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Physiological and cognitive demands of orienteering: a systematic review

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DOI: 10.1007/s11332-020-00650-6

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Sport Sciences for Health
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-020-00650-6

REVIEW

Physiological and cognitive demands of orienteering: a systematic

review
Mayara Maciel Batista1   · Ana Carolina Paludo2   · Jolnes Neumann Gula2   · Paulo Henrique Pauli1   ·
Marcus Peikriszwili Tartaruga1,2 

Received: 1 January 2020 / Accepted: 25 April 2020

© Springer-Verlag Italia S.r.l., part of Springer Nature 2020

Abstract
Purpose  This review aimed to investigate the predominant physiological and cognitive demands underpinning performance
in orienteering.
Methods  A search was performed on the following databases: PubMed, Science Direct, LILACS, Scielo, SCOPUS, SPORT-
Discus and the Scientific Journal of Orienteering between October 2018 and January 2020. The following keywords were
used: anaerobic threshold, athletic performance, cognition, cognitive, decision-making, endurance, exercise, orienteering,
orienteer, sport, visual attention, and visual search. Studies that investigated the physiological and/or cognitive demands in
orienteering race or simulated competition, in elite or non-elite athletes, published in English or Portuguese were eligible.
Studies that did not evaluate any of the variables of interest, case studies, reviews and books were excluded. The methodo-
logical quality of the studies was assessed using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool.
Results  469 studies were identified by the search, in which 11 met the eligibility criteria. In general, studies presented moder-
ate to high quality. The main findings were: the aerobic component is the main physiological demand required for orienteer-
ing performance, interchange with moments of anaerobic demanding. To cognitive demand, the task constraint, attention,
anticipation and simplification were the critical performance parameters. More experienced athletes presented a cognitive
advantage and develop cognitive strategies such as anticipation and simplification of navigation compared to less experienced.
Conclusion  The successful performance in orienteering depends on high physical conditioning and high aerobic demand,
interchanging with moments of anaerobic demand. Furthermore, cognitive capacity and expertise can be definitive factors
for performance in orienteering, resulting in a cognitive advantage over less experienced orienteers.

Keywords  Aerobic capacity · Athletic performance · Cognition · Navigation · Orienteering

Introduction quickly as possible [4], navigating through specific control

Considered an endurance sport that differs from other run-
ning sports in its cognitive element [1, 2], orienteering is a
relatively young sport that started in Sweden around 1918
as a purpose of utilizing the natural environment and irregu-
lar surfaces [3] to encourage people to be more active [1].
The main goal of orienteering is to travel a defined route as
* Mayara Maciel Batista
mayamb2@hotmail.com
1
Department of Physical Education, Federal University
of Paraná, Campus Centro Politécnico–Jardim Botânico,
Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil
2
Department of Physical Education, Midwest State University,
Guarapuava, Paraná, Brazil
points using a map and a compass [1]. The relative intensity
of the activity is determined mainly by the athlete’s navi-
gational ability [1]. Due to the different terrain, vegetation,
and obstacles that emerge during the race, when complex
navigation is required, running speed is very important for
performance [5, 6].
Among the physiological demands required by orienteer-
ing, the aerobic component stands out due to the need for
a continuous high running velocity [7] that is comparable
to the physiological stress of marathon running [1]. Lenz
[8] verified differences in heart rate (HR) and lactate (LA)
responses between running on a treadmill and running in
forests. Orienteers tend to present higher levels of maxi-
mum oxygen consumption ­(VO2max) compared to endur-
ance athletes and a better running economy compared to

