Gels

A GEL is a semi-solid that can have

properties ranging from soft and weak to hard and tough. Gels are defined as a
substantially dilute cross-linked system, which exhibits no flow when in the steady-state,
although the liquid phase may still diffuse through this system. A gel has been defined as a
soft, solid or solid-like material consisting of two or more components, one of which is a
liquid, present in substantial quantity.

By weight, gels are mostly liquid, yet they behave like solids because of a three-
dimensional cross-linked network within the liquid. It is the cross linking within the fluid that
gives a gel its structure (hardness) and contributes to the adhesive stick (tack). In this way,
gels are a dispersion of molecules of a liquid within a solid medium.
The word gel was coined by 19th-century Scottish chemist Thomas
Graham by clipping from gelatin.
The process of forming a gel is called gelatin.
Gels may appear transparent or turbid based on the type of gelling agent is used.

GELLING AGENT :- These are substances which ,when added to an aqueous

mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, such as
taste.
Types of gelling agent :-
 Natural polymers :- examples:- Proteins , polysaccharides , natural gums , such as
pectin, agar and alginic acid
 Semi synthetic polymers :- examples:- cellulose derivative, methyl cellulose,
carboxyl methyl cellulose,
 Synthetic polymers: - examples:-such as carbomer 934.
 Carbomers are high-molecular-weight water-soluble polymers of acrylic acid cross-
linked with alkyl ethers of sucrose and/or pentaerythritol .Their viscosity depends on
their polymeric composition .The NF contains monographs for six such polymers,
carbomers 910, 934, 934P, 940, 941, and 1342.They are used as gelling agents at
concentrations of 0.5% to 2.0% in water.

IUPAC definition of gels

Gels :-
Non-fluid colloidal network or polymer network that is expanded throughout its whole volume
by a fluid.
Note 1: A gel has a finite, usually rather small, yield stress.
Note 2: A gel can contain:

1. A covalent polymer network, e.g., a network formed by cross linked polymer chains
or by non-linear polymerization;
2. A polymer network formed through the physical aggregation of polymer chains,
caused by hydrogen bonds, crystallization, helix formation, complex etc., that results
in regions of local order acting as the network junction points. The resulting swollen
network may be termed a "thermo-reversible gel" if the regions of local order are
thermally reversible;
3. A polymer network formed through glassy junction points, e.g., one based on block
copolymers. If the junction points are thermally reversible glassy domains, the
resulting swollen network may also be termed a thermo-reversible gel;
4. Lamellar structures including monophase Sing et al. defines lamellar crystal and
mesophase}, e.g., soap gels, phospholipids, and clays;
5. Particulate disordered structures, e.g., a flocculent precipitate usually consisting of
particles with large geometrical anisotropy, such as in V2O5 gels and globular or
fibrillar protein gels.
Note 3: Corrected from the Gold Book where the definition is via the property identified.

TYPES OF GELS :-
1. On the basis of continuous phase, gels are classified as:-

 HYDROGELS
 ORGANOGELS
 XEROGELS

HYDROGELS :-

Hydrogels is a superabsorbent polymer.

A hydogen is a network of polymer chains that are hydrophilic, sometimes found as

a colloidal gel in which water is the dispersion medium. A three- dimensional solid results
from the hydrophilic polymer chains being held together by cross-links .Because of the
inherent cross-links, the structural integrity of the hydrogel network does not dissolve from
the high concentration of water. Hydrogels are highly absorbent (they can contain over 90%
water) natural or synthetic polymeric networks. Hydrogels also possess a degree of flexibility
very similar to natural tissue, due to their significant water content. As responsive "smart
materials," hydrogels can encapsulate chemical systems which upon stimulation by external
factors such as a change of pH may cause specific compounds such as glucose to be
liberated to the environment, in most cases by a gel-sol transition to the liquid state. Chemo-
mechanical polymers are mostly also hydrogels, which upon stimulation change their
volume and can serve as actuators or sensors . The first appearance of the term 'hydrogel'
in the literature was in 1894.They are highly absorbent natural or synthetic polymeric
networks. They also have a degree of flexibility, due to their significant water content
.These gels exhibit unique physicochemical properties, including the ability to absorb
a considerable mass of aqueous fluid (often 100 times the original mass) whilst still
retaining a three-dimensional structure. Hydrogels exhibit robust mechanical
properties, being resistant to fracture following exposure to stresses frequently up to
1 (KPa) Hydrogels exhibit excellent flexibility.

