Fire Safety

2.1 Introduction
Fires and outbursts in Generating Stations, Substations and other Plants are not
uncommon. Large scale destruction to life and property is caused by fires and explosions of Oil
Filled/Gas Cooled Electrical Equipment. Fires kill several hundred persons and destroy property
worth several crores of rupees every year. More than 85% of fires in various types of
plants/buildings/hotels/shops/godowns etc. are caused by electrical sparks or short circuits. Fires
cause deaths of persons due to flames and poisonous gases. Fires result in extensive damage to
property, electrical plant and equipment, control cabling. Smoke and gases due to fire may travel
through ventilating ducts and enter in various rooms of the building. Hazards due to electric
shocks are limited to one or two persons and one or two equipment. Fires kill several hundred
persons and destroy several equipment and buildings.
Fire accidents can be minimized by adopting scientific engineering approach. Danger to
life due to fire to Persons working in the plant is given higher weightage than fire hazard to
property under principles of Safety Management. Construction Personnel and Operation and
Maintenance Personnel should be fully aware about dangers of fire and methods of fire
prevention and actions in case of outbreak of fire. Several preventive, protection and fighting
aspects and human safety aspects should be considered at design, construction and operation
stages of the plant. This requires Managements priority with due foresight and careful attention
to details for achieving:
(1) Safe escape of personnel in the event of fire. Minimum spread of fire and smoke in case of
fire. Provision of Portable Fire Extinguishers as first line of offence against fire and Fixed
Automatic fire fighting systems as the second line of offence.

(2) Preventing fires, Managements Responsibilities.

(3) Fire fighting and minimising loss to life and property in the event of fire.
(4) Safety of personnel from fire and poisonous gases and smoke.
(5) Minimising spread of smoke and poisonous gases.

(6) Emergency operations and First Aid facilities.

These aspects are very very important part of safety management and the functions
include:
— Issue of Safety Documentation for Plant/Equipment and for Civil /Storage / Installation
/Commissioning / Operation Maintenance Phases of the Project. — Provisions of firefighting
systems (1) Permanent (2)Portable
— Provisions in fire prevention in Civil Design and works
— Provisions in Electrical Design and works
— Organisation, Awareness and Training to Personnel
— Precautions against Fires, Housekeeping and Monitoring

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— First aid facilities

— Insurance coverage (1) During construction (3) During operation.
Storage, Main Plant, Auxiliary Plant and Control Building, Office Building should be covered in
the Fire Prevention/firefighting scheme (1) During construction (2) During operation. During
outbreak of fire in a generating station or substation, persons/supervisors may not be present in
the location of fire. Hence automatic fire sensing and alarm system and fire fighting systems
must be installed in high risk zones in the plant.

2.2 TERMS AND DEFINITIONS

1. Fire- Active rapid burning and oxidation process accompanied by heat, light and poisonous
gases/smoke/ carbon dioxide gas due to combustion. Fire is started/ignited/begun at a hot spot
and spreads along the combustible material to neighbouring areas, subject to availability of (1)
Combustible material (2) Air and (3) Heat (4) Ignition.

2. Extinction of fire- Putting off of fire by removal of (1) Combustible material (2) Air and (3)
Heat (4) Breaking chain Reaction.
3. Firefighting. Action of putting off the fire. Firefighting aims at rapid removal of (1) Air
supply (2) Heat (3) Combustible material from the vicinity, to extinguish the fire/ spreading of
fire and save life and property from destruction.

4. Ignite. To set fire/to begin fire/catching of fire. Ignition Beginning of fire.

Ignition temperature. Temperature at which the combustible material ignites. Self or
spontaneous Ignition. Ignition without application of external flame/igniter.
Flash point. The temperature at which the combustible material gives off enough vapour in the
vicinity to initiate ignition on application if external flame/igniter.
Spontaneous Ignition Temperature. Temperature at which combustible material will get
ignited without even application of external flame/igniter.
5. Explosion. Bursting accompanied by loud noise and destruction and release of
solid/liquid/gaseous products. Explosion is caused by sudden release of energy and rise of
internal pressure in the equipment or at the location. Class B fires (in flammable liquids) within
containers result in increased internal pressures and bursting. Explosions are possible due to
internal arcing in gas-filled/oil filled equipment.

6. Fire Prevention. Prevent the occurrence of fires by prior actions/precautions and provisions.
e.g. by removal of inflammable material from the vicinity of electric circuit : installing oilless
equipment wherever possible, use of fire retarding materials in equipments and installation, good
maintenance.

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2.3 Fire Triangle

Fig.2.1 Fire Triangle

Fire is rapid combustion resulting in release of heat and light of flame. Fire is an active, rapid,
burning, (combustion, fast oxidation, process accompanied by heat, light and poisonous
gases/smoke/ carbon dioxide gas due to combustion. Flame is luminous, hot zone of the fire. Fire
is started/ignited/begun at a hot spot and spreads along the combustible material to neighboring
area, subject to availability of (1) Combustible material (2) Air and (3) Heat and local
temperature rise. Various materials differ in their ignition temperatures and fire characteristics.