13
Vol.:(0123456789)

track runners [9]. Jensen et al. [9] showed values of 217 ± 12
and 212 ± 14 ml ­kg−1 ­km−1 in the orienteers and the track
runners, respectively. However, the anaerobic component
should also be considered [10] due to the alternation of ter-
rain during the race [11], especially during races across dif-
ferent areas, terrains, and ascents. Moreover, the agility to
avoid holes, trees, and other obstacles along the way makes
this component a determining factor [3, 11].
Besides the aforementioned physiological demands, ori-
enteering presents high cognitive demand due to the nav-
igation component [1]. The capacity of map reading and
comprehension, planning, and decision-making are funda-
mental during the race as a result of the decisions taken
by the orienteers during the route [2, 12]. The planning by
which the orienteers are required during the race depends
largely on visuospatial skills, such as spatial perception and
visuospatial attention. Besides, these skills are involved in
the process of retaining and manipulating mental represen-
tations, and related to working memory, the cognitive sys-
tem involved during the performance of complex cognitive
activities [13, 14].
The visuospatial attention plays a fundamental role in the
processing of visual information and in the perception of
stimuli in motion that appear in different areas of the visual
field [15]. The visual attention on the map, environment, and
run, simultaneously, under a time restriction and the stress
of the competition, may result in a highly complex process
that involves all the perceptions mentioned above, attention,
decision-making, and emotional control [5, 16]. As the cog-
nitive demand increases, the longer the time required for
decision-making due to the limitations of visual attention
processing [17]. Studies have verified that elite orienteers
present more substantial efficiency in cognitive-perceptual
abilities than non-elite orienteers [17, 18] and experienced
orienteers more than less experienced [5].
Although orienteering incorporates physical, physiolog-
ical, and cognitive components, the demand and interac-
tion of each remain unclear in the literature. Information
regarding the demand for each component would help to
develop training programs for performance improvement.
Furthermore, the scientific production in the orienteering
area is old; in this way, the present study aims to contribute
to the improvement of training and visibility of this sport.
Therefore, the present systematic review aims to verify the
existing literature regarding the physical, physiological, and
cognitive demands required in Orienteering. This informa-
tion would help coaches and athletes to maximize their
training planning leading to improve sports performance in
competitions.
13
Sport Sciences for Health
Methods
The search for articles was conducted by two independent
reviewers (MMB and JNG). In the event of disagreement
with regards to the inclusion or exclusion of studies, a third
reviewer was consulted. The general databases that are typi-
cally used in systematic reviews were screened: MEDLINE
(accessed by PubMed), Science Direct, Lilacs, Scielo, SCO-
PUS, SPORTDiscus and the Scientific Journal of orienteer-
ing (International Orienteering Federation). The following
descriptors were standardized by the Medical Subject Head-
ings (MeSH): “sport,” “aerobic exercise,” “anaerobic thresh-
old,” “athletic performance,”, “endurance”, “cognition,” or
"cognitive”, “decision-making”, “visual attention” or “visual
search” besides the terms “orienteering” and “orienteer.”
A total of 469 studies were found. The inclusion criteria
were as follows: studies that investigated the physiological
(aerobic and anaerobic) and/or cognitive demands in orien-
teering race or simulated orienteering competition, studies
with elite or non-elite orienteer athletes, cross-sectional or
longitudinal studies, published in English or Portuguese. The
exclusion criteria: manuscript published as notes, case stud-
ies, reviews and books. Studies that did not meet the inclu-
sion criteria were excluded. The steps of the search, inclu-
sion, and exclusion process are outlined in Fig. 1. Searches
were performed between October 2018 and January 2020.
The methodological quality of the studies included in
this study was assessed using the criteria established by the
Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool—MMAT [19]. MMAT is a
valid and efficient tool that allows the use in several study
designs, since it evaluates five different methodological cat-
egories: qualitative, quantitative and mixed studies [20]. The
interpretation of methodological quality by the authors con-
sisted of a thorough analysis of the studies and an attribution
of 20% for each of the five criteria established by the tool,
totaling 100% in case of compliance with the five criteria
(high quality).
Results
In total, 11 articles were included in this systematic review.
The methodological quality of these studies evaluated
by the MMAT [19] showed that only one study [21] met
100% of the criteria, indicating high quality; three studies
[22–24] presented quality equal to 80%, and seven studies
[18, 25–30] presented quality equal to 60%. Through MMAT
and interpretation of results, studies have shown predomi-
nantly moderate to high quality.
Sport Sciences for Health
Fig. 1  Flowchart of articles
selection process
Sample characteristics
Orienteer physical characteristics, such as weight and
height, ranged from 59 to 73 kg [25, 26, 28–30] and 169
to 187 cm [25, 26, 28–30]. The sample size ranged from
10 to 62 participants in each study, with 70 women [21–23,
28–30] (28.4%) and 176 men [18, 21, 23–30] (71.6%),
aged 15–62 years [18, 21–30] totaling 246 orienteers. Most
studies were performed in Europe, covering the period
1985–2008.
Physiological demand
The most analyzed physiological variable among the studies
was the HR [22–26, 28, 30], with values ranging from 150
to 200 bpm during the orienteering race. These findings,
together with other variables investigated, such as V ­ O2max
during an orienteering race or simulated orienteering com-
petition (60 to 72 ml ­kg−1 min−1) [25, 26, 28–30], and LA (3
to 11 mmol l) [26–30] (Table 1), demonstrate a highly devel-
oped aerobic system by orienteers, with great involvement
of the anaerobic capacity during some periods of running
or simulated orienteering competition. The average running
speed was 6–12 km h [25, 26, 28, 29] and the maximum
speed was 20 km h [30].
Cognitive demand
Three studies investigated cognitive demands in orienteering
[18, 21, 24] (Table 2). Based on these studies, it was found
that perceptual-cognitive abilities are the key to better per-
formance in the modality. Also, cognitive expertise may lead
directly to better choices and strategies during a race when
compared to the performance of less experienced orienteers.
Discussion
The main aim of the current study was to systematically
review the literature regarding the physical, physiological,
and cognitive demands in orienteers athletes and identify
possible indicators of performance in this modality. The
most of the studies presented a higher score or equal to
60% of methodological quality established criteria by
MMAT [19]. However, even with the increase in orienteer-
ing practitioners in recent years, few studies have evalu-
ated physiological requirements and mainly cognitive ele-
ments. Also, the methodological biases were observed in
the studies, the results need to be analyzed with caution.
The scientific publication in the orienteering domain is
outdated, and most of the studies were published by the
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 Sport Sciences for Health

