Waveguide Microwave RF Feeder Tutorial

RF waveguides are a form of RF feeder or transmission line used for microwave applications.

The basics of waveguide technology are easy to comprehend, although the mathematics involved
can become complicated when wave theory and the like are used.

Waveguides, as the name indicates are a guide for electromagnetic waves and this way they
enable them to feed power from one location to another.

Waveguides effectively confirm and direct a wave within a given boundary. Within many electronic
circles, waveguides are most commonly used for microwave RF signals, the same principles can
be used for many forms of wave from sound to light.

RF & microwave waveguide basics

Waveguides are used in a variety of applications to carry radio frequency energy from one pint to
another. In their broadest terms they can be described as a system of material that is designed to
confine electromagnetic waves in a direction defined by its physical boundaries. This definition
gives a very broad view of their properties, but it indicates that waveguide theory can be applied
in a number of areas and in a variety of different ways.

Electromagnetic waves propagating in open space travel out in all directions and can be thought
of as spherical waves travelling out from a central source. As a result the power intensity decreases
as the distance increases - it is proportional to the power of the source divided by the square of
the distance. The waveguide operates by confining the electromagnetic wave so that it does not
spread out and losses resulting from this effect are eliminated.

Typically a waveguide is thought if as a transmission line comprising a hollow conducting tube,

which may be rectangular or circular within which electromagnetic waves are propagated. Unlike
coaxial cable, there is no centre conductor within the waveguide. Signals propagate within the
confines of the metallic walls that act as boundaries. The signal is confined by total internal
reflection from the walls of the waveguide.

Rectangular waveguide

Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency, known as the cut-off
frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. This is obviously an important
parameter, and one of the most basic specifications for its operation.
Types of RF waveguide
There is a number of different types of RF waveguide that can be used, bought and designed.

Typically they are thought of as being rectangular in cross section as this is the most common form
of waveguide. However other types and approaches may be used.

 Rectangular waveguide: This is the most commonly used form of waveguide and has a
rectangular cross section.

 Circular waveguide: This is less common than rectangular waveguide. They have many
similarities in their basic approach, although signals often use a different mode of
propagation.

 Circuit board stripline: This form of waveguide is used on printed circuit boards as a
transmission line for microwave signals. It typically consists of a line of a given thickness
above an earth plane. Its thickness defines the impedance.

In addition to these basic forms, there are also flexible waveguides. These are most widely seen
in the rectangular format. Flexible waveguide is often used to connect to antennas, etc that may
not be fixed or may be moveable.

Waveguides are more expensive than other forms of RF feeder. However they offer a number of
advantages that mean they are the only feasible solution in many applications. Although
waveguide is not nearly as widely used as other forms of feeder such as coax, it still forms and
essential method of transferring RF power, especially are microwave frequencies.

Waveguide theory
In order to be able to use waveguides to their best effect, it is necessary to have a basic
understanding of waveguide theory, including propagation and the propagation constant. While
waveguide theory can become particularly involved, it is not the aim here to delve too deeply into
the waveguide theory mathematics.

Waveguide theory is based around electromagnetic wave theory because the waves propagating
along waveguides are electromagnetic waves that have been constrained, typically within a hollow
metal tube. The constraining boundaries of the metal tube prevent the electromagnetic wave from
spreading out and thereby reducing in intensity according to the inverse square law. As a result,
losses are very low.

Waveguide theory of propagation

According to waveguide theory there are a number of different types of electromagnetic wave that
can propagate within the waveguide. These different types of waves correspond to the different
elements within an electromagnetic wave.

 TE waves: Transverse electric waves, also sometimes called H waves, are characterised
by the fact that the electric vector (E) is always perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.
  TM waves: Transverse magnetic waves, also called E waves are characterised by the
fact that the magnetic vector (H vector) is always perpendicular to the direction of
propagation.

 TEM waves: The Transverse electromagnetic wave is cannot be propagated within a

waveguide, but is included for completeness. It is the mode that is commonly used within
coaxial and open wire feeders. The TEM wave is characterised by the fact that both the
electric vector (E vector) and the magnetic vector (H vector) are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

Text about waveguide theory often refers to the TE and TM waves with integers after them: TEm,n.
The numerals M and N are always integers that can take on separate values from 0 or 1 to infinity.
These indicate the wave modes within the waveguide.

Only a limited number of different m, n modes can be propagated along a waveguide dependent
upon the waveguide dimensions and format.

For each mode there is a definite lower frequency limit. This is known as the cut-off frequency.
Below this frequency no signals can propagate along the waveguide. As a result the waveguide
can be seen as a high pass filter.

It is possible for many modes to propagate along a waveguide. The number of possible modes for
a given size of waveguide increases with the frequency. It is also worth noting that there is only
one possible mode, called the dominant mode for the lowest frequency that can be transmitted. It
is the dominant mode in the waveguide that is normally used.