2.4 Initiation of Fire

Initiation of fire requires (1) Heat and hot spot (2) Air and (3) Flammable material. All the three
must be present for fire to be initiated. The electrical equipment and plants have flammable
insulating materials/cooling materials and lubricating materials. The electrical energy can easily
initiate a fire with high local temperature (hot spot)/ spark/arc/flash in the vicinity of flammable
material in presence of air/oxygen.
As per philosophy of safety management, the root cause behind occurrence of an accidents is
either are in (1) Lapse in Safety Management. Several acts of negligence. carelessness usually
accumulate and increase the fire hazard, e.g. lack of housekeeping, poor quality of wiring, old
and worn out equipment not replaced, loose connections not repaired, gas leaks ignored, poor
quality of testing and Maintenance.

(2) Human Error/ Negligence. Lack of awareness, Lack of Training.

(3) Accident beyond human control.
Behind one fire incidence there may be several chance “misses” which did not materialize.

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Table.2.1 Causes of Initiation of Fire

2.5 Fire Types

According to European and US Standards. Fires are classified into five classes. A. B, C, D, E on
the basis of the material involved in the fire. The type of fire extinguishing technique
recommended differs with the Class of Fire. Water is used as quenching medium for Class A
fires. Water is not suitable for Class B, Class C, Class E fires.

Table.2.2 Classes of Fires as per European and US Standards

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2.6 FIRE HAZARD ANALYSIS

A detailed fire hazard analysis should be carried out during initial plant design to reflect the
proposed construction arrangements, materials and facilities. This analysis should be revised
periodically as design and construction progress and before and during major plant
modifications.
The fire hazard analysis should be a systematic study of (a) all elements of the fire
protection programme being proposed to ensure that the plant design has included adequate
identification and analysis of potential fire hazards (b) the effect of postulated fires relative to
maintaining the ability to perform safe shutdown functions and (c) suggest remedial measures.
The fire risk can be quantified for the process industries based on the indices like Dow
index (Fire and Explosion Index) and Mond index. The indices are comprehensive and give a
realistic value to the risk of individual process unit due to potential fires and explosion. Facilities
handling and storing flammable liquids are exposed to a potential fire risk. The fires due to
flammable liquid may be a Pool Fire, Jet Fire, Flash Fire or Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour
Explosion (BLEVE) depending on the containment, type of release and source of ignition.
Computer models are available to simulate the fire conditions and estimate the potential
consequences.

The fire hazard analysis should separately identify hazards and provide appropriate protection in
locations where safety related losses could occur as a result of:
(a) Concentration of combustible materials, including transient fire loads due to combustible
expected to be used in normal operations;
(b) Configuration of combustible contents, furnishings, building materials, or combinations
thereof conducive to fire spread;
(c) Exposure to fire, heat, smoke, steam that may necessitate evacuation form areas that are
required to be attended for safety functions;
(d) Fire in control rooms or other locations having critical safety related functions;

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(e) Lack of adequate access or of smoke removal facilities that impede fire extinguishment in
safety related areas;
(f) Lack of explosion prevention measures;
(g) Loss of electric power and
(h) Inadvertent operation of fire suppression systems. The possibility of a fire spreading from
one unit to the other unit should be taken into account in the fire hazard analysis i.e. The analysis
of consequences of the postulated fire on safety of the plant should be conducted by the persons
trained and experienced in the principles of industrial fire prevention and control and in fire
phenomena from fire initiation through its propagation into adjoining spaces.

2.7 PREVENTION OF FIRE

Fire should be prevented from occurring. This needs several preventive actions during design,
installation, testing, commissioning and operation maintenance of plants and equipment.
1. Safety documentation for plant and equipment should include Safety Instructions related to
Fire Prevention.
2. Fire Prevention Equipment and Subsystems must be a part of Plant and Equipment.
Fire should be prevented during storage, civil works, installation, testing, commissioning and
operation maintenance. Fire prevention is better than fire fighting. The prevention of fire aims at
not allowing the conditions leading to combination of (1) Combustible material (2) Air and (3)
Heat and local temperature rise (4) Spark/ignition.

For prevention of fire:

— Inflammable explosive materials should be stored separately and should be handled, stored,
used by using necessary precautions. Such material should be guarded against exposure to
flames, sparks, arcs, flash-overs, intense heat, hot spots, hot air.
— Insulating materials in the plant and equipment must not be exposed to (1) high local
temperatures (hot spot temperatures) beyond certain permissible limits (2) Sparks (3) Arcs (4)
Flash-overs (4) Welding sparks.