Table 1  Orienteer physical characteristics and physiological demands during an orienteering race or simulated orienteering competition
Study Participants Weight (kg) Height (cm) HRmax (bpm) VO2max (ml kg.min) La Running Speed
(mmol.L) (km/h)

Guzmán 39 M Spanish ori- – – – – – –

et al. [18] enteers
22 elite
(28.8 ± 5.5 years)
17 nonelite
(27.5 ± 12.5 years)
Eccles et al. 17 British orienteers – – – – – –
[21] (9 M e 8 F)
30.1 years
Bird et al. 18F British orien- – – HRmean – – –
[22] teers NG: 170 ± 11
8 National group CG: 179 ± 9
(NG) 47 ± 14 years
10 Club group (CG)
40 ± 13 years
Bird et al. 16 British orienteers – – HRmean three – – –
[23] (10 M e 6 F) types of
15–62 years course:
FR: 160 bpm
SR: 158 bpm
HP: 150 bpm
Almeida 10 M Portuguese – – – – – –
[24] orienteers
26–35 years
Larsson 10 M Swedish 72.9 ± 5.5 187 ± 0.08 HR%: 92 ± 3 60 ± 7 – 10.8 ± 1.1
et al. [25] orienteers running
21.9 ± 3.7 years economy:
335 ± 34
Smekal et al. 11 M Australian 72.4 ± 3.9 183.6 ± 6.8 TT 189 ± 8 TT 67.9 ± 3.8 TT 8.2 ± 1.8 TT 18.6 ± 0.9
[26] orienteers OTC 172 ± 11 OTC 56.4 ± 4.5 OTC OTC 5.72 min/
23.5 ± 3.9 years 5.2 ± 1.5 km ± 0.23 = 10.5 km/h
Dresel [27] 24 M German – – – – La in five –
orienteers elite and stages:
junior-elite FO: 3.57 to
18–34 years 4.6
RO: 4.41 to
6.72
A: 7.28
RT: 4.41
F: 2
Moser et al. 25 Norwegian orien- M 69.8 ± 6.1 M 181.7 ± 5 HRAT M: 71.7 ± 8.4 LAAT SpeedAT
[28] teers (16 M e 9 F) F 59.2 ± 2.9 F 171.8 ± 3.8 M:175 ± 4.5 VOATmáx % M: 3.6 ± 0.7 M: 11.07 ± 0.8
M 23.8 ± 3 years F: 175 ± 4.5 of max.: F: 3.6 ± 0.7 F: 9.7 ± 0.9
F 23.4 ± 3.5 years 84.3 ± 9.9
F: 63.2 ± 8.3
VOATmáx % of
max.: 79.8 ± 9
Gjerset et al. 14 Norwegian orien- M 69.4 ± 3.3 M 183.8 ± 4.8 M:178 ± 7.8 M: ­VOATmáx M: 3.4 ± 0.9 M: 8.1
[29] teers (9 M e 5 F) F 55.4 ± 1.72 F 169.4 ± 4.1 F: 180 ± 7.2 % of max.: F: 4.0 ± 0.6 F: 6
M 26.8 ± 4.4 years 84.9 ± 5.1
F 24.4 ± 1.5 years F: ­VOATmáx % of
max.: 84 ± 1.8

