Vedic and Post Vedic Period

After the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization, another glorious civilization
flourished in India. That is called vedic period or vedic age (c. 1500 – c. 500
BCE). The Vedas contain details of life during this period that has been
interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the
period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow
for the evolution of the Indo-Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred.

The period that followed Rig Vedic Age is known as Later Vedic Age.

This age witnessed the composition of three later Veda Sahits (संहिता) namely,
the Smaveda Sahit, the Yajurveda Sahit, the Atharvaveda Sahit as well
as Brhmaas (ब्राह्मण), rayaka (आरण्यक) and the Upaniads (उपहिषद्) of all the
four Vedas and later on the two great epics—the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.

The Vedic and post vedic culture and civilization can be best understood from the
social life, political organization, economic life and religious beliefs.

(I) Vedic and Post Vedic Social life

Vedic Social life

 Initially the Aryans were divided into three varas Brhmaa, Katriya,
Vaiya. Vara system begins from gveda itself but not well established.
The vara system was based on ‘karma’. For the first time a late hymn of the
Rig-Veda known as Puruasukta refers to classification of the society in four
categories. But it was rejected by the scholars that caste or any class system
existed in Rig Vedic age. According to them Puruasukta is a late hymn and
 such kind of classification of the society was never rigid and hereditary.
There was another class of 'Pais (पहण)' who were wealthy and did business.
Varna has two meanings, one to choose and the other is color. In the early
Vedic age there was no caste system. Member of same family took to
different arts, crafts and trades. People could choose and change their
occupations according to their needs or talents. There was hardly any
restriction in intermarriage, change of occupation.
 Division of land was as follows - A community of
families constituted a grma (ग्राम - village). Then many villages together
became via (हिश). The term via is generally interpreted to mean “clan.”
Many vias combined to form jana (जि). The head of the family was called
’kulapa (कु लप)', the head of via was called viapati (हिशपहत) and the head of

the village was called grma (ग्रामणी) and the head of jana was called
‘rjan’ (राजि् - king).

Jana - Via - Grma - Kula/Gha

 The family was regarded as the social and political unit. It was the nucleus
of the social life of the early Aryans. The father was the head of the family
and he was known as “kulapa (कु लप)”. The Aryans had joint families.
 In the early Vedic age women enjoyed an honored place in the society. The
wife was the mistress of the household. In all religious ceremonies she
participated with her husband. Prad system (veiling the face), child
marriage, sati system (When the wife ends her life with the funeral pyre of
her husband), untouchability etc. was not prevalent in the society.
 The education of girls was not neglected. The Rig-Veda mentions the names
of some learned ladies like Viswavara, Apala and Ghosa who composed
 mantras and attained the rank of is. The girls were married after attaining
puberty. The practice of ‘Swayamvara (स्ियंिर)’ was also prevalent in the
society. Monogamy was the general Practice.

 Polygamy was, of course, practiced and it was confined only to kings and
chiefs. Remarriage of widows was permitted. But the women were not
deemed as independent persons in the society. They had to remain under the
protecting care of their male relations.
 A patriarchal extended family structure gave rise to the practice
of niyoga (levirate), which permitted a widow or a lady whose husband has
left and never returned for more than 10 years, to have an offspring with her
husband’s brother.
 We do not find any description about beggars or agricultural slaves. The unit
of property was ‘cow’ which was also the medium of exchange.
 In the Rig-Vedic age great importance was given to education. There were
Gurukulas which imparted education to the disciples after their sacred-thread
ceremony (उपियि/यज्ञोपिीत संस्कार). Entire instruction was given orally. The
vedic education aimed at proper development of mind and body.

Post Vedic Social life

 Most important change was the evolution of ‘vara’system (classification of

society in four classes) and ‘Jblopaniad (जाबालोपहिषद्)’ talks about it.
Various sub castes evolved in addition to the traditional four-castes. The
Brhmaas and Katriyas emerged as the two leading castes out of the
general mass of population, known as vaiyas. The vaiyas were superior to
the dras. The Aitareya Brhmaa (ऐतरे य ब्राह्मण) clearly indicates the
 absolute dependence of vaiyas on the two higher classes. The brhmaas of
the later Vedic age were the intellectual and priestly class. The brhmaas
retained a high standard of excellence and knew the details of the rituals.
The katriyas were the fighting class in the society. War, conquest,
administration of the kingdom was the principal duties of this class. Vaiyas
were engaged in trade, industry and agriculture, and animal husbandry.
dras were serving all the three classes. Thus all the four classes were
supporting each other but dras’ condition was gradually deteriorating.
 The women lost their high position which they had in the Rig Vedic Age.
They were deprived of their right to the Upanayana ceremony and all their
sacraments, excluding marriage, were performed without recitation of Vedic
mantras. Polygamy prevailed in the society. Many of the religious
ceremonies, formerly practiced by the wife, were now performed by the
priests. She was not allowed to attend the political assemblies. Birth of a
daughter became undesirable—for she was regarded as a source of misery.
The custom of child marriage and dowry crept in. The women lost their
honoured position in the society. But still pard system (veil) and sati system
did not prevail.