— Special precautions should be taken while welding, carrying open flames so that fire is not
initiated.
— Smoking, open flames and matchboxes, inflammable materials, explosive materials, open
resistor heaters should not be allowed inside protected area of electrical plant and control room.
Smoking must be permitted only in special areas. Cigarette buts must be carefully extinguished.
— Special precautions are necessary while handling, storing, filling, drying-out transformer oil,
furnace oil, fuels, circuit breaker oil, capacitor-fluid, paints, chemicals, explosive gases like
oxygen, hydrogen, acetylene. Smoking, open flames and matchboxes, inflammable materials,
explosive materials should not be allowed to be taken inside protected area of stores and near
inflammable materials.

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— LPG cylinder, Acetylene cylinder valves/pipes/tanks should be leak free. Gas cylinders must
be stored separately as per safety recommendations.
— Inflammable material should not be used in electrical equipment as far as possible. Modern
non-explosive/fire- free equipment must be preferred (e.g. Dry transformer in place of oil filled
transformer SF6 circuit breaker in place of Oil circuit breaker, XLPE cable in place of oil
insulated cable. Inflammable material should not be used in civil construction as far as possible.

— Electrical equipment should not be overloaded. Over load protection, over current protection,
temperature rise protection, temperature monitoring must be provided with oil filled equipment
and electrical machines having inflammable insulation.
— Good housekeeping goes a long way to prevent fires. Scrap, waste papers, waste wood, waste
oil should be disposed off. Leakage should be attended immediately.
— Precautions are necessary in storage, erection, testing, commissioning, operation and
maintenance that fires are not initiated due to carelessness.
— Subsystems must not be energised unless the fire protection systems are commissioned and in
alert workable state.
— Precautions are necessary while welding, heating, flame cutting, grinding, drying etc., to
eliminate initiation of fires.
— Good preventive maintenance of electrical, mechanical and chemical equipment helps in
eliminating week points and preventing fires.

2.8 FIRE PROTECTION AND LOSS PREVENTION

Fire protection aspects cover Civil Works, Plant and Equipment Design, Storage, Installation,
Testing, Commissioning, Operation Maintenance Activities, Documentation and Human
Resource development.

Civil Works
The civil design should have following provisions.
— Inflammable material should not be used in civil construction. Fire retarding material must be
used instead.
— Adjacent rooms should be air tight from each other.
— Fire and smoke from one room should not spread to other room. Heat and smoke should go
out of the building.
— Ventilating ducts, air conditioning ducts etc. should have barriers so that smoke and flames do
not get transferred from one section to next.
— Space and approach path should be available for fire fighting personnel.
— Wiring and switchboards should not initiate fires.

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— Provision of Fire Fighting System and Fire Detection System must be made during Civil
Design an construction.
— Barrier Fire-Walls must be built between Inflammable Equipment and other Civil Works.
— Special provision must be made for drainage of Oil away from the plant into the oil sump
during outbursts.
— Passage, staircase and ladders should be provided for emergency fore escape for personnel
and for Resque-Fire fighting squad.
— Approach road and space must be provided for Fire Engines and Ladders.
ELECTRICAL PLANT AND EQUIPMENT

— Temperatures of current carrying paths and insulating paths are not allowed to exceed above
specified limits by Supervision, Monitoring, Automatic Over Load Protection etc., Temperature
Monitoring, Gas Leak Monitoring, Automatic Start of Cooling Fans, Automatic disconnection on
temperature rise beyond specified limits.
---- Fire Protection Systems. Fire/Smoke/Flame/High temperature are detected, portable
extinguishers can be used for small fires, alarms are initiated so that people can immediately
vacate the premises, fire extinguishing system is put into action mode, fire bridge is called.

Fire protection
Fire protection system for each area of the facility should be designed as per the fire hazard
analysis. It also should take into account of the speed of operation of the system and safety of
important items. Fire protection system can be classified into three categories—water system,
gaseous system and portable fire extinguishers.

(a) Water System

Fire suppression system that uses water as the extinguishing medium are of three types—water
sprinkler system, water mist system and fire hydrant system.
(i) Water sprinkler system—Fully automatic low-pressure water sprinkler system should
be installed in areas where substantial amount of combustible material might be present.
Generally water sprinkler system is preferred in areas of high fire load such as electrical cable
gallery. It is also used to protect large oil filled transformers. Water sprinkler system should be
designed as per appropriate standards.
(ii) Water mist system—Water mist system converts water in to fine mist at a pressure of
around 80 to 200 bars. Water mist is water spray in which 99% of the water is in droplets whose
diameter is less than 1000 im. As a result of water being atomized into such fine droplets at high
pressure, the surface area available for cooling is considerably greater than that of conventional
low-pressure sprinkler system. The strong cooling effects serve not only to fight fire but
protecting lives and property against effects of radiated heat. Water mist is generally applied to a
fire in one of three ways: local application, total compartment application, and zoned application.

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(iii) Fire hydrant system—Standpipes with hose connections equipped with fire hose and
nozzles should be installed in conspicuous locations in the plant area as per fire hazard analysis
requirements to suppress fire. The fire hydrant system should conform to relevant standards.