13
Sport Sciences for Health

Table 1  (continued)
Study Participants Weight (kg) Height (cm) HRmax (bpm) VO2max (ml kg.min) La Running Speed
(mmol.L) (km/h)
Chalopin 62 French orienteers C: M: C:M: M-C: 198 ± 7; M-C: 64 ± 5.2; M-C: Speedmax
[30] (38 M e 24 F) 61.3 ± 5.9; 173.9 ± 7.2; J: 193.1 ± 5.7; J: 66.3 ± 5.4; 9.4 ± 2.8; M-C: 17 ± 1.5; J:
Class: C, J, S J: J: S:189.8 ± 8.2; S: 71.7 ± 5.7; J: 18.9 ± 1.4; S:
C: M: 15.6 ± 0.6; 67.2 ± 6.1; 176.7 ± 6.9; F-C: F-C: 53 ± 3.5; J: 11.4 ± 1.7; 20.7 ± 1.3;
J: 18.3 ± 1; S: S: S: 200.4 ± 3.2; J: 51.9 ± 5.8; S: S: F-C: 15.3 ± 1.1; J:
23.7 ± 3.5 years 66.4 ± 5.6 178.5 ± 4.2 192.8 ± 7.5; S: 57 ± 3.8; 10.2 ± 3.3; 16.5 ± 0.07; S:
C: F: 15.3 ± 1; C: F: C:F: 186.6 ± 4.6 F-C: 17.2 ± 1.3;
J: 17 ± 0.4; S: 50.9 ± .5; 163.5 ± 2; J: 8.5 ± 3.3;
23.2 ± 3.3 years J: 165 ± 5.7; S: J:
58.3 ± 5.8; 168.2 ± 5.7 11.1 ± 3.1;
S: S:
57.1 ± 6.7 9.9 ± 2.4;

Mean ± SD, M male, F female, C cadets, J juniors, S seniors, HR heart rate, VO2max maximum oxygen consumption, LA blood lactate concentra-
tion, FO fine orienteering, RO rough orienteering, A ascent, RT rough terrain, F finish, FR fast run, SL slow run HP highly physical, C cadets, J
juniors, S seniors, AT anaerobic threshold, TT treadmill test, OTC Simulated orienteering competition

Table 2  Summary of cognitive demands during an orienteering race or simulated orienteering competition