Uses of hydrogels :-
1. Sustained-release drug delivery systems.
 2. Rectal drug delivery and diagnosis.
3. Hydrogel-coated wells have been used for cell culture.
4. As scaffolds in tissue engineering.
5. As environment sensitivity detector.
6. Contact lenses (silicone hydrogels, polyacrylamides, polymacon).
7. ECG medical electrode8. Dressing of healing

Organogels :

An organogel is a non-crystalline, non-glassy thermo-reversible (thermoplastic) solid

material composed of a liquid organic phase entrapped in a three-dimensionally cross-
linked network. The liquid can be, for example, an organic solvent, mineral oil, or vegetable
oil.
The solubility and particle dimensions of the structuring are important characteristics for
the elastic properties and firmness of the organogel. Often, these systems are based
on self-assembly of the structuring molecules. (An example of formation of an undesired
thermo-reversible network is the occurrence of wax crystallization in petroleum.
Organogels have potential for use in a number of applications, such as
in pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, art conservation, and food.

Xerogels :-
A xerogels is a solid formed from a gel by drying with unhindered shrinkage. Xerogel
usually retain high porosity (15–50%) and enormous surface area (150–900 m 2/g), along
with very small pore size (1–10 nm). When solvent removal occurs under supercritical
conditions, the network does not shrink and a highly porous, low-density material known as
an aerogel is produced.
Heat treatment of a xerogel at elevated temperature produces viscous sintering  (shrinkage
of the xerogel due to a small amount of viscous flow) which results in a denser and more
robust solid, the density and porosity achieved depend on the sintering conditions.

Types of gel:-
2. on the basis of nature of bond involved in 3 dimensional solid networks are:-
1. dispersed solids.
2. Hydrophilic polymers.
• Type 1
• Type 2
1. Dispersed solids:-dispersion solids will undergo interaction between
particles in network may be Vander walls or electrostatics interaction.
Examples: - al-hydroxide gel usp.
2. Hydrophilic polymers: - hydrophilic polymers are dispersed with in
an appropriate aqueous phase.
Type 1:-irreversible system with3 dimensional network by a
covalent bonds between macromolecules.
 Type 2:- reversible system in which interaction
Occurred between polymers by a hydrogen
Bonding.
Temporary distraction of bonds when stress applied thus
formulation enable to flow.

Advantages of Pharmaceutical Gels

 Non-greasy application
 Being easy to formulate with active ingredients
 Adhering well to the application site
 Being washable and non-toxic
 Stability over time
 Ability to target affected area for rapid treatment and relief
 Preventing unwanted side effects through bypassing the digestive system
 Easy spreading 
 Skin retention
 A cooling effect on the skin

Disadvantages of Pharmaceutical Gels

 Some drugs aren’t absorbed easily through the skin
 There’s a possibility of an allergic reaction 
 The effect of gels initiates slower (but lasts longer)
 Additives in the gel may irritate the skin
 Application site must be monitored for reactions
 Effectiveness may be impacted by temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors.

Formulation of gel:-
There are three methods of formulation of gel:
 Fusion method
 Cold method
 Dispersion method

EMULGEL:-
In comparison with the other semisolid formulations, the use of gels seems to be more
advantageous both in cosmetics and pharmaceutical preparations. When gel and emulsion
are used in the combined form, they are referred as Emulgel.

Emulgel is the promising drug delivery system for the delivery of hydrophobic drugs.
Emulgel, an interesting topical drug delivery system, has dual release control system, i.e.,
gel and emulsion. Emulgel have several merits like greaseless, easily spreadable, easily
removable, emollient and transparency. Preparation of emulgel is done by incorporation
method.