(b) Fixed Foam System

Fixed foam systems are automatic, totally self-contained and require no manual intervention for
operation. These systems are installed to protect areas where large quantity of flammable liquid
is stored. Fixed foam systems are classified into three categories namely
— low expansion, medium expansion and high expansion. Fixed foam system application can be
in the form of sub surface injection, surface application, seal protection for floating tank roofs or
dyke protection. Low expansion fixed foam system with sub surface injection; surface
application or seal protection is normally used to protect large storage tanks of flammable
liquids. Low expansion fixed foam system for dyke protection is used for protection of tank farm
area with dyke which stores a number of vertical as well as horizontal flammable liquid storage
tanks. Low expansion foam system is suitable for oil pool fires where a thin layer of foam on the
oil surface can quench the fire by depriving it of oxygen (smothering effect). High expansion
foam systems operate on the principle of mechanical expansion of the foam by air and water.
These systems are suitable for fighting three dimensional fire such as fire in LNG pump where
total flooding up to the elevation of the object under fire is necessary which quenches the fire by
smothering, cooling, insulation and penetration.

(c) Gaseous System

Fire suppression system that uses gas as the extinguishing medium is of two types—Carbon
dioxide and halon. The halons are used as fire extinguishing agents, both in built-in systems and
in handheld portable fire extinguishers, but they pose a threat to the environment because of
presence of chlorine and bromine. Bromine is many times more effective at destroying ozone
than chlorine. They also have a long atmospheric life. Recent scientific studies indicate that the
ozone depleting potential (ODP) of halon 1301 and halon 1211 are at least 12 and 6 respectively
(They ODP is the ratio of the impact on ozone of a chemical compared to the impact of a similar
mass of CFC-11. Thus, the ODP of CFC-11 is defined to be 1.0). Their release to atmosphere
during manufacture, decanting to application cylinders and use or misuse in service has
contributed to the depletion of the ozone layer. Because of detrimental effects on environment,
halons are being phased out as fire extinguishers. However, halon alternatives such as FM200,
HFC-23, which are safe and have zero ozone depleting potential (ODP) can be used as fire
extinguishing media.

(d) Carbon dioxide (CO2) system

Carbon dioxide systems are normally used to suppress fire of electrical systems. Since the gas
concentration greater than 5% is a hazard (asphyxiation) to working personnel, due care should
be taken in designing the system. The system should conform to relevant standards. This system
should only be used in areas where required CO2 concentration can be maintained to extinguish
fire. In automatic carbon dioxide systems, there should be pre discharge alarm and discharge
delay to permit personnel evacuation.

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(d) Portable Fire Extinguisher

Portable as well as trolley mounted fire extinguishers for different class of fire should be kept at
various locations. Water is used as the extinguishing medium and is applicable to all fires (Class
A) involving ordinary combustible such as wood, paper, cloth, rubber and the like. Foam, Dry
Chemical Powder (DCP) are used as extinguishing medium for fires (Class-B) involving
flammable liquids, paints, solvents and the like. CO2 and DCP are used as extinguishing medium
for fires (Class-C) involving fire in gases including liquefied gases. Special type of dry chemical
power such as Ternary Eutectic Chloride (TEC)/Graphite based/Bi-carbonate based powders
should be used as extinguishing medium for fires (Class-D) involving fires in metals. It is
worthwhile to note that where energized electrical equipment is involved in fire, the non-
conductivity of the extinguishing media is of utmost importance and only CO2 and DCP should
be used. Once the electrical equipment is de energized, extinguishers suitable for Class-A, B or C
may be used safely. The extinguishers should be kept as near as possible to the fire exits and stair
case landing in addition to the places where there could be a fire hazard to safety related
equipment.

2.9 STEPS AFTER OCCURRENCE OF FIRE

Fig.2.2 Steps after Occurrence of Fire

1. Fire Occurs
2. Fire is Detected by Observer or Detection System
3. Alarm is Sounded
4. Electric Power Supply and Other Fuel Supplies are Switched Off

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5. Immediate Use of Portable Fire Extinguishers and Water/Sand for Extinguishing Small Fires
then and there
6. Automatic Fire Fighting System Gets Initiated
7. Call Fire Brigade.
8. Persons vacate the place.

2.10 PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Fire fighting is a the process of extinguishing fires. The fire fighting aims at (1) Extinguishing
fire (2) Stopping spreading of fire and smoke/poisonous gases (3) Saving life (4) Saving property
and (5) Minimising the risks to adjacent buildings and premises.

Fire fighting has following actions of defence:

1. First act defence. Immediate. Use of Portable Fire Extinguishers. Nozzle.

2. Second act of defence. Use of Fire Hydrant, Hose and

3. Third act of defence. Use of Automatic Fire Extinguishing Systems installed in the plant.
4. Call fire-brigade simultaneously with act 1.