Study Cognitive demand Results

Guzmán et al. [18] Cognitive-perceptual abilities Cognitive-perceptual abilities

1. Memory: one minute to look at a map, and the 17-point
position is highlighted in it. After 15 min, asked to draw
the points on an unmarked map (0–17 points)
2. Basic orienteering techniques (success measured as 0: nor
correct or 1: correct and time measured in seconds)
– Map reading
– Symbol knowledge
– Map-terrain-map identification
3. Spatial organization: to complete a map puzzle shortest
possible time (measured in minutes)
Eccles et al. [21] Interview evaluation
1. Task constraint
2. Anticipation and simplification
Almeida [24] 1. Attention and perception: Toulouse Piéron Test—TP,
Thurstone’s Identical Shapes—F2 and Test GEFT
2. Memory and intelligence: MAVO (auditory memory),
MENVIS (visual memory), Progressive Matrices of
Raven—PM3X
3. Attentional and interpersonal style: Test of attentional
and Interpersonal Styles TAIS
1. E: 8.73 ± 3.06
NE: 8.12 ± 2.93
2. Sucess; time
– Map reading: E: 0.88 ± 0.16; 12.7 ± 2.99; NE: 0.79 ± 0.26;
20.7 ± 6.1
– Symbol knowledge: E: 0.70 ± 0.13; 16.9 ± 4.93; NE:
0.68 ± 0.13; 20.5 ± 4.53
– Map-terrain-map identification: E: 0.82 ± 0.12; 13.2 ± 3.57;
NE: 0.71 ± 0.17; 18.7 ± 6.99
3. E: 3.20 ± 1.30
NE: 3.31 ± 1.42
1. To manage attention in three sources of information—map,
environment, and travel
2. By anticipating the environment from the map, and by
simplifying the information required to navigate, expert
orienteers can circumvent processing limitations
1. High capacity for work realization and the right concentra-
tion
2. Orienteers have a better visual than auditive memory
3. Orienteers can effectively integrate a number of ideas and
feelings when necessary; good on narrow attention when
the environment requires it; high ability to exert control over
behavior

Mean ± SD, E elite, N nonelite

Scientific Journal of Orienteering by the International Ori-
enteering Federation between 1985 and 1999.
Analyzing previous studies, it appears that to perform
successfully, the orienteers need a high level of map-read-
ing skills, race ability, and physical fitness; however, there
is a necessity for studies focusing on investigating physi-
ological and cognitive demands in these athletes as well as
investigate how such attributes contribute in performance
enhancement.
The present literature search showed that there was con-
cordance across previous studies [1, 9, 10] in whereupon the
orienteering race is characterized by discontinuous loads.
This variation in workload refers to the part of the energy
coming from aerobic metabolism during continuous run-
ning, alternating with moments of higher anaerobic work,
sprints, and run up hills, for example. During the course,
orienteers show large alternation in running speed as they
encounter different types of terrain, vegetation, and obstacles