It should be remembered, that even though waveguide theory is expressed in terms of fields and
waves, the wall of the waveguide conducts current. For many calculations it is assumed to be a
perfect conductor. In reality this is not the case, and some losses are introduced as a result.

Rules of thumb
There are a number of rules of thumb and common points that may be used when dealing with
waveguide theory.

 For rectangular waveguides, the TE10 mode of propagation is the lowest mode that is
supported.

 For rectangular waveguides, the width, i.e. the widest internal dimension of the cross
section, determines the lower cut-off frequency and is equal to 1/2 wavelength of the lower
cut-off frequency.

 For rectangular waveguides, the TE01 mode occurs when the height equals 1/2 wavelength
of the cut-off frequency.

 For rectangular waveguides, the TE20, occurs when the width equals one wavelength of the
lower cut-off frequency.

Waveguide propagation constant

A quantity known as the propagation constant is denoted by the Greek letter gamma, γ. The
waveguide propagation constant defines the phase and amplitude of each component of the wave
as it propagates along the waveguide. The factor for each component of the wave can be
expressed by:

exp[j ω t - γm,n z]

Where:
z=direction of propagation
ω = angular frequency, i.e. 2 π x frequency

It can be seen that if propagation constant, γm,n is real, the phase of each component is constant,
and in this case the amplitude decreases exponentially as z increases. In this case no significant
propagation takes place and the frequency used for the calculation is below the waveguide cut-off
frequency.

It is actually found in this case that a small degree of propagation does occur, but as the levels of
attenuation are very high, the signal only travels for a very small distance. As the results are very
predictable, a short length of waveguide used below its cut-off frequency can be used as an
attenuation with known attenuation.

The alternative case occurs when the propagation constant, γm,n is imaginary. Here it is found that
the amplitude of each component remains constant, but the phase varies with the distance z. This
means that propagation occurs within the waveguide.

The value of γm,n is contains purely imaginary when there is a totally lossless system. As in reality
some loss always occurs, the propagation constant, γm,n will contain both real and imaginary parts,
αm,n and βm,n respectively.

Accordingly it will be found that:

γm,n = αm,n + j βm,n

This waveguide theory and the waveguide equations are true for any waveguide regardless of
whether they are rectangular or circular.

Waveguide impedance
Waveguide impedance can be important in a number of applications. In the same way that the
characteristic impedance is important for other forms of feeder, the same can be true in a number
of instances with waveguides. Techniques including the use of a waveguide iris, or a waveguide
post can be used to provide the required level of waveguide impedance matching.

The waveguide impedance needs to be known on a number of instances to ensure the optimum
power transfer and the minimum level of reflected power is obtained.

Waveguide impedance definition

There are several ways to define the waveguide impedance - it is not as straightforward as that of
a more traditional coaxial feeder.

 To determine the waveguide impedance by using the voltage to be the potential difference
between the top and bottom walls in the middle of the waveguide, and then take the value
of current to be the integrated value across the top wall. As expected the ratio gives the
impedance.

 Measure the waveguide impedance is to utilising the voltage and then use the power flow
within the waveguide.

 The waveguide impedance can be determined by taking the ratio of the electric field to the
magnetic field at the centre of the waveguide.

All the methods tend to give results that are within a factor of two of the free space impedance of
377 ohms.

Waveguide impedance and reflection coefficient

In just the same that more common coaxial and other feeder systems need to have loads closely
matched to the source impedance to obtain the maximum power transfer, the same is true with
waveguides. If the waveguide impedance is matched to the source or load, then a greater level of
power transfer will occur.

When waveguides are not accurately matched to their loads, standing waves result, and not all the
power is transferred.

To overcome the mismatch it is necessary to use impedance matching techniques.

Waveguide impedance matching

In order to ensure the optimum waveguide impedance matching is obtained, small devices are
placed into the waveguide close to the point where the matching is needed to change its
characteristics.

There are a number of ways in which waveguide impedance matching can be achieved:

 Use of gradual changes in dimensions of waveguide.

 Use of a waveguide iris

 Use of a waveguide post or screw

Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages and can be used in different
circumstances.

The use of elements including a waveguide iris or a waveguide post or screw has an effect which
is manifest at some distance from the obstacle in the guide since the fields in the vicinity of the
waveguide iris or screw are disturbed.

Waveguide impedance matching using gradual changes

It is found that abrupt changes in a waveguide will give rise to a discontinuity that will create
standing waves. However gradual changes in impedance do not cause this.

This approach is used with horn antennas - these are funnel shaped antennas that provide the
waveguide impedance match between the waveguide itself and free space by gradually expanding
the waveguide dimensions.