5. Leave the fire location.

Portable fire extinguishers are used immediately on occurrence of fire. It is important that all
personnel know how to operate fire extinguishers and recharge them. Also periodic maintenance
and inspection of extinguishers is essential. When more than one type of extinguishers are issue,
specific instructions must be given and exhibited for the correct choice and proper method of
operation. To fight a fire, take up a position where access to the fire is unrestricted but where a
quick and safe retreat is possible. In an indoor fire, stay close to the door : outdoors, stay on the
upwind side of the fire.

a) WATER FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Switch off the power supply first to avoid electric shock through water. Direct the jet at the base
of the fire and sweep it across the area of fire. Attack a vertically spreading fire at its lowest
point and follow it up. Locate hot spots and extinguish them.

b) FOAM EXTINGUISHERS
When a liquid in a container is on fire, direct the jet at the far inside edge of the container or at
an adjoining vertical surface above the level of the burning liquid. This breaks the jet and allows
the foam to build up and flow across the surface of the liquid. Where this is not possible, stand
well back, direct the jet as mentioned above, and with a gentle sweeping movement allow the
foam to drop down and lie on the surface of the liquid. The jet from a foam extinguishers should
have a length of at least 6 metres. Do not direct the jet directly into the liquid because this will
drive the foam beneath the surface and render it ineffective. In addition it may splash the fire on
the surroundings.

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c) DRY POWDER AND CARBON DI-OXIDE EXTINGUISHERS

On fires involving either liquids in containers or spilled liquids, direct the jet or discharge horn
towards the near edge of the fire and with a rapid sweeping motion, drive the fire towards the far
edge until all the flames are extinguished. On fires in falling liquids, direct the jet or horn at the
base of the flames and sweep upwards. On fires in electrical equipment, the first requirement is
to turn off the current. Then direct the jet or horn straight at the fire. Where the equipment is
enclosed, direct the jet or horn into any opening in the enclosure.

d) HALON EXTINGUISHERS
On flammable liquid fires, best results are obtained when the discharge from the extinguisher is
employed to sweep the flame of the burning surface. This can be done by applying the discharge
first at the near edge of the fire gradually progressing towards the back of the fire, by moving the
discharged initially from a distance not closer than 2.5 metres, to prevent splashing of flammable
liquids.

e) WATER TYPE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Water expelling fire extinguishers has water as an extinguishing agent which is released in the
form of a jet by means of gas pressure in the upper part of the container. The gas pressure may
be induced by chemical reaction or by mechanical means.
Water expelling fire extinguishers are used mainly in Class “A” fires (IS : 2190-1979) involving
ordinary combustible materials like wood, paper, textiles, etc. which are put out by the cooling
action of water. Besides, water when applied to burning material is converted to steam which
reduces the percentage of available oxygen. Water expelling type extinguishers should not be
used on fire as involving electrical equipment without de-energising them.

The various types of water expelling extinguishers are:

1. Soda acid type IS : 934-1976
2. Gas Pressure actuated type IS : 940-1976
3. Constant Air Pressure Type IS: 6234-1971
The soda acid type is the most commonly used. We shall discuss about it in detail and briefly
touch upon the constructional and operational part of the other two types.

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f) SODA ACID TYPE-WATER EXTINGUISHERS

Construction : The various parts and contents of a soda acid extinguishers are shown in the Fig.
2.3

Fig.2.3 Soda Acid Type-Water Extinguishers

Principle of Operation. When the plunger is struck the acid phial (bottle) ruptures. The
sulphuric acid and sodium bicarbonate solution react together to release carbondioxide (CO2)
gas. The CO, generated creates internal pressure which forces the water out of the extinguishers.
Note. The CO2 gas acts only as a propellant and the water extinguishers the fire by cooling
effect. Such extinguishers are recommended only for class A fires.
The total liquid capacity of the body (or the solution containers) when filled to the specified
level, should be 9 litres. During manufacture, the body is required to be tested to an internal
hydraulic pressure of 25 kgf/cm2 for 5 minutes. Method of operation : The operational
instructions given on the body of the extinguishers should be read carefully. It should be
confirmed whether soda acid extinguishers are of up-right type or turn-over type depending on
their method of working. The type of the extinguishers provided at a given place must be known
and method of operation must be practiced well in advance during training. To operate the
extinguishers, remove the guard cap and strike the plunger against a hard surface like the floor.
Direct the jet emerging from the nozzle on the base of fire.

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g) GAS PRESSURE TYPE WATER EXTINGUISHER

The gas pressure type essentially has an outer container similar to that of the soda acid type.
There is a gas cartridge filled with CO2 tinder pressure which forms the inner compartment.
When the cartridge is pierced open, CO, under pressure is released into the body of extinguishers
driving water out through the discharge tube.

h) CONSTANT AIR PRESSURE TYPE WATER EXTINGUISHER

The constant air pressure extinguishers are filled with water and dry air is introduced from air
lines till the desired pressure is build up. When air lines are removed, the container is
hermetically sealed. While actuating, safety pin is withdrawn and value level is depressed
resulting in a jet of water through the hose under internal air pressure.

i) FOAM FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Portable extinguishers expelling foam are recommended for class B fires involving flammable
liquids like oils, solvents, petroleum products, varnishes, paints, etc. The foam expelled by
actuating the extinguishers forms a blanket over the surface.