(II) Vedic and Post-Vedic Religious Beliefs:-

Vedic Religious Beliefs:-

The religious life of the Aryans was simple and plain. They worshipped
various manifestations of nature such as the sun, the moon, the sky, the
dawn, the thunder, the wind and the Air. The reason was that they used to
face natural calamities so they used to think that these natural powers should
be worshipped in order to keep them calm and peaceful. Vedic hymns were
composed in praise of nature. Rigveda mentions that thirty three gods and
goddesses were worshipped by the Aryans.

These divinities were placed under three categories namely:

(1) The terrestrial gods such as Pthv (land), Agni (fire), Soma etc.

(2) The atmospheric gods, such as, Indra, Rudra (Probably lightning),
Maruta (wind) and Parjanya (cloud).

(3) The celestial gods such as Dyau (the sky), Varua, U (dawn), Avins
(twin gods) and Srya (sun), Svitr etc.

Among the vedic gods, Indra occupied the chief place, was given the largest
number of hymns—about one fourth of the total number of hymns in the Rig
Veda. He was also known as Purandara and the destroyer of forts. He was
also the god of rain. Varua was regarded as the good of truth and moral
order. He was conceived as the omniscient ruler of the cosmic waters.
Maruta was the god of storm. He helped Indra in scattering away the
demons. U was the goddess of dawn.

Pthv was regarded as the goddess of grain and of procreation. Agni was
second in importance only to Indra. He acted as the coordinator among all
deities. He conveyed to the gods the oblations offered by the devotees. He
received special homage by the people as no sacrifice could be performed
without offering to him. Surya was regarded as the destroyer of darkness.
Apart from these deities, others like Svitr, Saraswati, Bhaspati and
Parjanya were also worshipped.
Mode of Worship:

The mode of worship was simple. The Vedic worship meant primarily only
oblation and prayer. The Aryans chanted hymns to appease the various
divinities. Yaja (यज्ञ) or sacrifice was another mode to appease the gods and
goddesses. They offered milk, ghee, grains, wine, fruits etc. as offering into
fire.

Animals like horses, buffaloes and even cows were also sometimes
sacrificed. The process of sacrifice was simple. There was no priestly class
for performing these religious rites. No shrine or temple was built.
Image/idol worship was unknown in those days.

The theory of reincarnation or rebirth was not completely formed. The Rig
Vedic hymns had no consistent theory regarding life after death.

In-spite of worshipping various deities the Vedic age saw the prevalence of
monotheism. The hymns of Rig-Veda, Madala (chapter) X.82 express the
belief that God is one although. He bears many names. The idea of single
supreme power governing and controlling the universe seems to have
emerged. The spiritual life of Vedic Aryans was simple. They worshipped
nature through prayer and sacrifice which later on formed the basis of Hindu
religion.

Post Vedic Religious Condition

During the later Vedic period the religious spirit underwent a great change.
Religion was overshadowed with rites and rituals. New gods and goddesses
emerged during this period.
New Gods:

The Rig Vedic gods, Varua, Indra, Agni, Srya, U etc. lost their charm.
New gods like iva, Viu, Brahm etc. appeared during the later vedic
period. The grandeur of the Rigvedic gods passed into oblivion, though we
find in Atharvaveda the omniscience of Varua or the beneficence of the
Earth goddess.

Rituals and Sacrifices:

During this period the rites and ceremonies of Vedic religion were
elaborated and became complex. In the Rig Vedic age yajas were a simple
affair which every householder could do. But in the later Vedic age sacrifice
became an important thing in worship. Now the priestly class devoted their
energy to find out perform the rites and ceremonies.

People had a firm belief that gods must submit to the sacrifice if properly
performed. Vedic hymns were regarded as charms to be used in sacrifice.
The belief that gods were satisfied by yajas led to a rise in the number,
variety of sacrifices which were prescribed for every householder. In fact
every Aryan performed a number of sacrifices under the supervision of the
Brahmana priest.

Religious Philosophy:

The later vedic age witnessed the emergence of a new intellectual thought.
The people thought deeply about the problems of creation, life and death and
arrived at the conclusion that there is one ‘Brahma’ (one
unchanging/ultimate reality) beyond the universe—the creator and controller
of the whole order.