There are basically three types of waveguide horn that may be used:

 E plane

 H plane

 Pyramid

The different types of gradual matching using a waveguide horn can be seen in the diagram below:

E, H plane and pyramid Horn antennas used for waveguide matching

Impedance matching using a waveguide iris

Irises are effectively obstructions within the waveguide that provide a capacitive or inductive
element within the waveguide to provide the impedance matching.

The obstruction or waveguide iris is located in either the transverse plane of the magnetic or electric
field. A waveguide iris places a shunt capacitance or inductance across the waveguide and it is
directly proportional to the size of the waveguide iris.

An inductive waveguide iris is placed within the magnetic field, and a capacitive waveguide iris is
placed within the electric field. These can be susceptible to breakdown under high power
conditions - particularly the electric plane irises as they concentrate the electric field. Accordingly
the use of a waveguide iris or screw / post can limit the power handling capacity.
 Impedance matching using a waveguide iris
The waveguide iris may either be on only one side of the waveguide, or there may be a waveguide
iris on both sides to balance the system. A single waveguide iris is often referred to as an
asymmetric waveguide iris or diaphragm and one where there are two, one either side is known
as a symmetrical waveguide iris.

Symmetrical and asymmetrical waveguide iris implementations

A combination of both E and H plane waveguide irises can be used to provide both inductive and
capacitive reactance. This forms a tuned circuit. At resonance, the iris acts as a high impedance
shunt. Above or below resonance, the iris acts as a capacitive or inductive reactance.

Impedance matching using a waveguide post or screw

In addition to using a waveguide iris, post or screw can also be used to give a similar effect and
thereby provide waveguide impedance matching.

The waveguide post or screw is made from a conductive material. To make the post or screw
inductive, it should extend through the waveguide completely making contact with both top and
bottom walls. For a capacitive reactance the post or screw should only extend part of the way
through.

When a screw is used, the level can be varied to adjust the waveguide to the right conditions. The
cutoff frequency is the frequency below which the waveguide will not operate.
Accordingly it is essential that any signals required to pass through the waveguide do not extend
close to or below the cutoff frequency.
The waveguide cutoff frequency is therefore one of the major specifications associated with any
waveguide product.

Waveguide cut off frequency basics

Waveguides will only carry or propagate signals above a certain frequency, known as the cut-off
frequency. Below this the waveguide is not able to carry the signals. The cut-off frequency of the
waveguide depends upon its dimensions. In view of the mechanical constraints this means that
waveguides are only used for microwave frequencies. Although it is theoretically possible to build
waveguides for lower frequencies the size would not make them viable to contain within normal
dimensions and their cost would be prohibitive.

As a very rough guide to the dimensions required for a waveguide, the width of a waveguide needs
to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the signal being carried. As a result,
there is a number of standard sizes used for waveguides as detailed in another page of this tutorial.
Also other forms of waveguide may be specifically designed to operate on a given band of
frequencie

What is waveguide cutoff frequency? - the concept

Although the exact mechanics for the cutoff frequency of a waveguide vary according to whether it
is rectangular, circular, etc, a good visualisation can be gained from the example of a rectangular
waveguide. This is also the most widely used form.

Signals can progress along a waveguide using a number of modes. However the dominant mode is
the one that has the lowest cutoff frequency. For a rectangular waveguide, this is the TE10 mode.

The TE means transverse electric and indicates that the electric field is transverse to the direction of
propagation.

TE modes for a rectangular waveguide

The diagram shows the electric field across the cross section of the waveguide. The lowest frequency
that can be propagated by a mode equates to that were the wave can "fit into" the waveguide.
As seen by the diagram, it is possible for a number of modes to be active and this can cause
significant problems and issues. All the modes propagate in slightly different ways and therefore if a
number of modes are active, signal issues occur.

It is therefore best to select the waveguide dimensions so that, for a given input signal, only the
energy of the dominant mode can be transmitted by the waveguide. For example: for a given
frequency, the width of a rectangular guide may be too large: this would cause the TE20 mode to
propagate.

As a result, for low aspect ratio rectangular waveguides the TE20 mode is the next higher order
mode and it is harmonically related to the cutoff frequency of the TE10 mode. This relationship and
attenuation and propagation characteristics that determine the normal operating frequency range
of rectangular waveguide.

Rectangular waveguide cutoff frequency

Although waveguides can support many modes of transmission, the one that is used, virtually
exclusively is the TE10 mode. If this assumption is made, then the calculation for the lower cutoff
point becomes very simple:

Where:
fc = rectangular waveguide cutoff frequency in Hz
c = speed of light within the waveguide in metres per second
a = the large internal dimension of the waveguide in metres

It is worth noting that the cutoff frequency is independent of the other dimension of the waveguide.
This is because the major dimension governs the lowest frequency at which the waveguide can
propagate a signal.

