Comparison of Computerized and Manual
Assessment of Dyslexia Children Test using Text
Processing
Arni Muarifah Amri Adhi Dharma Wibawa
Department of Electrical Engineering Department of Computer Engineering
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November
Surabaya, Indonesia Surabaya, Indonesia
arniamri.206022@mhs.its.ac.id adhiosa@te.its.ac.id
Abstract—Dyslexia is a specific learning disorder that can
have a negative influence, especially on children's learning
success. Early detection and continuous therapy can help
children achieve better success in school. Children with Dyslexia
need several evaluations and therapy during the rehabilitation
programs from therapists and psychologists. The Assessment
was carried out manually and recorded using paper documents
until recently. Besides, the children must meet the therapist
physically. A computerized method for assessing Dyslexia
children by using text processing is a new approach to better
record the rehabilitation progress and provide a home
evaluation application so that some social distancing can also be
done, especially in the era of the Pandemic. In this study, the
data was taken from 24 Dyslexia children during their three-
month therapy program. The assessment program is done after
the children follow the rehabilitation program from the
therapist. During those three months, there were two times
scheduled for rehabilitation and two times for Assessment. The
Assessment uses three criteria, namely Writing Letter Series
(WLS), Arranging Sentences (AS), and Copying Sentences (CS),
that each Dyslexia child must do. Computer application for
testing is developed with a scoring system implemented using
text processing technique. Hamming distance and Text
similarity system were applied to score the test result and then
be compared with the manual scoring method performed by the
therapists. In this study, The Hamming distance was done for
the criteria of the WLS, reaching an accuracy of 83% compared
to manual Assessment. For the criteria of AS, the Text
Similarity technique achieves 96% accuracy compared to the
manual Assessment, and in CS reaches 88%. The results showed
the high potential of applying text processing techniques in
assessing Dyslexia children.
Keywords—text mining, computerized assessment, hamming
distance, text similarity, dyslexia
I. INTRODUCTION
According to the International Dyslexia Association,
"Dyslexia is a specific learning disability of neurological
origin. It is characterized by difficulties in word recognition,
spelling ability, and letter recognition (Decoding)[1].
Dyslexia is considered the most common learning disability
[2]. Dyslexia is also known as a special learning disorder that
occurs in school-age. Shaywitz (2003) predicts dyslexia
children reach between 5% to 17% occurs in school-age
children and, if left unchecked, will affect the development of
learning in school [3]. This is evidenced by the many studies
conducted by psychologists and psycholinguists who show
that dyslexia children have low academic achievement even
though their intelligence level is normal and not infrequently
Diah Puspito Wulandari
Department of Computer Engineering
Institut Teknologi Sepuluh November
Surabaya, Indonesia
diah@te.its.ac.id
have an IQ above average. Miller-Medzon, (Nevid et al.)
states Dyslexia is 80% of cases of learning disorders and
occurs in individuals who have difficulty reading even though
they have average intelligence.The ability to write and read is
an important language skill, and the occurrence of reading
disorders causes dyslexia children to become less able to
increase their potential.
Several therapy methods are very effective to overcome
the problem of Dyslexia, including the learning methods of
Orton Gillingham and Slingerland. Dyslexia children are
advised to see a psychologist check the level of the weakness
of sufferers and design a suitable method of therapy. In
addition, other methods are multisensory instruction therapy,
phonic method therapy, and visual and auditory therapy. This
method helps improve reading and writing skills. In addition,
it can also help children to catch up in school [5]. The method
is used at the time of therapy. Some institute courses use 1 or
2 methods of therapy for dyslexia children. In addition, some
essential things that must be done before therapy include
dyslexia children will do screening to get a diagnosis and
therapy that is suitable for dyslexia children. Early therapy
would be better for dyslexia children.
Several studies in the IT field have played many roles in
developing Dyslexia, both in learning and screening-based
applications in several areas of information technology.
