotation Solvent extraction
6 Lithion N/A N/A Undisclosed Co, Ni, Mn, Al Medium Pilot Plant
Recycling Leaching reagent
7 OnTo Discharge, Shredding, Brief Heating Hydrothermal Cathode Materials Medium Pilot Plant
Technology Dismantling Supercritical CO2
electrolyte removal
8 Retriev Dismantling Wet crushing, N/A N/A Al, Cu, Li Ni, Co Low Commercial
Technologies screening, flotation Plant
9 Sumitomo Sorting, Dismantling Heat Treatment Smelting Electrowinning Ni, Co, Cu High Commercial
H2 SO4 leach Plant
10 Umicore Dismantling N/A Smelting Leaching, Solvent Ni(OH)2 , LiMeO2 High Commercial
Extraction Plant
Co, Ni refining
into 3 fractions. The first is an alloy fraction that contains valuable 4. Challenges in recycling lithium-ion battery cathode materials
metals like Co, Ni, and Cu designed for the downstream hydro-
metallurgical process. The second is a slag fraction which can be used 4.1. Economy challenges
in the construction industry or further processed for metal recovery. The
third fraction is clean air released from the stack after it has been treated Currently, the main options for the treatment of spent lithium-ion
by the unique gas cleaning process. The alloy fraction is fed to the batteries are landfilling, reuse, and recycling with pyrometallurgical
subsequent hydro-metallurgical process, where the alloy is further process and hydrometallurgical processes or direct recycling. Landfilling
refined to convert the metals into active cathode materials for new may cause pollution as metal like Co, Li, Fe, Mn, and Cu may slowly
lithium-ion batteries. [130] leaching into soil, groundwater, or surface water. Reusing the retired
The following Table 5 compares the available recycling technologies electric vehicle batteries is of great interest as these batteries usually
in the market. holding 70 ~ 80% of residual energy capacities and can support proper
application for long-term [131]. However, to reuse, the retired batteries
need to be tested, recategorized, reconfigured, and fitted with a suitable
battery-management system (BMS). The cost for these exercises could be
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J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
higher than new batteries. Recycling with pyrometallurgical process to be extracted without contacting water to avoid the release of poisonous
recovers the valuable metals like Ni, Co, Mn, and Cu and let go of Li, hydrofluoric acid (HF) by the following reaction:
electrolyte, and anode material. Due to the high energy consumption,
LiPF6 + H2 O→HF + LiOH + PF5 (71)
the economy of pyrometallurgical process depends on the metal prices
especially Co. As current trend of research is to reduce the quantity of Co Furthermore, if electrolyte is not extracted and high heat is gener
in lithium ion battery, the economic challenges is greater down the road ated during battery disassemble due to partial internal short circuits,
[132]. water moisture could turn to steam and react with LiPF6 to generate
Recycling with hydrometallurgical processes are largely price driven highly corrosive HF and phosphorus oxyfluoride (POF3 ) by the following
as technology is not a critical differentiating factor. Despite the choice of reaction:
leaching agent or metal recovery method, the hydrometallurgical pro
LiPF6 + H2 O→POF3 +2HF + LiF (72)
cesses offer the same level of final products. Therefore, the key differ
entiating factor becomes price. Although the cost to process spent In addition, during decomposing, if internal short circuits and ther
cathode material is lower than the cost to process virgin raw material mal runaway happen, it will cause explosion. To avoid thermal runaway,
when fabricating new cathode material, recycling with hydrometallur the safest approach is to have the lowest amount of spent li-ion batteries
gical process is still not economically feasible after including the cost of on site as possible. However, this is contradictory to the requirement to
transportation, dismantle, and disassemble [133]. Furthermore, current secure stable feedstock for processing purposes. The development of safe
cost to product lithium from brine solution is around USD $1800 per storage is further complicated by the various form factors and not
tonne and from hard rock is USD $5000 per tonne [134]. The low cost of knowing if the batteries are damaged or not. As a result, strict protocols
lithium production creates a barrier for recycling lithium from spent must be implemented regarding the pallet/container spacing, total
lithium-ion batteries. Lithium-ion batteries contain only a small fraction storage density and application of appropriate fire suppression systems
of lithium as a percent of weight. The average lithium cost associated within any lithium-ion battery storage space in order to mitigate the risk
with Lithium-ion battery production is less than 3% of the production associated with thermal runaway and fire [138].