Circular waveguide cutoff frequency

the equation for a circular waveguide is a little more complicated (but not a lot).

Where:
fc = circular waveguide cutoff frequency in Hz
c = speed of light within the waveguide in metres per second
a = the internal radius for the circular waveguide in metres
Although it is possible to provide more generic waveguide cutoff frequency formulae, these ones are
simple, easy to use and accommodate, by far the majority of calculations needed.

Flexible waveguide
Flexible waveguide is often used to connect two elements using rigid waveguide systems together,
especially when they cannot be accurately located or positioned.. For example, flexible waveguide
is often used to connect antenna systems, especially when they may not be fixed, to the base
transmitter receiver system.

Flexible waveguide may not have the same level of performance that is provided by rigid
waveguide, but the mechanical advantages offered normally well outweigh the electrical
performance limitations.

Flexible waveguide is also used to allow for mechanical movement. Often flexible waveguide may
be used to allow for thermal expansion and contraction, or it may be used to allow for mechanical
vibration.

Flexible waveguide construction

Flexible waveguide is available in a variety of different forms. Each type has its own advantages
and disadvantages;

 The flexible waveguide may be made from flat ribbons would on a rectangular mandrel.
The edges are then convoluted or folded in and interlocked. The convoluted flexible
waveguide may be left unsoldered or it may be soldered - the flexibility of the waveguide
results from the flexing of each arm and not the relative sliding of the ribbons. However if
it is soldered it does loose some flexibility and it is not able to be twisted to any degree.

 A form of corrugated flexible waveguide may be constructed. It is manufactured by shaping

thin wall rectangular tubing. It may also be made by bending and soldering corrugated
sheet metal.

 It is also possible to construct a bellows-style flexible waveguide using a flexible alloy.

 Another common form of flexible waveguide construction is to use a helically wound

system. This form of flexible waveguide is manufactured by a process of helical winding a
silver coated, brass strip to form a continuous, uniform rectangular tube.

In general flexible waveguide is jacketed in Neoprene, Silicone, Viton, Devcon or other similar
materials to provide additional protection from mechanical damage while still allowing flexibility.

Limitations of flexible waveguide

As might be expected the performance of flexible waveguide is not as good as rigid waveguide.
Some reductions in performance may be noticed in the following areas:

 Increased loss: The walls of the flexible waveguide will not be able to provide the same
level of conductivity as that provided by solid / rigid waveguide. As the waveguide
 attenuation and loss will depend upon the conductivity, the performance of the flexible
waveguide will inferior to that of the rigid style.

 Possible introduction of passive intermodulation products: As some types of flexible

waveguide have jointed sections, these can allow any corrosion to form non-linear joints
that can give rise to low levels of passive intermodulation products. These can be of great
importance on systems such as full duplex satcom or other systems when the diplexer is
situated close to the antenna and one feeder is used. Any passive intermodulation products
generated by the transmitter could fall within the receive band and impair the receive
performance.

 Minimum bend radius: There will be a minimum bend radius specification for the flexible
waveguide. This should not be exceeded otherwise there permanent damage to the
waveguide.

Flexible waveguide is an essential item for many waveguide installations. The flexible waveguide
provides the required degree of flexibility to enable a degree of mechanical movement either for
vibration, allow for other movement, or just to take up the mechanical tolerances which might
otherwise not be possible. However care must be taken when using flexible waveguide as losses
are higher, it can be expensive and it may have higher levels of passive intermodulation distortion.
As a result, most lengths of flexible waveguide are relatively short.

Waveguide flanges, couplers and

transitions
A signal can be entered into the waveguide in a number of ways. The most straightforward is to
use what is known as a launcher. This is basically a small probe which penetrates a small distance
into the centre of the waveguide itself as shown. Often this probe may be the centre conductor of
the coaxial cable connected to the waveguide. The probe is orientated so that it is parallel to the
lines of the electric field which is to be set up in the waveguide. An alternative method is to have a
loop which is connected to the wall of the waveguide. This encompasses the magnetic field lines
and sets up the electromagnetic wave in this way. However for most applications it is more
convenient to use the open circuit probe. These launchers can be used for transmitting signals into
the waveguide as well as receiving them from the waveguide.

Waveguide launcher
WG and WR waveguide dimensions and sizes
- RF waveguide dimensions, waveguide sizes, cut off frequencies and other
waveguide data for WR waveguide and WG waveguide systems.

RF waveguides used for the transmission of radio frequency energy come in a variety of sizes and
designations such as WG waveguide and WR waveguide are seen in the specifications and
literature.Waveguide sizes and waveguide dimensions determine the properties of the RF
waveguide, including parameters such as the waveguide cut off frequency and many other
properties.