Several studies on screening and diagnosis of dyslexia
children have been widely conducted, including Luz Rello by
making screening using online gamified tests and other
research from Zulhasnizam Hassan conducting research
related to screening dyslexia children using mobile games
using dyslexia theory, including Rapid Automation Name
(RAN) testing [7]. In another study conducted by Trude
Nergard, who proposed dyslexia markers for children, the test
was designed to identify Norwegian students who need special
attention; computerized tests include knowledge of letters and
spelling skills. The data used in this study were as many as
1000 students. The study resulted in 77% accuracy classifying
dyslexia children [9].
From some previous studies, the evaluation of therapy in
dyslexia children has not been studied more deeply. So in this
study, the authors tried to compare the pattern of assessment
results of dyslexia children before therapy and after therapy
and produce a score with dyslexia levels. This research uses
assessment methods through web-based applications using
algorithm hamming distance and text similarity.
 In computer science, information retrieval is a
fundamental problem, and text similarity and matching
algorithms are essential in implementing information
retrieval. One of the word matching algorithms is approximate
string matching, which compares text between 2 characters.
[8]. One algorithm for approximate string matching is
Hamming Distance which can evaluate similarities between
inputs and patterns. Previous studies have implemented many
hamming distances, including spelling checkers, plagiarism
detectors, and automatic assessments.
In addition, one of the previous studies by Andreas about
hamming research was "Implementation of hamming distance
and brute force algorithms in detecting similarities in source
code in the C programming language." The study resulted in
an average percentage of 20.99% better than other algorithms
Manual
Assessment
Assessment
Automatic
Assessment
Fig. 1. Dyslexia Assessment Method
to detect similarities [10]. Another study, also called "tourism
recommendation system using hamming distance algorithm,"
produced 78% to provide recommendations for tourist
attractions [12].
From previous research, IT-based applications for
Dyslexia have not been conducted in studies related to
Assessment at therapy, so in this study, the authors tried to
explore and make a computerized assessment for dyslexia
children at therapy. Then the method used in this study is a
question and answer-based word matching method using
hamming distance algorithms and text similarity. The two
methods are used to compare the answers of dyslexia children
with the answer key.
II. RESEARCH METHOD
The study consisted of primary data that consisted of the
answers of 24 dyslexia children who were assessed and
undergoing therapy at children with special needs course. This
test consists of 3 criteria: Writing a series of letters, Arranging
Sentences, and Copying Sentences. Assessment is applied
twice to see the development of evaluation results from
dyslexia children, namely before therapy and one week to 1
month after therapy.
In data collection, dyslexia children are confirmed to have
met the requirements and conditions to take the test, including:
1. Dyslexia aged 7 years until 12 years
2. Can type on a laptop keyboard
3. The child is in a good mood.
4. The child is undergoing therapy.
Dyslexia data retrieval in this study used web-based
applications. This application is specially designed to be easily
understood by dyslexia children and adapted to the concept of
dyslexia assessment that already exists. After working on the
assessment problem, the child's answer is saved to the
database and then analyzed and matched using word
matching. Text matching uses hamming distance algorithms
and text similarity to match the string between the child's
answer and the existing answer key. This research consists of
several stages, including data collection, text matching using
hamming distance algorithm, and text similarity. Then the last
stage is validation and analysis. Below is a diagram of the
method in this study:
Writing Letter
Manual Scoring
Series (WLS)
Arrange
Manual Scoring
Sentences (AS)
Copying Validation
Manual Scoring
Sentences (CS)
Hamming Validation
Writing Letter
Distance
Series (AS)
Algorithm
Arrange
Text Similarity
Sentences (AS)
Copying
Text Similarity
Sentences (CS)
A. Manual Assessment Dyslexia
The dyslexia assessment aims to determine the ability of
children diagnosed with Dyslexia. Assessment is done
accompanied by a psychologist or therapist about 3-4 times a
year in dyslexia children, starting from the initial Assessment
before therapy until therapy takes place. Dyslexia children
who score far from the benchmark require the most intensive
intervention or therapy.