Emulgel are commonly used for the delivery of analgesics, anti-inflammatory, anti-fungal,
anti-acne drugs and various cosmetic formulations. Studies on emulgel promises a better
future in delivering more numbers of topical drugs as emulgel by their merits over other
drug delivery systems.

Introduction :-

Fig:-1
Topical drug delivery system is the dosage form which is administered on the skin and
other routes of drug delivery get failed or for skin disorders. The topical drug delivery
system has the advantage of negotiating the first pass metabolism. It also helps to avoid
the risk and inconvenience of I.V route therapy.

 Topical formulations are prepared in different consistency such as solid, semisolid, and
liquid. The topical delivery system is failed in the administration of hydrophobic drug. In
each formulation with the active ingredients many excipients are used. Sometimes more
than one formulation can be combined to enhance the drug delivery; emulgel is such
type of combination. It is the combination of emulsion and gel.
 Emulgel is prepared both in oil- in- water and water- in- oil type emulsion mixed with gel.
Oil- in- water type is used for lipophilic drugs and water- in- oil type is used for
hydrophobic drugs’ delivery.
 The emulgel have many advantages like thyrotrophic, greaseless, easily spreadable,
easily removable, emollient, non-staining, bio-friendly, pleasing appearance, transparent
and cosmetically acceptable, which also have a good skin penetration and long shelf-
life.
 The emulsion and gel preparations have their own properties. But the gels show some
limitations as hydrophobic drug delivery. This limitation is overcoming by emulgel. By
the use of gelling agent classical emulsion can be converted in to emulgel.
Fig.1: Emulgel structure
 Two types of topical delivery products are available. They are external and internal
products.
 As their name indicates, the external products are applied by spreading or spraying, and
the internal products are applied orally, vaginally or rectally.
 The topical preparation can be classified by their consistencies, which are solid
preparation, liquid preparation, semi-solid preparation and miscellaneous preparation.

Classification of topical drug delivery system

Mechanism of drug penetration in skin:-

Some factors will affect the absorption of drug through every route. Some factors like skin thickness,
skin pH, hydration, inflammation, partition coefficient, molecular weight and other factors affect

topical route. The topical delivery system has many advantages and also disadvantages.
The main advantage is avoidance of first pass metabolism and gastrointestinal incompatibility.
Nearly all topical preparations are applied on the skin.
They penetrate through the skin and give the action in right site. The skin is the largest sense organ
in our body, which consist of approximately 2 m2 of surface area and pH of skin is 4.0 to 5.6.
The skin contains four layers; non-viable epidermis, viable epidermis, viable dermis and
subcutaneous connective tissue.
Non- viable epidermis [stratum corneum]: It is the outer layer of skin, which is 10-20 cell thick.
The cells are 34- 44 μm long, 25- 36 μm wide, 0.5- 0.20 μm thick with surface area of 750- 1200
μm.
Viable epidermis: It lies between stratum corneum and dermis with 10 - 50 μm thickness. The
tonofibrils help for joining the cells.

Dermis: It is seen under the viable epidermis, and it is a structural fibrin. Thickness of the dermis
ranges from 2000 – 3000 μm and contains loose connective tissue.
Subcutaneous connective tissue: It is considered as a true connective tissue with loose texture,
fibrous connective tissue, blood and lymph vessels.

The topical drug absorption is done by three mechanisms; which are transcellular, intercellular, and
follicular. The drugs penetrate the stratum corneum by passive diffusion. For that the rate limiting
steps are diffusion and dissolution.

Topical drugs are used for three functions; the epidermal formulation, endodermal formulation
and transdermal formulation.

Transcellular mechanism is the shortest and direct route.

Intercellular mechanism is the common route.

The follicular mechanism is through hair follicles and sweat glands.