Waveguide sizes are standardised to enable waveguides from different manufacturers to be used
together. In this way the industry is able to benefit from the ability to use waveguide with known
properties, etc.

Waveguide size standards

There are a number of different standards for waveguides. These tend tob e country specific. Some
of the major standards include:

 WR waveguide system: EIA designation (Standard US) using a WR designator to

indicate the size

 WG waveguide system: RCSC Designation (Standard UK)

Both systems are in widespread use and enable the waveguide sizes to be matched and known>.

WG waveguide sizes and dimensions

The figures given below are for rigid rectangular waveguides, as these are the most common form
of waveguide used.

WG FREQ WAVEGUIDE THEORETICAL MATERIAL BAND WAVEGUIDE

DESIGN RANGE* CUT OFF * ATTN DB / 30M DIMENSIONS
(MM)

WG00 0.32 - 0.256 0.051 - 0.031 Alum B 584 x 292

0.49

WG0 0.35 - 0.281 0.054 - 0.034 Alum B,C 533 x 267

0.53

WG1 0.41 - 0.328 0.056 - 0.038 Alum B,C 457 x 229

0.625

WG2 0.49 - 0.393 0.069 - 0.050 Alum C 381 x 191

0.75
 WG FREQ WAVEGUIDE THEORETICAL MATERIAL BAND WAVEGUIDE
DESIGN RANGE* CUT OFF * ATTN DB / 30M DIMENSIONS
(MM)

WG3 0.64 - 0.513 0.128 - 0.075 Alum C 292 x 146

0.96

WG4 0.75 - 0.605 0.137 - 0.095 Alum C,D 248 x 124

1.12

WG5 0.96 - 0.766 0.201 - 0.136 Alum D 196 x 98

1.45

WG6 1.12 - 0.908 0.317 - 0.212 Brass D 165 x 83

1.70

WG6 1.12 - 0.908 0.269 - 0.178 Alum D 165 x 83

1.70

WG7 1.45 - 1.157 D,E 131 x 65

2.20

WG8 1.70 - 1.372 0.588 - 0.385 Brass E 109 x 55

2.60

WG8 1.70 - 1.372 0.501 - 0.330 Alum E 109 x 55

2.60

WG9A 2.20 - 1.736 0.877 - 0.572 Brass E,F 86 x 43

3.30

WG9A 2.20 - 1.736 0.751 - 0.492 Alum E,F 86 x 43

3.30

WG10 2.60 - 2.078 1.102 - 0.752 Brass E,F 72 x 34

3.95

WG10 2.60 - 2.078 0.940 - 0.641 Alum E,F 72 x 34

3.95

WG11A 3.30 - 2.577 F,G 59 x 29

4.90

WG12 3.95 x 3.152 2.08 - 1.44 Brass F,G 48 x 22

5.85

WG12 3.95 x 3.152 1.77 - 1.12 Alum F,G 48 x 22

5.85

WG13 4.90 - 3.711 G,H 40 x 20

7.05

WG14 5.85 - 4.301 2.87 - 2.30 Brass H 35 x 16

8.20

WG14 5.85 - 4.301 2.45 - 1.94 Alum H 35 x 16

8.20
 WG FREQ WAVEGUIDE THEORETICAL MATERIAL BAND WAVEGUIDE
DESIGN RANGE* CUT OFF * ATTN DB / 30M DIMENSIONS
(MM)

WG15 7.05 - 5.26 4.12 - 3.21 Brass I 29 x 13

10.0

WG15 7.05 - 5.26 3.50 - 2.74 Alum I 29 x 13

10.0

WG waveguide dimensions, sizes and waveguide cut-off frequencies

for rigid rectangular RF waveguides

* waveguide cut off frequency in GHz and for TE10 mode

Alum = Aluminium

US WR waveguide sizes
The WR waveguide designation system is used within the USA and is also widely used in many
other areas around the globe. Like the WG waveguide sizes, the WR waveguide designations start
with the letters WR.

WR WG STANDARD FREQ RANGE INSIDE DIMENSIONS

DESIGNATION EQUIVALENT GHZ (INCHES)

WR340 WG9A 2.20 - 3.30 3.400 x 1.700

WR284 WG10 2.60 - 3.95 2.840 x 1.340

WR229 WG11A 3.30 - 4.90 2.290 x 1.150

WR187 WG12 3.95 - 5.85 1.872 x 0.872

WR159 WG13 4.90 - 7.05 1.590 x 0.795

WR137 WG14 5.85 - 8.20 1.372 x 0.622

WR112 WG15 7.05 - 10.00 1.122 x 0.497

WR90 WG16 8.2 - 12.4 0.900 x 0.400

WR75 WG17 10.0 - 15.0 0.750 x 0.375

WR62 WG18 12.4 - 18.0 0.622 x 0.311

WR51 WG19 15.0 - 22.0 0.510 x 0.255

WR42 WG20 18.0 - 26.5 0.420 x 0.170

WR28 WG22 26.5 - 40.0 0.280 x 0.140

WR22 WG23 33 - 50 0.224 x 0.112

 WR WG STANDARD FREQ RANGE INSIDE DIMENSIONS
DESIGNATION EQUIVALENT GHZ (INCHES)