The current Manual Assessment of dyslexia children is to
use paper by assigning tasks to dyslexia children with the
same criteria, namely WLS, AS, and CS. For the WLS criteria,
the therapist mentions the letters on the problem, then the child
writes according to the therapist's instructions.
The therapist or psychologist accompanies only one child
at the therapy and assessment stage. This is because each child
has different difficulties and development. In addition, the
therapist is also more focused on one child's Dyslexia. Some
of the obstacles in the assessment manual include that
therapists will need time to do manual assessments. At the
same time, they must also perform therapy on dyslexia
children. In addition, the current obstacle is that no monitoring
system helps therapists know the development of dyslexia
children after Assessment at the time of therapy. It is also
explained in the Assessment for dyslexia reports from the
National Center for improving literacy that there is currently
no monitoring system that assesses the response of dyslexia
children to the intervention and development of children at the
time of therapy[ 20]
B. Computerized Assessment Dyslexia
The authors tried to adopt existing manual assessments in
this study and conduct computerized assessments. The
criteria in this study took specifications with written
expressions related to spelling accuracy, and the accuracy of
writing sentences (APA, 2013)[3]. These criteria are then
built into the dyslexia scoring system. In this assessment
system, dyslexia children will answer questions on the system
by typing in front of a laptop and accompanied by a therapist.
The scoring system consists of three criteria: WLS, AS, and
CS.
Computerized-based assessments will facilitate
Assessment for dyslexia children by training in keyboard
typing, which can also strengthen knowledge of phonics and
use muscle memory to learn word spelling[ 18]
C. Writing Letter Series (WLS)
The WLS criterion tests the ability to recognize written
letters from the alphabet efficiently and accurately. In this
criterion, dyslexia children write a series of letters based on
what is heard from the audio on the assessment application.
The WLS criteria in this research application consist of 3
points and have different difficulty levels. Point number 1
consists of 4 characters of the letter series, then in the 2nd
point, there are five characters of the letter series, then in the
3rd point, there are six characters of the letter series. All
characters in the letter series will be matched with the answer
key and then scored.
Assessments on the WLS criteria are helpful for testing
orthography skills in dyslexia children. Difficulty in
orthography is one of the disorders of dyslexia children that
makes it difficult for them to identify written symbols and
letters they hear. [15].
D. Arranging Sentences (AS)
The AS criteria test a dyslexia child's ability to arrange
sentences, including appropriate writing rules such as correct
spelling and grammar [25]. Dyslexia children answer
questions by arranging random words into complete sentences
in this criterion. For this criterion, there are ten questions
consisting of 4-12 words. The Assessment of this criterion is
to match one sentence inputted by the student with the answer
key. The order of each word will be detected by the system
and compared to the answer key.
E. Arranging Sentences (AS)
According to the example given, dyslexia children are
asked to write a complete sentence at the CS criteria. Writing
marks and punctuation marks will also be screened on these
criteria. These criteria also include evaluating a child's
orthography.
F. Hamming Distance Algorithm
Hamming Distance is one of the string matching
algorithms used in several fields, including text mining, NLP,
and pattern recognition. Hamming distance is used to compare
how similar the two strings are matched. [21]. When the two
strings are equal, the distance is 0; if it is not the same, the
distance is 1 [26]. The smaller the distance value, the more
similar the two strings will be [14].
Hamming Distance algorithm is one of the popular text
matching algorithms used in string or pattern matching
applications. The advantage of hamming distance is that it can
measure the distance between 2 strings of the same size by
comparing each character in the two strings. So it is easier to
find out whether the two strings are the same or not [12]. The
hamming distance function is suitable for using the Hamming
distance function in the WLS criteria that calculate each
character in the letter series.