Fig. 2.4. Foam type Fire Extinguisher.

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j) DRY POWDER FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Dry Powder Fire Extinguishers are suitable for tackling petroleum fires, gas fires, fires in
electrical equipments and for controlling surface fires in textile fibers. These extinguishers are
noted for the speed with which they put out fires. The chemical powders employed are usually
sodium based and when applied to a fire, undergo chemical reaction. The free radicals which are
responsible for sustaining any fire are out of action by the dry chemical powders and because of
this, the fire dies out very fast. Special dry powders containing sodium, potassium and barium
compounds have been found useful in extinguishing fires in metals such as sodium and
magnesium. The dry powders used should conform to IS: 4308-1982 specification.

k) GAS CARTRIDGE TYPE EXTINGUISHERS

There are two types of ordinary dry powder extinguishers available viz. (1) Gas Cartridge type
and (2) Stored Pressure type. The first type being the most common. These extinguishers are
available in 1, 2, 5 and 10 kg capacities.

Fig. 2.5. Dry chemical powder type extinguisher (for Class C, Class B, Class E fires).

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l) CONSTRUCTION OF STORED PRESSURE TYPE EXTINGUISHER

The construction of this type of fire extinguisher is shown in the figure. The chemical powder is
contained in the main shell of the extinguisher and CO2 gas is held under high pressure in a
sealed cartridge. When the extinguisher is operated, the cartridge is broken allowing the CO2 gas
to escape to the main shell and push out the powder in the form of fog.

METHOD OF OPERATION
Carry the extinguisher to the place of fire and keep it upright. Remove the safety clip and strike
the knob located in the cap to actuate the piercing mechanism which in turn breaks the sealing
disk of the cartridge. Direct the stream of escaping powder at the base of the flame. For effective
result stand about 2 to 3 m away and direct the stream near the seat of the fire. Progress forward,
moving the nozzle rapidly with a side sweeping motion. When using on outdoor fires always
operate the extinguisher from the upwind side of the fire to extend the effective range of the
spray.

m) CARBON DIOXIDE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) is effective extinguishing agent primarily it reduces the oxygen content
of air to a point where combustion cannot continue. CO2 is non-combustible and does not react
with most substances. Being a gas it can penetrate and spread to all areas affected by fire.
Carbon Dioxide fire extinguishers are used for putting out fires in oils, petroleum
products, gaseous substances under pressure, and also on electronic apparatus.
Carbon Dioxide extinguishers are not to be used in :

(i) Fires involving chemicals that contain their own oxygen supply (such as cellulose nitrate).
(ii) Fires involving reactive metals such as sodium, potassium and magnesium.
The common type of portable carbon dioxide extinguisher covered by IS : 2878-1976 is
discussed here.
Construction. The principal parts of extinguishers are, as shown in Fig. 2.6 figure above.
Carbon Dioxide is retained in the cylinder as liquid under pressure. The cylinder is filled with the
charge to about two-thirds by weight of its total water capacity.

Method of Operation. Take extinguisher to the place of fire. Remove the safety pin operate the
discharge device or unscrew the valve depending on the design. Carbon dioxide is delivered by
means of discharge horn through a high pressure flexible hose. Project the hose to the base of the
fire, starting at one edge and sweeping across the surface of the burning material. When used in
open air, the operator should stand on the up-wind side of the fire. On fires in electrical
equipment first switch off the current. Then direct the jet or horn straight at the fire.
The gas at the time of discharge makes considerable noise. The user should therefore be
well conversant with its operation to prevent the jet from being misdirected during the first few
vital seconds.

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Fig. 2.6. Carbon dioxide extinguisher.

PRINCIPLE OF CARBON DIOXIDE EXTINGUISHER
When the extinguisher is actuated carbon dioxide from the cylinder comes out at a considerable
velocity into the atmosphere and forms a layer of gas which is about one and a half times heavier
than air. The vapour blanket puts out fire and reducing the oxygen supply needed to continue
combustion.

2.11 MAINTENANCE OF FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

The maintenance checks issued with the particular type of extinguisher should be carefully
studied and persons should be trained for checking and maintenance.
Following maintenance schedules are recommended :
(1) Once a week
(a) Clean the exterior of the extinguishers, polish the painted portion with a little colourless wax
polish, polish the brass and chromium plated parts.
(b) Check the nozzle outlet and vent holes in the threaded portion of the cap for clogging.
(c) Check that that plunger is clean and is in fully extended position.
(2) Once in a year

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One of the each type of extinguishers should be put into operation for evaluating their
satisfactory performance. In the event of poor performance of any one of them, the balance will
also have to be tested.
(3) Once in 3 years
Every extinguisher should be discharged at least once in 3 years. It should be hydraulically
pressure tested at specified. However, it there is any indication of mechanical damage or
corrosion to the extinguisher shell it should be pressure tested immediately. Before recharging,
the extinguisher should be done dry.