WR19 WG24 40 - 60 0.188 x 0.094

WR15 WG25 50 - 75 0.148 x 0.074

WR12 WG26 60 - 90 0.122 x 0.061

WR waveguide dimensions, sizes and waveguide cut-off frequencies

for rigid rectangular RF waveguides

It can be seen from the table that the WR number is taken from the internal measurement in mils
of the wider side of the waveguide.

The waveguide dimensions are of great importance as they determine the operating range of the
waveguide. The standard waveguide sizes also enable complete coverage of the frequency
spectrum, and choice of the particular waveguide size for a given application should take account
of the frequency range required as well as other considerations including loss, mechanical size
and weight, etc..

Waveguide flanges
- details of RF waveguide flanges, their use, performance, and standards used
when describing waveguide flanges.
In order that sections of waveguide may be joined, waveguide flanges are used. These waveguide
flanges come in a variety of standard formats, enabling the right types of waveguide flange to be
used for the given application, but also being standardised, flanges from different manufacturers
can mate together, provided they conform to the same style or standard.

Waveguide flange designations and terminology

There are a number of different designations for waveguide flange types and also different
abbreviations that apply to them. These are summarised in the table below:

WAVEGUIDE FLANGE WAVEGUIDE FLANGE DESIGNATION OR TERMINOLOGY

DESIGNATION OR DETAILS AND INFORMATION
TERMINOLOGY

Choke UG style waveguide flanges with an o-ring groove and a choke

cavity.

CMR CMR waveguide flanges are the miniature version of the

Connector Pressurized Rectangular (CPR) style flanges.
 WAVEGUIDE FLANGE WAVEGUIDE FLANGE DESIGNATION OR TERMINOLOGY
DESIGNATION OR DETAILS AND INFORMATION
TERMINOLOGY

CPRF Connector Pressurized Rectangular (CPR) refers to a range of

commercial rectangular waveguide flanges. CPRF is flat CPR
flange.

CPRG Connector Pressurized Rectangular (CPR) refers to a range of

commercial rectangular waveguide flanges. CPRG is Grooved
CPR flange.

Cover or Plate Square, flat UG style waveguide flanges

UG UG is the military standard MIL-DTL-3922 for a range of

waveguide flange types

Waveguide flange leakage

One aspect of waveguide flanges that is of particular importance is the leakage that occurs across
the joint. As the joints across the waveguide flanges are metal to metal contact, and they may not
be completely flat and perfect some leakage will always occur.

In order to improve the waveguide flange leakage caused by imperfect metal surfaces joining
together, many waveguide flanges incorporate a grove cut in either surface so that a gasket can
be added.

The measurement of the actual leakage from a waveguide flange is very difficult. To attain a level
of consistency across measurements a standard procedure with defined test equipment and a
given environment need to be adopted.However it is found that in general measurements made of
the fields made using probes show a sharp peak around the edge of the waveguide flange
connection. Levels are typically around -130dBc, which indicates a low level of leakage. To achieve
this, the waveguide flange surfaces must be clean and bolts must be tightened to the required
torque level. Good RF gaskets also ensure these levels are maintained or improved upon.

Waveguide flange insertion loss

As is likely to be anticipated there will always be some loss, even if small, caused by the
introduction of a joint, including the flange.

The waveguide flange insertion loss will arise mainly from two main factors:

 Loss arising from leakage: The leakage through the joint between two waveguide
flanges is normally small, but in some instances a poor joint may give rise to measurable
levels of loss due to leakage.
  Loss arising from flange resistance: If the two waveguide flanges are not bolted
together tightly enough, there will be resistance between the flanges. As the waveguide
relies on the conduction in the surface of the waveguide for its transmission, the resistance
between the two waveguide flanges is critical. Additionally the resistance of the waveguide
surface is crucial because of the skin effect which is very pronounced at these frequencies.
Accordingly the resistance of the waveguide flanges is particularly important in the region
closes to the cavity.

Normally losses are low, but precautions must be taken when using waveguide flanges to ensure
that the joints are well made - the surfaces should be clean and free from oxide and small particles.
Also gaskets should be used with the waveguide flanges if appropriate.

Waveguide flange resistance and bolt torque

To ensure that a waveguide flange does not leak and also provides a low level of loss across the
join, the force between the two adjacent waveguide flange faces must be sufficient to prevent
leakage. In turn this means that the bolts must be torqued to the recommended specification.