Here are the stages of implementation of the hamming
distance algorithm on the WLS criteria:
 Identify the largest string (11). For example,
there are two strings, namely S1 and S2, then S2
is the longest string. Then the formula is as
follows:
distance = length(S2) – length(S1) (1)
from the above formula indicates that distance is the
comparison distance between the longest string is substracted
from the shortest string
 If the string length is the same, it will be followed
by the hamming distance calculation as in the
following matrix table e.g :
TABLE I. SAMPLE OF HAMMING DISTANCE
Answer Key A B C D
(String 1)
Answer by Children A P J D
(String 2)
Value 0 1 1 0
Based on Table 1 shows two different characters, namely
in the letters B and P and then C and J. The difference is in
the 2nd and 3rd order. If strings 1 and 2 are equally given a
value of 0, while String 1 and string 2 are different, then it is
given a value of 1 [23].
 The next stage is to determine the similarity of string
A and string B by using the following formula:
Similarity: Length of the string-distance (2)
The formula shows that similarity is obtained from the
length of the string and then subtracted by the distance values
of S1 and S2.
 After obtaining the similarity value, the next stage is
normalized similarity. The normalized similarity is a
way of measuring the similarity of 2 strings. Here is
the formula used:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑧𝑒𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∶ (3)
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑂𝑓 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
The results of normalized similarity are used as scores for
dyslexia computerized assessment. The formula follows the
current manual review by calculating the correct character or
string and dividing by the total strings available.
G. Text Similarity
Text similarity is one of the techniques in text mining that
compares the text with available references. Text similarity
aims to show the degree of similarity between objects [22].
This technique is divided into four methods, as in the
following figure:
 H. Dyslexia Index Score Interpretation
Any child who has been diagnosed with Dyslexia will go
through the initial assessment stages at the time of therapy.
The results of the Assessment will determine the severity of
Dyslexia in children. The following is an Interpretation of
Dyslexia Index Scores that can help therapy or psychologists
to find out the severity of a dyslexia child [17]:

TABLE III. DYSLEXIA INDEX SCORE INTERPRETATION

Fig. 2. Four major groups of text similarity methods and algorithms
Dyslexia Index Standar Score Risk for Dyslexia
Figure 2 shows text similarity measure consists of four >98 Very low
90-97 Low
methods, including string-based, corpus-based, knowledge- 85-89 Elevated
based, and hybrid similarities. 77-84 Moderate
 String-based is a string-based match that matches 70-76 High
string sequences and character compositions <70 Very High
 Corpus-based is the matching between two concepts
based on the extraction results of the corpus. Table III shows that the higher the score of the assessment
 Knowledge-based uses representations of results, the lower the severity in dyslexia children. This index
knowledge such as facts and the meaning of words. standard is used on every criterion in the Assessment.
 Hybrid similarity: a combination of all three I. Validation
approaches of the previous type of similarity by
At the validation stage, a comparison will be carried out
adopting the advantages of string-based, corpus- between the scores of the computerized Assessment and the
based, and knowledge-based. The latest hybrid assessment manual for each criterion. The score is converted
similarity technique extracts semantic knowledge to dyslexia index interpretation to calculate the comparison
from structural wordnet representations and between computerized and manual assessments. Then the
statistical information from the internet. results of the comparison are implemented into the following
formula:
From the four types of similarity techniques described 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔
earlier, the author tried to implement text similarity-string 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
∗ 100% (6)
based on word matching in the AS and CS criteria. The match
is used by applying the following formula: The formula shows that the same amount of data divided
by the overall data is then multiplied by 100% and will result
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑
(4) in a percentage comparison between computerized and
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐾𝑒𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
manual assessments.
Text similarity calculates each word and matches the III. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
order in each word in one sentence to be used as a
comparison. The advantage of the similarity-string-based text A. Comparison of Computerized Assessment and Manual
method is that it is easy to perform calculations. [24]. Assessment
Here is an example of text similarity that is run on the AS From the results of processing in computerized
and CS criteria. There are two strings, namely strings that Assessment and validated by manual Assessment. we then
contain answer keys and strings consisting of child answers: obtained the results of comparison as follows:

TABLE II. SAMPLE OF TEXT SIMILARITY TABLE IV. COMPARISON OF COMPUTERIZED ASSESSMENT
AND MANUAL ASSESSMENT
Answer “saya” “Rajin” “ke” “sekolah”
Key Criteria Matched Data Total Data of Accuracy
Answer by “saya” “racin” “sekolah” - in Dyslexia Dyslexia
Children Children Children
WLS 20 24 83%
Text similarity will operate by matching each word and AS 23 24 96%
order of words in the child's answer with the answer key.