The drug penetration is enhanced by chemical (surfactant, water, solvents, etc.), physical (stripping,
iontophoresis, ultrasound, etc.), biochemical (peptides and metabolic inhibitors) and super
saturation enhancement.
Advantages :-
 Incorporation of hydrophobic drugs.
 Better loading capacity.
 Better stability.
 Controlled release.
 No intensive sanitation.
 Avoiding first pass metabolism.
 Avoiding gastrointestinal incompatibility.
 More selective for a specific site.
 Improved patient compliance.
 Convenient and easy to apply.

Disadvantages :-
 Skin irritation on contact dermatitis.
 The possibility of allergenic reactions.
 The poor permeability of some drugs through the skin.
 Drugs of large particle size are not easy to absorb through the skin.
 The occurrence of the bubble during formulation of emulgel.

FORMULATION OF EMULGEL: -
For the preparation of emulgel some constituents are used including drug, which are:

 Vehicle should follow the ideal characters given in the Pharmacopoeias

 Aqueous material the aqueous phases used is water, alcohol, etc.
 Oils are used for preparation of emulsion. Mineral oils and paraffin are used
either alone or in combination.
 Emulsifiers used for preparation of emulsion. Some examples are span 80,
stearic acid, sodium stearate.
 Gelling agents are used for prepare gels, which enhance consistency of
preparation.
 Penetration enhancers help to absorb drug to the skin.
 PH adjusting agent.
 Ingredient used in the formulation of gel

Ingredient F1 F2 F3 F4
Mefenanic 1 1 1 1
acid
Carbapol 940 1 1 1 1
Liquid paraffin 7.5 7.5 7.5 7.5
Tween 20 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
Span 20 1 1 1 1
Propylene 5 5 5 5
glycol
Ethanol 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
Methyl 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
parabene
Ethyl 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
parabene
Clove oil - - 8 10
Mentha oil 4 6 - -
Water q.s q.s q.s q.s

Diseases:-

Candida infection of the skin

Different types of bacteria and fungi live and grow on your skin. Most of them
aren’t dangerous. Your body requires the majority of them to carry out normal
functions. However, some can cause infections when they begin to multiply
uncontrollably.
The Candida fungus is one of these potentially harmful organisms. When an
overgrowth of Candida develops on the skin, an infection can occur. This condition is
known as candidiasis of the skin, or cutaneous candidiasis.
Candida infection of the skin is a yeast infection of the skin. The medical name of the
condition is cutaneous candidiasis.
Candida infections often occur in areas exposed to moisture for long periods of time
Causes
The body normally hosts a variety of germs, including bacteria and fungi. Some of
these are useful to the body, some produce no harm or benefit, and some can cause
harmful infections.

 Some fungal infections are caused by fungi that often live on the hair, nails, and
outer skin layers. They include yeast-like fungi such as candida. Sometimes, the
yeast penetrates beneath the surface of the skin and cause infection.

 In cutaneous candidiasis, the skin is infected with Candida fungi. This type of
infection is fairly common. It can involve almost any skin on the body, but most
often it occurs in warm, moist, creased areas such as the armpits and groin.
The fungus that most often causes cutaneous candidiasis is Candida albicans.
  Candida is the most common cause of diaper rash in infants. The fungi take
advantage of the warm, moist conditions inside the diaper. Candida infection is
also particularly common in people with diabetes and in those who are obese.

 Antibiotics, steroid therapy, and chemotherapy increase the risk of cutaneous

candidiasis. Candida can also cause infections of the nails, edges of the nails,
and corners of the mouth.

 Oral thrush, a form of Candida infection of the moist lining of the mouth, usually
occurs when people take antibiotics. It may also be a sign of an HIV infection or
other weakened immune system disorders when it occurs in adults. Individuals
with Candida infections are not usually contagious, though in some settings
people with weakened immune systems may catch the infection.

 Candida is also the most frequent cause of vaginal yeast infections. These
infections are common and often occur with antibiotic use.
 Tight clothing.


 The use of corticosteroids or other medications that affect the immune system.
 A weakened immune system as a result of diabetes, pregnancy, or another
medical condition.