13

during the course. In situations in which complex navigation
is required, the running speed decreases [5].
An orienteering race requires a high level of physical fit-
ness to obtain an excellent performance since, during the
course, there is a constant alternation between aerobic and
anaerobic metabolisms depending on the type of terrain
and vegetation encountered and the navigation capacity
of the orienteer. In a previous study, Barrell and Cooper
[31] found similarities in physical characteristics, such as
weight, height, and somatotype as well as physical features
between a group of British orienteers, and a middle- and
long-distance runners.
The reviewed studies corroborate with these findings, in
which orienteering athletes presented high values of maxi-
mum oxygen consumption [25, 28, 29], and similar anthro-
pometric characteristics [25, 26, 28–30] between the ori-
enteering categories. Chalopin’s study [30] observed high
values of maximum oxygen consumption and speed in young
orienteers aged between 15 and 23 years old. To understand
the relationship between age and orienteering speed, Bird
et al. [3] found minor effects among these variables in Brit-
ish orienteers aged between 21 and 40 years during four
competitions. Considering that orienteering is a highly
inclusive sport, it is common to see young people and veter-
ans in the same competitive environment. Furthermore, early
onset in sports has been associated with improved cognitive
ability related to the acquisition of a mental representation
of space [32]. Therefore, the variability of age and categories
observed in orienteers (15 and 62 years old) is justifiable.
Among the physiological parameters, aerobic capacity
is considered by the majority of the studies to be the most
important factor to determining endurance performance, in
­ O2max [33, 34]. The studies
which the limit is reached at the V
reviewed show that the energy requirements during the test
come predominantly from aerobic metabolism [23, 25–27,
30], corroborating with findings from classical studies [1,
33, 35] that describe the aerobic component as a predictor of
performance in orienteering. Moreover, elite orienteers can
reach values close to 85–90% of V ­ O2max and 90% of H ­ Rmax
[33]. The findings of this review showed similar values
for oxygen consumption and HR (79–91% of V ­ O2max, and
a mean of 172–200 bpm) in elite and sub-elite orienteers.
Higher values of maximum oxygen consumption represent
the complexity of competition due to the combination of a
variety of terrain, vegetation, and other obstacles that result
in a high metabolic cost for the orienteers.
Therefore, it is possible to affirm that orienteering
imposes significant demands on the cardiovascular system.
Also when considering values from the previous studies
[1, 23] that presented mean values of HR close to 167 bpm
during the orienteering, the general physiological require-
ment is similar to a marathon, in which the athletes may
reach ­HRmax 171 bpm. In agreement with the findings of the
13
Sport Sciences for Health
present review, Peck [6] verified a greater HR variability in
orienteering race conditions (185 ± 4.3 bpm) compared to
road running (180 ± 1.0 bpm).
Another fundamental aspect of the intensity of the race is
the terrain, which will determine the intensity that the athlete
needs to impose between the points of control [5]. According
to the revised studies, orienteers presented a mean speed of
6–12 km h [25, 26, 28–30], reaching a top speed of 20 km h
[30]. In general, the literature points out that elite orienteer-
ing requires to maintain high speeds across various types
of terrain and surfaces [11]. However, in areas of difficult
navigation, the speed is reduced. More experienced orien-
teers slow down to gait rhythm or perform micropauses to
maintain attention on the map when necessary to avoid large
errors [6]. These assignments are characteristic of excel-
lent orienteers and are usually performed between control
points [6].
The running economy, characterized as the relation-
ship between oxygen consumption and running speed,
was analyzed in one study [25]. In this specific study, it
was confirmed that Swedish orienteers presented values
of 335 ± 34 ml ­kg−1  ­min−1 in a 4.3 km course alternating
between ascents, swamp, deforestation, woods, and descents.
In a previous study, Jensen et al. [9] verified running econ-
omy values around 305 ± 20 ml k­ g−1  ­min−1 in Danish ori-
enteers on a 1.9-km course with light and heavy terrain vari-
ation (obstacles and steep climbs) in submaximal velocity
defined as 90% of the mean velocity. Both studies point to a
high running economy for orienteers, although it is impaired
by approximately 40% in typical heavy-orienteering terrain
compared to roads and tracks [9]. A high running economy
for orienteers may occur due to the characteristics inherent
to these athletes, specific training in heavy terrain orien-
teering or both. Nevertheless, it suggests specific physical
training to improve running economy as fundamental to the
orienteering athlete.
In terms of anaerobic capacity, the findings of the pre-
sent review found that the orienteering occurs at or slightly
above the anaerobic threshold [28, 29]. Moreover, there
is a relationship between a high anaerobic threshold and
minor errors, good time and better running speed during the
orienteering, leading, therefore, the best predictors of per-
formance [25]. Indeed, orienteering is different from other
endurance sports due to the modulation of anaerobic com-
ponents that happen at various stages of the course, rough
direction, ascents, and sprints [36].
The anaerobic component is also fundamental to orien-
teering performance. Recently, Hébert-Losier et al. [37]
investigated muscle power through jumps in elite orienteers
and found strong correlations with sprint speed and peak
force, and moderate correlations with running economy
and ­VO2peak. On the other hand, Redvka et al. [38] recently
observed values below average in the power of brazilian
Sport Sciences for Health
orienteers; the performance in anaerobic power tests in