After the death of a person his soul passes into another body and again into
another and this process continues till it can be liberated from all its
imperfections and merged in the universal soul. Thus the doctrine of
transmigration of souls, rebirth etc. were established at that time.

The Aryans had also faith in the doctrine of Karma (कमम- action). It lays
down that all actions, good or bad, reap their proper fruits. Souls have to be
born again and again and bear the fruits of the actions (karma) of their
previous lives. There is also doctrine of ‘moka (मोक्ष-liberation)’. It is a state
of birth-lessness and deathlessness at a point when a soul is liberated from
the cycle of births and deaths and mingled into the universal soul. It was
essential for a man to attain moka. All these are embodied in the Upaniad
which were composed in the later vedic period.

Vedic and Post-Vedic Economy:-

Vedic Economy:-

 The main basis of the economy was animal husbandry and agriculture.
The Aryans’ life was not stable. They used to move to different
places, in such a situation the importance of animal husbandry
increases. The most important animal of the Rigveda was the cow.
The word ‘cow’ is mentioned 176 times in Rigveda.
 The public used to pay taxes to the king voluntarily.
 The houses were made of thatch, bamboo and wood.
 Bullock carts, chariots and boats were the main means of transport.
 In the first, fourth, fifth and tenth divisions of the Rigveda, there is a
description of sowing, ploughing, threshing of crops etc. Bullocks
were used for ploughing. (R. V - X. 106). The Rigveda mentions only
a grain named yava (यि - barley). (R.V. – I.117.21 and IV. 57.)
 The cultivated land was known as urvar (उिमरा) or ketra (क्षेत्र). The
use of manure (fertilizer) was known to them.
 The cow was the main means of exchange. Bullock carts, chariots etc.
were the means of transport, so cows, horses, bulls etc. were also
reared up.
 Trade - In the beginning there was a very limited trade practice. The
trade was based on the exchange system. A section of the society
named ‘pai (पहण)’ used to do business. (R. V. - I. 33. 3; X, 60. 6)
There was no practice of giving regular tax or land revenue to the
king. The king was voluntarily given a portion or a gift by people.
 Metals and Coins: Among the metals mentioned in the Rigveda, the
first metal, ayas (अयस् - copper or bronze) is found. Aryans were also
familiar with gold (hiraya - हिरण्य) and silver. But there is no mention
of iron in the Rigveda. ‘Nika (हिष्क)’ was probably a gold ornament
or currency which was also used for exchange. Later on it was called
the first gold coin of India.
 Industry: The main occupation of the Aryans was animal husbandry.
Other industries were textiles, utensils, wood and leather work, hence
the Rigveda mentions of carpenters, charioteers, weavers, artisans etc.
In the Rigveda, the carpenter is called ‘takaka (तक्षक)’ and for metals
and the one who works on metals is called ‘karmra (कमामर)’, the
 barber is called ‘vapt (िप्तृ)’and those who work on leather are called
‘carmakra (चममकार)’.

Post-Vedic Economy

• Agriculture :- Agriculture was the most important occupation in the later

Vedic period also. In the atapatha Brhmaa (शतपथ ब्राह्मण), there are
mentions of ploughs with 6, 8, 12 and 24 bullocks. (1.6. 1. 3) The whole
process of agriculture is also described. The names of many crops grown

at this time are found such as vrihi (व्री ) or tadula ( ) for rice,

godhuma ( ) for wheat, ku ( ) for sugarcane, sarapa (सषमप) for

mustard, ma ( ) for urada, aa (शण) for jute etc.

 The means of irrigation also increased. In Rigveda, there is only one

means of irrigation, ‘avaa (अिट - well)’ is mentioned, whereas canals
(kuly - कु ल्या) are mentioned for the first time in Atharva Veda. In the
Atharvaveda there is a mention of rain, wells and canals and in the
Yajurveda the plough is referred to as ‘sra (सीर)’. (A.V, VIII. 10.24).
The Taittrya Sahit () further mentions that there were two harvests a
year (V. 1. 7. 3) and according to the ‘Kauitaki Brhmaa ()’, the winter
crop was ripe by the month of chaitra (March) (XIX. 3).
 Trade:- Coins were not in circulation in the later Vedic period. The
Aryans were aware of the west and east seas (Arabian Sea and Indian
Ocean). Till this time there is no mention of port nor is there any mention
of trade with any foreign country. Like Rigvedic period, ‘nika’ etc.
 continued to be used. Although the mention of the word ‘city’ is found in
the later Vedic period, but these cities were of an early stage, not the
developed one.