It is generally accepted that there must be a force of 1000 lb / linear inch of waveguide flange
connection to give a satisfactory seal for high power applications. Also for low power applications,
this will provide for lower levels of loss.

Waveguide Junction
- details of RF waveguide junctions including E-Type, H-Type and Magic T
waveguide junction types.

Waveguide junctions are used when power in a waveguide needs to be split or some extracted.
There are a number of different types of waveguide junction that can be use, each type having
different properties - the different types of waveguide junction affect the energy contained within
the waveguide in different ways.

When selecting a waveguide junction balances between performance and cost need to be made
and therefore an understanding of the different types of waveguide junction is usedful.

Waveguide junction types

There are a number of different types of waveguide junction. The major types are listed below:

 H-type T Junction: This type of waveguide junction gains its name because top of the
"T" in the T junction is parallel to the plane of the magnetic field, H lines in the waveguide.

 E-Type T Junction: This form of waveguide junction gains its name as an E- type T
junction because the tope of the "T" extends from the main waveguide in the same plane
as the electric field in the waveguide.
  Magic T waveguide junction: The magic T waveguide junction is effectively a
combination of the E-type and H-type waveguide junctions.

 Hybrid Ring Waveguide Junction: This form of waveguide junction is another form of
waveguide junction that is more complicated than either the basic E-type or H-type
waveguide junction.

E-type waveguide junction

It is called an E-type T junction because the junction arm, i.e. the top of the "T" extends from the
main waveguide in the same direction as the E field. It is characterized by the fact that the outputs
of this form of waveguide junction are 180° out of phase with each other.

Waveguide E-type junction

The basic construction of the waveguide junction shows the three port waveguide device. Although
it may be assumed that the input is the single port and the two outputs are those on the top section
of the "T", actually any port can be used as the input, the other two being outputs.

To see how the waveguide junction operates, and how the 180° phase shift occurs, it is necessary
to look at the electric field. The magnetic field is omitted from the diagram for simplicity.

Waveguide E-type junction E fields

It can be seen from the electric field that when it approaches the T junction itself, the electric field
lines become distorted and bend. They split so that the "positive" end of the line remains with the
top side of the right hand section in the diagram, but the "negative" end of the field lines remain
with the top side of the left hand section. In this way the signals appearing at either section of the
"T" are out of phase.

These phase relationships are preserved if signals enter from either of the other ports.

H-type waveguide junction

This type of waveguide junction is called an H-type T junction because the long axis of the main
top of the "T" arm is parallel to the plane of the magnetic lines of force in the waveguide. It is
characterized by the fact that the two outputs from the top of the "T" section in the waveguide are
in phase with each other.
 Waveguide H-type junction

To see how the waveguide junction operates, the diagram below shows the electric field lines. Like
the previous diagram, only the electric field lines are shown. The electric field lines are shown
using the traditional notation - a cross indicates a line coming out of the screen, whereas a dot
indicates an electric field line going into the screen.

Waveguide H-type junction electric fields

It can be seen from the diagram that the signals at all ports are in phase. Although it is easiest to
consider signals entering from the lower section of the "T", any port can actually be used - the
phase relationships are preserved whatever entry port is ised.

Magic T hybrid waveguide junction

The magic-T is a combination of the H-type and E-type T junctions. The most common application
of this type of junction is as the mixer section for microwave radar receivers.

Magic T waveguide junction

The diagram above depicts a simplified version of the Magic T waveguide junction with its four
ports.

To look at the operation of the Magic T waveguide junction, take the example of whan a signal is
applied into the "E plane" arm. It will divide into two out of phase components as it passes into the
leg consisting of the "a" and "b" arms. However no signal will enter the "E plane" arm as a result
of the fact that a zero potential exists there - this occurs because of the conditions needed to create
the signals in the "a" and "b" arms. In this way, when a signal is applied to the H plane arm, no
signal appears at the "E plane" arm and the two signals appearing at the "a" and "b" arms are 180°
out of phase with each other.

Magic T waveguide junction signal directions

When a signal enters the "a" or "b" arm of the magic t waveguide junction, then a signal appears
at the E and H plane ports but not at the other "b" or "a" arm as shown.

One of the disadvantages of the Magic-T waveguide junction are that reflections arise from the
impedance mismatches that naturally occur within it. These reflections not only give rise to power
loss, but at the voltage peak points they can give rise to arcing when sued with high power
transmitters. The reflections can be reduced by using matching techniques. Normally posts or
screws are used within the E-plane and H-plane ports. While these solutions improve the
impedance matches and hence the reflections, they still reduce the power handling capacity.

Hybrid ring waveguide junction

This form of waveguide junction overcomes the power limitation of the magic-T waveguide junction.