SIGNS & Symptoms:-

The main symptom of candidiasis of the skin is a rash. The rash often causes redness
and intense itching. In some cases, the infection can cause the skin to become
cracked and sore. Blisters and pustules may also occur.
The rash can affect various parts the body, but it’s most likely to develop in the folds of
the skin. This includes areas in the armpits, in the groin, between the fingers, and
under the breasts. Candida can also cause infections in the nails, edges of the nails,
and corners of the mouth.

Other conditions that may resemble candidiasis of the skin include:

 Ringworm
 Hives
 Herpes
 Diabetes-related skin conditions
 Contact dermatitis
 Seborrheic dermatitis
 Eczema
 Psoriasis

Mouth
Infection in the mouth is characterized by white discolorations in the tongue, around
the mouth, and throat. Irritation may also occur, causing discomfort when swallowing.
Thrush is commonly seen in infants. It is not considered abnormal in infants unless it
lasts longer than a few weeks.
Genitals
Infection of the vagina or vulva may cause severe itching, burning, soreness, irritation,
and a whitish or whitish-gray cottage cheese-like discharge. Symptoms of infection of
the male genitalia (balanitis thrush) include red skin around the head of the penis,
swelling, irritation, itchiness and soreness of the head of the penis, thick, lumpy
discharge under the foreskin, unpleasant odour, difficulty retracting the foreskin
(phimosis), and pain when passing urine or during sex.
Skin
Signs and symptoms of candidiasis in the skin include itching, irritation, and chafing or
broken skin.

Invasive infection

Common symptoms of gastrointestinal candidiasis in

healthy individuals are anal itching, belching, bloating, indigestion, nausea, diarrhea,
gas, intestinal cramps, vomiting, and gastric ulcers. Perianal candidiasis can cause anal
itching; the lesion can be red, or ulcerative in appearance, and it is not considered to
be a sexually transmissible disease. Abnormal proliferation of the Candida in the gut may
lead to dysbiosis. While it is not yet clear, this alteration may be the source of
symptoms generally described as the irritable bowel syndrome, and other gastrointestinal
diseases.

Types of candiasis infection:-

Candidiasis may be divided into these types:
 Mucosal candidiasis
o Oral candidiasis (thrush, oropharyngeal candidiasis)
 Pseudomembranous candidiasis.
 Erythematous candidiasis.
 Hyperplastic candidiasis.
 Denture-related stomatitis— Candida organisms are involved in about 90%
of cases.
 Angular cheilitis — Candida species are responsible for about 20% of
cases, mixed infection of C. albicans and Staphylococcus aureus for about
60% of cases.
 Median rhomboid glossitis.
o Candidal vulvovaginitis (vaginal yeast infection).

o Candidal banalities — infection of the glans penis, almost exclusively occurring

in uncircumcised males.
o Esophageal candidiasis (candidal esophagitis).
o Gastrointestinal candidiasis.
o Respiratory candidiasis.
 Cutaneous candidiasis
o Candidial folliculitis
o Candidal intertrigo
o Candidal paronychia
o Perianal candidiasis, may present as pruritus anis
o Candidid
o Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis
o Congenital cutaneous candidiasis Diaper candidiasis: an infection of a
child's diaper area
o Erosion interdigitalis blastomycetica
o Candidial onychomycosis (nail infection) caused by Candida
 Systemic candidiasis
o Candidemia, a form of fungemia which may lead to sepsis
o Invasive candidiasis (disseminated candidiasis) — organ infection
by Candida
o Chronic systemic candidiasis (hepatosplenic candidiasis) — sometimes
arises during recovery from neutropenia
 Antibiotic candidiasis (iatrogenic candidiasis)

PREVENTION:-
A diet that supports the immune system and is not high in simple carbohydrates
contributes to a healthy balance of the oral and intestinal flora. While yeast infections
are associated with diabetes, the level of blood sugar control may not affect the risk.

Wearing cotton underwear may help to reduce the risk of developing skin and vaginal
yeast infections, along with not wearing wet clothes for long periods of time. 