orienteers may be related to their distribution and relative
composition of their muscle fibers [1].
Given that the orienteering requires fast changes in direc-
tion and jumps over obstacles, the athlete’s ability to store
and release elastic energy effectively is critical, also their
ability to obtain adequate levels of strength, muscular power,
and endurance [37]. The different surfaces found during the
test require the orienteers to have greater muscle strength
in the lower limbs than other long-distance runners due to
the biomechanical adaptation necessary to overcome the
irregularities of the environment along the course. In a study
involving orienteers, Çinar-Medeni et al. [39] verified that
the flexors and extensors strength of the knees presented
moderate-to-high correlations with V ­ O2max and anaerobic
power, pointing to muscle strength as an essential variable
in the improvement of orienteering performance.
According to this perspective, to achieve successful
performance in orienteering, orienteers should focus their
preparation primarily on aerobic training, followed by anaer-
obic exercise with the emphasis on strength and power. This
training proposal is supported by Laukkanen et al. [40] and
more recently Tønnessen et al. [41]. The authors evaluated
the relative amount of training loads in 30 female orien-
teers (top of the national ranking) [40] and eight Norwegian
orienteers (gold medal in the orienteering world champi-
onship) [41] and verified a distribution in hours composed
by 64% of aerobic endurance training, followed by 11%
aerobic–anaerobic training, 3% anaerobic training, and
10% strength training in Laukkanen et al. study [40], and a
similar distribution of 75%, 7%, 11%, and 7%, on aerobic,
aerobic–anaerobic training, anaerobic and strength training,
respectively, in Tønnessen et al. study [41]. These studies
point out an evolution in the evaluation and prescription of
orienteering training, since the increase in training volume
of the anaerobic component is a fundamental demand for
orienteering performance.
Furthermore, it is known that orienteering requires also a
high degree of cognitive skills of athletes due to the require-
ment for permanent contact with the map, the anticipation
methods and decision about the route choice, orienteering
techniques, and even the speed of the race [42]. The current
review found that memory and perception [24], expertise,
task restraint, attention, anticipation, simplification [21],
basic orienteering techniques, and map-terrain-map [18]
identification are perceptual-cognitive skills relevant to ori-
enteers in the course of navigation. In this sense, a set of vis-
ual, proprioceptive, vestibular and motor information, allows
spatial navigation and aims to extract spatial information
and draw a representation of the environment [43]. There-
fore, a succession of complex cognitive processes associated
with spatial navigation can be the key factor for successful
orienteering. Two reference systems for navigation stand
out, namely: egocentric, which defines spatial locations and
is centered on the observer (own movements and internal
tracks, such as directions and distances from the point of
view) [44]; and allocentric or cognitive mapping, which
refers to suggestions or environmental elements (objects),
regardless of the observer’s position [45].
It should be noted that this visuospatial and propriocep-
tive information does not act independently, but in an inte-
grated way, enabling spatial navigation. Indeed, the main
findings of the present review highlight this affirmation. In
an interesting case study, Macquet et al. [46] discuss the
memory capacity of orienteers and describe how, during the
course, orienteers are able not only to interpret the current
performance, but to reflect on the difficulties encountered
during the race so as not to impair subsequent performance.
It is suggested that this feature is an adaptation to long-term
memory gained through extensive practice and experience
in a specific sports domain [46, 47].
Long-term experience is a fundamental and vital com-
ponent of the acquisition of other cognitive abilities. In
comparison to the less experienced, experienced orienteers
perceive and respond to the information involved during the
course differently. As such, they can circumvent the limita-
tions in information processing imposed by basic human
visual and neural systems [5]. Therefore, experienced ori-
enteers may have achieved a cognitive advantage.
Managing attention in various media is a complex activ-
ity. Therefore, more experienced orienteers develop funda-
mental cognitive abilities and strategies for the continuity
of the orienteering race, such as task restriction, attention,
anticipation, and simplification in navigation [5]. The cog-
nitive ability on task constraint is fundamental during ori-
enteering because the athlete must manage the attention in
three different media: the map, the environment, and the
trip [48]. In this way, the orienteer must be able to select
relevant information from the map and compare it with his
or her knowledge of the environment while traveling; so
frequent changes in the focus of close attention to the map
and ample for the environment are necessary [49]. Gal-Or
et al. [50], reported that orienteers showed no significant
difference in the use of cognitive-behavioral strategies dur-
ing competition compared to orienteers of different levels of
qualification. However, more qualified orienteers performed
better than less qualified orienteers. All orienteering athletes
consistently demonstrated confidence in their ability to focus
attention on relevant information without being distracted
by various external stimuli [50]. This demonstrates that the
ability to absorb and process information relevant to the cur-
rent task is extremely important to successful orienteering.
To turn the navigation easy and simple comprehension,
orienteers need to focus only on the most useful and obvi-
ous terrain resources for navigation and ignore less useful
information [51]. In Eccles’s study [21], elite orienteers have
13