cost. As such, although lithium is 100% recyclable through recycling These concerns and requirements increase the upfront capital in
spent cathode material, electrolyte, and LTO anode, recycling lithium vestment, operation cost, and risk for spent lithium-ion battery recy
will not be the focus until the volume of the spent lithium-ion batteries cling. As such, it is important to develop a simple, environmentally
grows exponentially. acceptable, and economic recycling process to recycle the valuable
Another challenge hindering the industry is the long-term nature of metals from lithium-ion batteries.
financial investments required by market participants to develop spe
cialised waste disposal services. As the market is still unexplored, spe 5. Conclusion
cialised processes and dedicated small scale recycling plants closer to
vehicle manufacturers or lithium-ion battery recycling facilities are Unlike oil, where the volatile price fluctuations will lead to increase
likely to be the trend in the near future. These specialised, customized in only the running costs, potential price fluctuations of lithium and
processes increase the required financial investments and render the metals would impact the total purchase price of the Lithium-ion battery
overall profitability of investments unknown, thereby create ambiguity powered electric vehicles. It is believed that the current trend of electric
and uncertainty about making such commitments. vehicle development, demands from consumer electronics, geo-political
relationships, and environmental regulations will crunch the supply and
4.2. Feedstock supply and logistics raise the price of lithium and other important metals. The concentra
tions of lithium and metals inside spent lithium-ion batteries exceed the
The various lithium ion battery chemistries, (i.e. LFP, NCA, NMC, concentrations in natural ores, making spent lithium-ion batteries
LCO, LMO etc.), scatter size and format, complicated distribution similar to upgraded, highly enriched ore and offer an alternative supply
channels challenge recycling plant to collect a stable feedstock. A more source for battery material. Currently, there is no simple route to recy
flexible and universal recycling process is required for the recovery of cling of Lithium-ion batteries. The commercialized recycle process
different types of spent lithium-ion batteries, as well as a process largely based on pyrometallurgy or hydrometallurgy with solvent
including the recycle of electrolyte and anode materials [135]. extraction, both have toxic waste emission.
Furthermore, the spent lithium-ion batteries, especially damaged/ The hydrometallurgy recycle processes reviewed in this paper,
defective batteries can possibly undergo thermal runaway, typically including hydrochloric acid (HCl), nitric acid (HNO3 ), sulfuric acid
resulting from internal shorting, leading to fire or explosion. Govern (H2 SO4 ), oxalate (H2 C2 O2 ), DL-malic acid (C4 H5 O6 ), citric acid
ments around the world are modifying the transportation regulations (C6 H8 O7 ), ascorbic acid (C6 H8 O6 ), phosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) or acid
year to year as they recognize the potential hazardous of the spent ithiobacillus ferrooxidans, still require further investigations. These re
lithium-ion batteries. ported hydrometallurgical processes still need to be refined to determine
Currently in North America, spent lithium-ion battery are classified key parameters in terms of reagent consumption, water balance, by-
as Class 9, miscellaneous hazardous materials, under United States products, discharge, and product yield to establish the overall flow
regulations (40 CFR 173.21(c)) [136]. The transportation of spent sheets and mass balance for process commercialization and economics.
lithium-ion battery needs to be in specification packaging (UN Pack For example, leaching with HCl will likely generate chlorine (Cl2 ) and
aging), which increase the cost, the effort is needed to achieve regula leaching with HNO3 will likely generate NOX . Furthermore, as Ni, Co,
tory compliance, and the complexity of transportation spent lithium-ion and Mn are the current recycle focus, solvent extraction is the main
batteries to the recycling plant. practice for the hydrometallurgical recycling companies in operation.
Solvent extraction process has a bigger environment impact as it does
4.3. Safety and storage not recycle lithium and has wastewater to handle.
The methods to capture and deal with these by-products would have
Lithium-ion batteries when over-charging, over-discharging, or heat huge impacts on the economic of spent lithium-ion battery recycling.
ed might cause chemical such as electrolyte leakages or explosions. [137]. Finding economical and environmentally friendly recycling pro
To ensure the safety of spent lithium-ion battery recycling process, spent cesses is imminent. The following research directions can be proposed to
batteries first need to be deep-discharged to avoid violent reaction from achieve the goals:
the charged electrodes releasing the stored energy when exposed to air.
Secondly, battery electrolyte, lithium hexafluorophosphate (LiPF6 ), needs
18
J.C.-Y. Jung et al. Journal of Energy Storage 35 (2021) 102217
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