For women who experience recurrent yeast infections, there is limited evidence that
oral or intravaginal probiotics help to prevent future infections. This includes either as
pills or as yogurt.
Oral hygiene can help prevent oral candidiasis when people have a weakened immune
system. For people undergoing cancer treatment, chlorhexidine mouthwash can
prevent or reduce thrush.
 People who use inhaled corticosteroids can reduce the risk of developing oral
candidiasis by rinsing the mouth with water or mouthwash after using the inhaler.

People with dentures should also disinfect their dentures regularly to prevent oral
candidiasis.

TREATMENT:-
Candidiasis is treated with antifungal medications; these
include clotrimazole, nystatin, fluconazole, voriconazole, amphotericin B,
and echinocandins. Intravenous fluconazole or an intravenous echinocandin such
as caspofungin are commonly used to treat immunocompromised or critically ill
individuals.
The 2016 revision of the clinical practice guideline for the management of candidiasis
lists a large number of specific treatment regimens for Candida infections that involve
different Candida species, forms of antifungal drug resistance, immune statuses, and
infection localization and severity. Gastrointestinal candidiasis in immunocompetent
individuals is treated with 100–200 mg fluconazole per day for 2–3 weeks.

21 Formulation considerations for pharmaceutical gels

There are several formulation considerations open to the pharmaceutical scientist
concerning the formulation of pharmaceutical gels. These include:(1) The choice of
vehicle(2)The inclusion of buffers(3)Preservatives(4) Antioxidants(5)
Flavors/sweetening agents; and(6) Colors
22 Manufacture of GelsGenerally the water soluble excipients are firstly dissolved in
vehicle, in a mixing vessel by using mechanical stirrer.To prevent aggregation, add
hydrophilic polymer to the stirred mixture slowly.Stirring is continued until the
dissolution of the polymer has occurred.The excessive stirring results in entrapment of
air. The mixing rate must not be extreme or a mixing vessel may be used to which a
vacuum may be pulled, to prevent the entrapment of air.
23 CREAMS
24 creamsPharmaceutical creams are semisolid preparations containing one or more
medicinal agents dissolved or dispersed in either a W/O emulsion or an O/W emulsion
or in another type of water-washable base.Creams are more fluid compared to other
semisolid dosage forms, such as ointments and pastes, since the bases used in
creams are generally o/w emulsions.Creams have a whitish with creamy
appearance.The use of creams as drug delivery systems is associated with good
patient acceptance
25 Uses Act as a barrier to protect the skin
Could be a physical barrier or a chemical barrierAid in water retention of
moistureCleansing and emollientAct as vehicle for drug substances
26 Medicated creams
27 Oil-in-water emulsions are most useful as water washable bases, whereas water-in-
oil emulsions are emollient and cleansing.o/w creamw/o creamContains o/w
emulsifying

agentContain lipophyllic emulsifying agento/w creams are elegant in appearance and