Table 3 shows three differences between the answer and the CS 21 24 88%
answer key, namely the difference in letters in the word
"diligent" and a missing word in the phrase "to" in the child's Table IV shows the validation results of comparing
answer. So that if entered into the formula, text similarity will computerized Assessments with manual Assessments. The
produce : comparison produces a good percentage in each criterion,
2
Similarity :
4
: 0.5 (5) 83% on the WLS criteria, 96% on the US criteria, and 88%
on the CS criteria.
The above formula shows that the number of words
matching in the example is divided by the total number of
words. Then get, the similarity result is 0.5.
A. Average Result of Computerized Assessment and Manual
Assessment
Here is the average computerized assessment score and
manual Assessment on each criterion. The following average
score is the average of the entire children for each criterion:
TABLE V. AVERAGE RESULT OF MANUAL ASSESSMENT
AND HAMMING DISTANCE
Criteria Manual Assessment Computerized Assessment
WLS 81 76
AS 51 43
CS 69 56
And below is additional information for the average
computerized assessment score after being converted to risk
dyslexia status:
TABLE VI. RISK FOR DYSLEXIA RESULT
Criteria Risk for Dyslexia
Manual Assessment Computerized Assessment
WLS Moderate High
AS Very High Very High
CS Very High Very High
From table VI, there is a difference in risk status in
computerized Assessments with manual Assessments on
WLS criteria. This happens because hamming distances only
measure if the lengths of both strings are the same, except that
the hamming distance also does not match the sequence of the
existing letter series. Therefore, there is a difference between
manual Assessments e.g:
String 1: abcd efg
String 2: abcd feg
From the example above obtained results, manual
assessment produced the similarity value 4 because the
calculation was stop after “abcd” due to the next character was
incorrect, while in automatic Assessment the similarity value
is 5 because there was still one additional character that was
corerct, which is “g”. We also notice that this difference
between the manual and computerized assessment could also
be caused by the skill of children in using the computer
keyboard, since typing, however, is different from writing.
Mean while, other criteria in this study produce a good
comparison so that computerized Assessment can be used as
one of the tools for assessing dyslexia children at the time of
therapy or pre-therapy.
This study also gave results, including data on dyslexia
children who did therapy had different assessment results even
at the same age. The study also resulted in dyslexia levels
adopted from the interpretation of dyslexia index scores.
These results have never been reported in previous it-based
studies and are related to dyslexia assessment applications.
IV. CONCLUSION
Computerized Assessment will further help manage
Dyslexia in children who are in therapy. In addition,
computerized Assessment can also help analyze the
development of Dyslexia in children undergoing therapy or
pre-therapy. The study proposes Hamming Distance and Text
Similarity in text mining for a more efficient assessment of
dyslexia children. The validation results of existing methods
in this computerized Assessment have higher accuracy using
hamming distance and text similarity. This result shows a
high potential for applying computer applications for
assessing the dyslexia children test during therapy. However,
this study also has some shortcomings, including data
retrieval that differs between human assessment using
handwriting and computerized Assessment by typing on a
laptop.
The Hamming distance was done for the criteria of the
WLS, reaching an accuracy of 83% compared to manual
Assessment. For the criteria of AS, the Text Similarity
technique achieves 96% accuracy compared to the manual
Assessment, and in CS reaches 88%.
The study was limited to writing criteria in dyslexia
children, so it still needs further development to create more
complex assessment applications for dyslexia children.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
There is no conflict of interest in writing this article. This
paper was funded by the Ministry of Communications and
Information Technology scholarship program, Republic of
Indonesia.
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