Note:- P-Preferred.

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2.12 FIRE DETECTION, FIRE ALARM AND FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS

A large power plant/substations has several zones of fire risk, Fire defectors are provided in
various zones. Fire Alarm and Control panel is located in control room. A few Automatic Fixed-
type Fire Fighting Systems of appropriate types are provided in high risk zones where fire-risk is
sufficiently high to warrant the high cost of installation. These systems supplement the Manually
operated Portable Fire Extinguishers and Hydrant Hose Systems. Fire detection systems, fire
alarm system and fire fighting system together provide Fire Protection.

Depending upon the risk involved, cost of protected installation and allocated budget for
installing fire protection system, the fire protection system can be :

1. Simple system which detects smoke/fire and sounds alarm only.

2. Complex System:

— which detects smoke/fire and sounds alarm,

— indicates location of affected zone,

— sends message to fire brigade station,

— initiates appropriate firefighting system.

3. Advanced Monitoring System and Protection System:

— which detects smoke/fire and sounds alarm,

— indicates location of affected zone,

— sends message to fire brigade station,

— initiates appropriate fire fighting system,

Additional On-line Monitoring or temperature in various zones and equipment, flow of electric
power, fuels, cooling fluids,by On-line skanning (minute, once in 15 min.), once in 30 min., and
warns about temperature rise and suggests advance corrective action by means of
Microprocessor Based Expert System.

Application and Types of Fire Fighting Systems include:

1. Water Hose-reels for use in Offices, Stores, Workshop, Corridors.

2. Hydrant System for general use throughout the plant.

3. Sprinkler Systems for Office, Stores, Turbine-Generator, Transformer and Boiler-from areas.

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4. CO2 Installations used in enclosed areas, Switchgear Room, Cable Tunnels, Gas
Turbine/Engine Cells.

5. Halon Systems for Computer Room, cable tunnels, Control-Relay Room, and other light
current auxiliary systems rooms.

6. Mechanical Foam installations for Fuel-oil storage tank protections.

Fire Fighting Systems include:-

1. Water Spray System (Sprinkler System)

2. CO2 Systems

3. Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) Systems.

4. Foam Systems

5. Halon Systems

The choice of System/systems for particular zone depends on the type of equipment and
extinguishing medium to be used.

FIRE DETECTION AND ALARM SYSTEM

Smoke indicates presence of fire. Flame and light and heat confirm the presence of fire. Fire
must be detected rapidly and the zone of fire must be indicated on fire-control panel at earliest.
Fire should be quenched before it grows. Fire is detected by fire detection system comprising fire
detectors.

The fire detectors are located in various zones of the power plant/substations and are
connected to the fire alarm and fire control panel located in the control room and to the
Automatic fire fighting system distributed in the plant. The detection of smoke/fire, sounding of
alarm and initiating the Fire Extinguishing Action can be achieved by various methods.

Fire Detector System initiates Fire Alarm System. Fire Alarm/Control Panel is installed
in Control Room of the Power Plant/Substation. The operation of a fire detector is immediately
indicated and Buzzer is sounded on the respective Zone-Window of the panel.

The function of alarm system are to sound fire alarm send signals to fire brigade and
indicating zone of fire. The fire alarm is initiated by the fire detectors. Depending upon the
design features and specifications, the functions of fire detection and alarm system include one
or more of the following:

— To detect smoke, fire and sound alarm, siren, warning

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indication of fire control panels and warn personnel about occurrence of smoke/fire and its
location by sounding alarm/horn.

— To initiate operation of automatic fire fighting system in the affected zone

— To initiate operation of Deluge Valves and to admit water through projectors.

— To initiate tripping of circuit breakers feeding power to electrical plants in the affected areas,
via fire control and relay panel.

FIRE DETECTORS

Detectors sense the fire/smoke and discriminate between normal condition and normal condition
by sensing temperature/rate of rise temperature/presence of smoke/infrared or ultraviolet
radiation due to fire.

The following types of detectors are generally favoured in Power Plants and substations :

The operation of any one of the detectors in followed by one or more of following Actions:

— Alarm initiation.

— Zone indication.

— Initiation of Water Spray System.

— Initiation of valves/Halon valves/Foam valves for releasing quenching medium.

1. Fusible Glass Bulb Detectors are Fixed Temperature Detectors (e.g. Detectors which will
detect 60°C, 80°C, 90°C). The glass of the bulb fuses at certain predetermined temperature. The
breaking of gas initiates the desired action.