Vedic and Post-Vedic Administration:-

Vedic Administration

 Division of land was as follows - A community of

families constituted a grma (ग्राम - village). Then many villages
together became via (हिश). The term via is generally interpreted to
mean “clan.” Many vias combined to form jana (जि). The head of
the family was called ’kulapa (कु लप)', the head of via was called
viapati (हिशपहत) and the head of the village was called grma
(ग्रामणी) and the head of jana was called ‘rjan’ (राजि् - king).

Jana - Via - Grma - Kula/Gha

 Position of king was hereditary and his coronation used to be done.

There were two administrative bodies, the sabh (सभा) and the samiti
(सहमहत), to control him. The sabh was an institution for eligible,
superior and old people (like the rajya sabha) while the samiti was
attended by adult people (like the lok sabha), the control of the samiti
was greater than that of the sabh.
 The chairman of the samiti was called na (ईशाि). Although the
name of the oldest institution ‘vidatha (हिदथ)’ is found in the Rigveda.
In this both men and women were involved. The reception of
newlyweds, religious rituals etc., social functions were performed in
 ‘vidatha’. It is mentioned 122 times the most in the Rigveda. The king
was hereditary but the people could remove him. The king was the
leader of the war. He had no right to collect taxes. Public used to give
taxes voluntarily, which was called ‘bali (बहल).’
 The king's administrative support was called (पुरोहित - priest), the chief
of the army was called ‘senn’ (सेिािी), the military officer of the
village was ‘grma’ (ग्रामणी), the spies were known as ‘spaa’ (स्पश)
and the king’s charioteer was called ‘sta’ (सूत) and all these used to
help the king administratively.

Post-Vedic Administration

 In the later Vedic period, small ‘janas’ (जि) were merged into one big
unit ‘janapada’ (जिपद). The word 'rtra' (राष्ट्र - country) is also
mentioned for the first time in the Aitareya brhmaa (ऐतरे य ब्राह्मण).
The power of the king increased. The king took advantage of this and
ended the control of the sabh and the samiti over him. But the
Atharvaveda shows that the sabh and samiti still had importance as
they are called the 'two daughters' of Prajpati (a deity) in the
Atharvaveda.
 During this period, apart from the title of rjan, the king started
adopting different titles. For example, the king of central region
madhyadea (मध्यदेश) was called rjan (राजि्), the king of the east was
called the emperor (samar - सम्राट् ), the king of the west was called
‘svar (स्िराट् )’ and the king of the north was called ‘vir (हिराट्)’ and
the king of the south was called ‘bhoja (भोज)’, the king who
 conquered the kings of all these four directions was called ‘ekr
(एकराट् )’.

 In the post-Vedic era, the tax ‘bali’ became a kind of fixed tax. The
word ‘bhga (भाग)’ for land revenue is found. The officer who
collected land revenue was known as ‘bhgadugha (भागदुघ)’ and the
officer who collected the regular tax was called ‘sagrahit
(सङ्ग्ग्रहिता – collector’). This tax was paid only by the vaiya (िैश्य)
class.
 Army: - Even in the later Vedic period, there was no concept of a
standing army, when needed, various organizations used to form a
standing army.
 Apart from the rjasya sacrifice (राजसूय यज्ञ), the king used to
perform avamedha sacrifice (अश्वमेध यज्ञ) and vjapeya sacrifice

(िाजपेय यज्ञ). The rjasya and avamedha sacrifices were related to

the expansion of the kingdom, while the vjapeya sacrifice was a kind
of chariot race in which the king’s chariot was at the fore.

 Ratnin (रहिि् – Gems of the court/state):- They used to be worthy

associates and employee of the state. The atapatha Brhmaa

(शतपथ ब्राह्मण) mentions 12 ratnins whose support was necessary for
the king.

1. Senn ( ) - Chief of the army. It is also known from Aitareya

Brhmaa, the most important ratnin in the post-vedic period.

2. Purohita ( ) - The chief advisor of the king. He is the second

most important employee. He also used to perform all the rituals

for the king.

3. Grma ( ) - Military officer of the village

4. Yuvaraja ( ) – Rajaputra – king’s son

5. Mahii ( ) - The chief queen of the king.

6. Sta ( ) - The charioteer of the king.

7. Kat ( तृ) - The gatekeeper.

8. Bhgdugha ( घ) – Land revenue collecting officer.

9. Sagraht ( तृ) - Treasurer

10. Akavpa ( ) - The companion of the king in the game of

gamble.

11. Plgala ( ) - Courtier

12. Govikartana ( ) - The king’s companion in hunting or the

head of the forest.