reported that they simplify the navigation as much as pos-
sible to time during the orienteering race, they look at the
map and do not slow down the race pace. Anticipation is
also a skill observed in orienteers with a higher level of
experience, since expert athletes can anticipate and solve
navigation problems before reaching the points and, thus,
do not need to stop to make decisions [21].
It is important to emphasize that the better performance
of the experienced compared to the less experienced orien-
teer is the long period of specific preparation, which gener-
ally involves a great time of involvement and dedication to
orienteer practice [46]. In this sense, the experience added
to the orienteer practice is a determinant for the acquisi-
tion of the necessary cognitive skills during orienteering;
whereas, the adaptations resulting from the experience and
the practice will allow the development of efficient informa-
tion processing [48]. Also, specific map-reading techniques
are considered predictive variables of performance [18].
Based on the current findings, it is possible to infer that
the performance in orienteering involves the interaction of
physical and cognitive components. More than 30 years ago,
Kolb et al. [52] developed a model that estimates the relative
these components make to performance during orienteer-
ing. The results point to 54% for the physical components
and 46% for orienteering components [53]. In general, it is
necessary to consider that a successful orienteer must have
hours of physical and cognitive training. In an orienteering
race, a series of cognitive processes are required during the
route planning, aiming at the best possible decision-making.
Therefore, knowing that sports performance in orienteering
depends on the interaction of these processes, performed
in the shortest possible time, orienteers must meet refined
cognitive strategies, which will be improved after extensive
practice, supported by excellent physical fitness.
The lack of research on this topic does not allow us to
accurately state the relative quantities of performance pre-
dictors in orienteering but presents relevant information
that may help coaches and athletes to better understand the
aerobic–anaerobic component. Cognitive abilities are of
paramount importance and can be acquired through train-
ing, however, methodologically (how and what to train) can
be a topic for future research, aiming to provide specific
information on how to conduct cognitive training for Ori-
enteering athletes.
Conclusion
Orienteering is characterized as the long-distance perfor-
mance with variable physiological stress and micro-breaks.
It is, in fact, a complex and fascinating sport that involves
high physical and cognitive demand in which athletes need
13
Sport Sciences for Health
to perform simultaneous tasks such as reading a map and
moving between points.
Through this systematic review, it can be concluded that
successful performance in orienteering depends on high
physical conditioning, high aerobic demand, which alter-
nates with moments of demanding anaerobic effort (jumps,
climbs, sprints). Beside physiological demands, cognitive
capacity and expertise are definitive factors for success in
orienteering competitions. While running, the athlete needs
to read the map and choose the appropriate route, all with
high levels of attention. Athletes who have more experience
in orienteering acquire a cognitive advantage over the less
experienced and develop cognitive strategies such as antici-
pation and simplification of navigation that allow them to
circumvent limitations in attention.
Acknowledgement  The Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal
de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES).
Author contribution  Each author made significant individual contri-
butions to this manuscript. MMB (0000-0002-6542-941X)*: study
design, drafting, review and final approval of the manuscript version;
ACP (0000-0001-8771-4580)*: study design, drafting, review and final
approval of the manuscript version; JNG (0000-0002-9965-6661)*:
drafting and final approval of the manuscript version; PHP (0000-0001-
7975-5526)*: drafting and final approval of the manuscript version;
MPT (0000-0003-1173-2816)*: study design, review and final approval
of the manuscript version. *ORCID (Open Researcher and Contribu-
tor ID).
Funding  This study was financed in part by Coordenação de Aper-
feiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior—Brasil (CAPES)—Finance
Code 001.
Compliance with ethical standards 
Conflict of interest  The authors declare that they have no conflict of
interest.
Ethical approval  Not applicable.
Informed consent  Not applicable.
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