more accepted cosmeticallyUse as emollient or as cleansing agent
28 Cold creamA semisolid white w/o emulsion prepared with cetyl ester wax, white
wax, mineral oil, sodium borate, and purified water.Sodium borate combines with free
fatty acids present in the waxes to form sodium salts of fatty acids (soaps) that act as
emulsifiers.These are produced by emulsifying agents of natural origin, e.g. beeswax,
wool alcohols or wool fat.They are useful as softening and cleansing agents ex. a cold
cream is used to remove makeup.The name, cold cream, refers to the cooling
sensation associated with the slow evaporation of the dispersed aqueous phase.Other
common cold cream components include mineral oil, jojoba oil, lanolin, glycerin,
alcohol, borax, and beeswax in addition to preservatives such as methylparaben and
propylparaben..
29 creamsCreams find primary application in topical skin products and in products
used rectally and vaginally.Patients often prefer a w/o cream to an ointment because
the cream spreads more readily, is less greasy, and the evaporating water soothes the
inflamed tissue.Pharmaceutical manufacturers frequently manufacture topical
preparations of a drug in both cream and ointment bases to satisfy the preference of
the patient and physician.
30 Vanishing creaman o/w emulsion that contains a large percentage of water as well
as a humectant (e.g., sorbitol, glycerin, or propylene glycol) that retards surface
evaporation of water.These are produced by synthetic waxes, e.g. macrogol and
cetomacrogolThey are useful as water-washable basesExamples : Shaving creams ,
Hand creams , Foundation creamsUpon rubbing this cream on the skin, the
external/continuous aqueous phase evaporates, leading to increased concentration of
a water-soluble drug in the oily film that adheres to the skin. This increase in the
concentration gradient of the drug across the stratum corneum promotes percutaneous
absorption
31 creamsAn o/w cream is non-occlusive because it does not deposit a continuous film
of water-impervious liquid.However, such a cream can deposit lipids and other
moisturizers on and into the stratum corneum and so restore the tissue's hydration
ability, i.e. the preparation has emollient properties.
32 Manufacturing process
Preparation usually involves separating the formula components into two portions: lipid
and aqueous.The lipid portion contains all water-insoluble components and the
aqueous portion the water-soluble components.Both phases are heated to a
temperature above the melting point of the highest melting component.The phases
then are mixed, and the mixture is stirred until reaching ambient temperature or the
mixture has congealed. Mixinggenerally is continued during the cooling process to
promote uniformity.
33 High-shear homogenization may be employed to reduce particle or droplet size and
improve the physical stability of the resultant dosage form.The active pharmaceutical
ingredients (APIs) can be added to the phase in which it is soluble at the beginning of
the process, orit can be added after the cream is prepared by a suitable dispersion
process such as levigation or milling with a roller mill.Creams usually require the
addition of a preservative(s) unless they are compounded immediately prior to use and
intended to be consumed in a relatively short period of time.
34 Pastes
35

 Pastes are ointments containing as much as 50% powder dispersed in a fatty base
and therefore are stiffer.They are less greasy than ointments because the powder
absorbs some of the fluid hydrocarbons.Pastes lay down a thick, unbroken, relatively
impermeable film.
36 

PastesPastes can be prepared in the same manner as ointments, by direct mixing or

the use of heat to soften the base prior to incorporating the solids, which have been
comminuted and sieved.when a levigating agent is to be used to render the powdered
component smooth, a portion of the base is often used rather than a liquid, which
would soften the paste.
37 PastesBecause of the stiffness of pastes, they remain in place after application and
are effectively employed to absorb serous secretions.Because of their stiffness and
impenetrability, pastes are not suited for application to hairy parts of the body.
38 MISCELLANEOUS SEMISOLID PREPARATIONS
PLASTERSPlasters are solid or semisolid adhesive masses spread on a backing of
paper, fabric, or plastic.The adhesive material is a rubber base or a synthetic
resin.Plasters are applied to the skin to provide prolonged contact at the
site.Unmedicated plasters provide protection or mechanical support at the site of
application.
39 PLASTERSMedicated plasters provide effects at the site of application.They may
be cut to size to conform to the surface to be covered.Among the few plasters in use
today is salicylic acid plaster used on the toes for the removal of corns.The horny
layers of skin are removed by the keratolytic action of salicylic acid.The concentration
of salicylic acid used in commercial corn plasters ranges from 10% to 40%.
40 GLYCEROGELATINSGlycerogelatins are plastic masses containing gelatin (15%),
glycerin (40%), water (35%), and an added medicinal substance (10%), such as zinc
oxide.They are prepared by first softening the gelatin in the water for about 10 minutes,
heating on a steam bath until the gelatin is dissolved, adding the medicinal substance
mixed with the glycerin, and allowing the mixture to cool with stirring until congealed.
41 GLYCEROGELATINSGlycerogelatins are applied to the skin for the long term.They
are melted before application, cooled to slightly above body temperature, and applied
to the affected area with a fine brush.Following application, the glycerogelatin hardens,
is usually covered with a bandage, and is allowed to remain in place for weeks.The
most recent official glycerogelatin was zinc gelatin, used in the treatment of varicose
ulcers.