A hybrid ring waveguide junction is a further development of the magic T. It is constructed from a
circular ring of rectangular waveguide - a bit like an annulus. The ports are then joined to the
annulus at the required points. Again, if signal enters one port, it does not appear at allt he others.

The hybrid ring is used primarily in high-power radar and communications systems where it acts
as a duplexer - allowing the same antenna to be used for transmit and receive functions.

During the transmit period, the hybrid ring waveguide junction couples microwave energy from the
transmitter to the antenna while blocking energy from the receiver input. Then as the receive cycle
starts, the hybrid ring waveguide junction couples energy from the antenna to the receiver. During
this period it prevents energy from reaching the transmitter.

Waveguide junctions are an essential element within waveguide technology. Enabling signals to
be combined and split, they find applications in many areas as discussed in the text. The
waveguide T junctions are the simplest, and possibly the most widely used, although the magic-T
and hybrid ring versions of the waveguide junction are used in particular applications where their
attributes are required.

Waveguide Directional Coupler

- details of RF waveguide directional couplers and bi-directional couplers,
what they are, how they work and applications for using a directional coupler.

Waveguide Directional Coupler

- details of RF waveguide directional couplers and bi-directional couplers,
what they are, how they work and applications for using a directional coupler.
A waveguide directional coupler is only a directional coupler realised in a format using waveguide
technology. A waveguide coupler provides a means of sampling the energy travelling within a
waveguide, and as most couplers are directional in nature, sampling energy travelling in one
direction, they are called waveguide directional couplers.

Waveguide couplers are available that sample the energy travelling in both directions - these are
known as waveguide bi-directional couplers.

Waveguide Bends
- details of RF waveguide bends allowing changes in the direction of the
transmission line - waveguide E bend and waveguide H bend.

Waveguide is normally rigid, except for flexible waveguide, and therefore it is often necessary to
direct the waveguide in a particular direction. Using waveguide bends and twists it is possible to
arrange the waveguide into the positions required.

When using waveguide bends and waveguide twists, it is necessary to ensure the bending and
twisting is accomplished in the correct manner otherwise the electric and magnetic fields will be
unduly distorted and the signal will not propagate in the manner required causing loss and
reflections. Accordingly waveguide bend and waveguide twist sections are manufactured
specifically to allow the waveguide direction to be altered without unduly destroying the field
patterns and introducing loss.

Types of waveguide bend

There are several ways in which waveguide bends can be accomplished. They may be used
according to the applications and the requirements.

 Waveguide E bend

 Waveguide H bend

 Waveguide sharp E bend

  Waveguide sharp H bend

Each type of bend is achieved in a way that enables the signal to propagate correctly and with the
minimum of disruption to the fields and hence to the overall signal.

Ideally the waveguide should be bent very gradually, but this is normally not viable and therefore
specific waveguide bends are used.

Most proprietary waveguide bends are common angles - 90° waveguide bends are the most
common by far.

Waveguide E bend
This form of waveguide bend is called an E bend because it distorts or changes the electric field
to enable the waveguide to be bent in the required direction.

Waveguide E bend

To prevent reflections this waveguide bend must have a radius greater than two wavelengths.

Waveguide H bend
This form of waveguide bend is very similar to the E bend, except that it distorts the H or magnetic
field. It creates the bend around the thinner side of the waveguide.

Waveguide H bend

As with the E bend, this form of waveguide bend must also have a radius greater than 2
wavelengths to prevent undue reflections and disturbance of the field.

Waveguide sharp E bend

In some circumstances a much shorter or sharper bend may be required. This can be
accomplished in a slightly different manner. The techniques is to use a 45° bend in the waveguide.
Effectively the signal is reflected, and using a 45° surface the reflections occur in such a way that
the fields are left undisturbed, although the phase is inverted and in some applications this may
need accounting for or correcting.

Waveguide sharp E bend

Waveguide sharp H bend

This for of waveguide bend is the same as the sharp E bend, except that the waveguide bend
affects the H field rather than the E field.

Waveguide sharp H bend

Waveguide twists
There are also instances where the waveguide may require twisting. This too, can be
accomplished. A gradual twist in the waveguide is used to turn the polarisation of the waveguide
and hence the waveform.

In order to prevent undue distortion on the waveform a 90° twist should be undertaken over a
distance greater than two wavelengths of the frequency in use. If a complete inversion is required,
e.g. for phasing requirements, the overall inversion or 180° twist should be undertaken over a four
wavelength distance.

Waveguide bends and waveguide twists are very useful items to have when building a waveguide
system. Using waveguide E bends and waveguide H bends and their srap bend counterparts
allows the waveguide to be turned through the required angle to meet the mechanical constraints
of the overall waveguide system. Waveguide twists are also useful in many applications to ensure
the polarisation is correct.