Fig.2.7.Fusible Glass Bulb Detectors

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2. Rate of Rise Temperature Detectors (Detector which responds to Rate of rise of temperature
at 5°C/mm).

3. Ionization Smoke Detector. Presence of smoke in ionization chamber in the detected. These
are located on ceilings of risk areas, they have neon indicators to identify which device has
operated. Smoke detectors may be of either the ionisation type (Fig. 2.8) or the photo-electric
cell type, through thermistor and electrical fusible link types are in general use.

Fig.2.8.Ionization Smoke Detector

4. Optical Smoke Detectors. The smoke operates the photo electric device in the detector.

5. Flame Detectors react to radiant energy in the infrared or ultraviolet radiation in the spectrum
of light.

6. Fire Wire. It consists of a stainless steel capillary sensing element looped together and
connected to a monitoring unit.

7. Fusible links. Base of the link is soldered and the solder melts at certain temperature and
thereby initiate protective equipment.

8. Temperature Sensitive Cabling. Change in temperature of cables is detected by connected

analogue or digital electronic instruments.

9. Compressed Air Detection. System in conjunction with High Pressure Water Spray system.
It is employed in some power stations and substations, the detecting elements are fitted on
compressed air pipes distributed in various risk zones. Heat of fire operates the detectors and the
pressure in compressed air system falls. Water from high pressure water system enters through
sprinklers to extinguish the fire.

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Fire Fighting Systems

HIGH PRESSURE WATER SPRAY AND SPRINKLER SYSTEM

Figure 2.9 illustrates a typical system used in power plants/substations. The total system
comprises:

1. Water Pump sets (2 or 4 Nos.) driven by motor or diesel engine.

2. Overhead pressurised water tank and associated civil work. Air Compressor for
pressurizing the water in the tank. (Reservoir).

3. Main trunk Piping system.

4. Branch Piping System.

5. Distribution Pipes System between branch pipes and spray systems.

6. Water Spray System in various risk zones.

7. Projectors fitted for spraying water in certain direction

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Fig.2.9.High Pressure Water Spray And Sprinkler System

Projectors direct the spray on affected part. Water pump sets driven by motor fill water in
overhead pressurised water tank (2) (45m., 15000 litres at 10 Bar). The Main Trunk Piping
system (5) is a closed ring to which Branch pipes are connected. The individual zones in the
plant has distributed pipe system which receives water from respective branch pipe. An air
compressor (4) maintains the air pressure on the water in the Overhead Pressurised tank at about
10 bar. The compressor and the charging pump are interlocked to ensure that the compressor will
only run if the water level is correct. Loss of pressure due to system leakage has, in the first
instance, to be restored by returning the water level to normal. A low air pressure alarm is raised
if the tank pressure falls to 9.6 bar. A suitable deluge and section control valves, spray projectors,
sprinkles and detectors are installed to suit each particular type of risk. The various types of

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water spray systems are with either automatic or manual control. Automatic systems are of either
wet or dry section types to suit the location of the risk. Generally in cold countries, wet systems
safe employed within buildings, while the dry systems are used outdoors to avoid the risk of frost
damage to the protection equipment. Manual controlled systems are employed where the
associated risks require visual assessment before the application of a fire extinguishing. The most
common application of a manual controlled system is the main turbine-generator fire protection
system where personnel operating the valves controlling water supplies are shielded by fire-
resistant barriers.

Compressed Air and High Pressure Water Spray System

Wet action. In such system the distribution pipe work is permanently charged with water at
normal system pressure. Water is contained within the piping by fusible bulb detectors fitted
either to the projector nozzles (sprinklers) or to detector control valves. The flow of water which
results from fusing of the bulb causes the section deluge valve to lift off its seat and supply a
continuous flow of water to the affected projectors. The section of pipework downstream of the
detector control valve is normally dry and is fitted with open projectors covering the risk area.
(Fig.2.10). When the deluge valve operates, it allows water pressure into a recess to operate a
local audible alarm and a remote “fire” or “water applied” alarm.

Fig.2.10.Compressed Air and High Pressure Water Spray System

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COMPRESSED AIR DETECTION SYSTEM IN CON-JUNCTION WITH WATER

SPRAY SYSTEM

Dry Section. The spray in the fire affected part for directing the distribution pipe work, which has
open projectors spaced around the risk area, is normally empty and at atmospheric pressure. A
separate detection system, using compressed air trapped in a system of pipework. The fusible
bulb detectors, act on the diaphragm of the associated automatic deluge valve (Fig.2.11). Loss of
air pressure to the diaphragm releases a mechanical latch to allow the deluge valve to unseat and
pass high pressure water to all to the open projectors. Operation of the deluge valve initiates
alarms in a similar manner to the wet section. For convenience, some systems are arranged into
subsidiary sections, each being controlled by its own air detection system, which operates a
simple pneumatically-actuated butterfly value.

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Safety Sign Boards:-

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Instructions on Fire Extinguisher:-

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