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Power-to-X
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Power-to-X (also P2X and P2Y) is a number of electricity conversion, energy storage, and
reconversion pathways that use surplus electric power, typically during periods where fluctuating
renewable energy generation exceeds load.[1][2] Power-to-X conversion technologies allow for the
decoupling of power from the electricity sector for use in other sectors (such as transport or
chemicals), possibly using power that has been provided by additional investments in generation.
[1] The term is widely used in Germany and may have originated there.

The X in the terminology can refer to one of the following:

power-to-ammonia, power-to-chemicals, power-to-fuel, power-
to-gas, power-to-hydrogen, power-to-liquid, power-to-methane,
power to food,[3] power-to-power, and power-to-syngas.
Electric vehicle charging, space heating and cooling, and water
heating can be shifted in time to match generation, forms of
demand response that some[who?] term power-to-mobility and Transformation in joining up
power-to-heat. sectors

Collectively power-to-X schemes which use surplus power fall under the heading of flexibility
measures and are particularly useful in energy systems with high shares of renewable generation
and/or with strong decarbonization targets.[1][2] A large number of pathways and technologies are
encompassed by the term. In 2016 the German government funded a €30 million first-phase
research project into power-to-X options. [4]

Contents

Electricity storage concepts …

Surplus electric power can be converted to other forms of energy for storage and
reconversion.[5][6][7][8] Direct current electrolysis of water (efficiency 80–85% at best) can be
used to produce hydrogen which can, in turn, be converted to methane (CH4) via
methanation.[5][9] Another possibility is converting the hydrogen, along with CO2 to methanol.[10]
Both these fuels can be stored and used to produce electricity again, hours to months later.
Reconversion technologies include gas turbines, CCGT plant, reciprocating engines and fuel cells.
Power-to-power refers to the round-trip reconversion efficiency.[5] For hydrogen storage, the
round-trip efficiency remains limited at 35–50%.[2] Electrolysis is expensive and power-to-gas
processes need substantial full-load hours (say 30%) to be economic.[1] However, while round-trip
conversion efficiency of power-to-power is lower than with batteries and electrolysis can be
expensive, storage of the fuels themselves is quite inexpensive.[citation needed] This means that
large amounts of energy can be stored for long periods of time with power-to-power, which is
ideal for seasonal storage. This could be particularly useful for systems with high variable
renewable energy penetration, since many areas have significant seasonal variability of solar,
wind, and run-of-the-river-hydroelectric generation. Grid-dedicated battery storage is not
normally considered a power-to-X concept.

Sector coupling concepts …

Hydrogen and methane can also be used as downstream fuels,

feed into the natural gas grid, or used to make or synthetic
fuel.[11][12] Alternatively they can be used as a chemical
feedstock, as can ammonia (NH3).

Power-to-heat involves contributing to the heat sector, either by

resistance heating or via a heat pump. Resistance heaters have
unity efficiency, and the corresponding coefficient of Cartoon by Mwelwa Musonko
inspired by "sector coupling"
performance (COP) of heat pumps is 2–5.[5] Back-up immersion
heating of both domestic hot water and district heating offers a cheap way of using surplus
renewable energy and will often displace carbon-intensive fossil fuels for the task.[1] Large-scale
heat pumps in district heating systems with thermal energy storage are an especially attractive
option for power-to-heat: they offer exceptionally high efficiency for balancing excess wind and
solar power, and they can be profitable investments.[13][14]

Power-to-mobility refers to the charging of battery electric vehicles (EV). Given the expected
uptake of EVs, dedicated dispatch will be required. As vehicles are idle for most of the time,
shifting the charging time can offer considerable flexibility: the charging window is a relatively long
8–12 hours, whereas the charging duration is around 90 minutes.[2] The EV batteries can also be
discharged to the grid to make them work as electricity storage devices, but this causes additional
wear to the battery.[2]

Heat pumps with hot water storage and electric vehicles have been found to have higher potential
on reduction of CO2 emissions and fossil fuel use than several other power-to-X or electricity
storage schemes for using surplus wind and solar power.[5] However, while power-to-heat and
power-to-mobility through electrification (heat pumps and electric vehicles) have a high emissions
reduction potential, if the goal is a 100% clean system, there are some end uses which cannot be
economically electrified. These end uses include long-distance shipping (trucking, airplanes,
barges) and high heat industrial processes. In these cases, using fuels synthesized from clean
electricity might be the best option. Biofuels are another option, but they compete with agriculture
for water and space.

According to the German concept of sector coupling interconnecting all the energy-using sectors
will require the digitalisation and automation of numerous processes to synchronise supply and
demand.[15]

See also …

Energy storage

Grid energy storage

Power-to-gas

Power-to-heat

Electrofuel

References …

1. ^ a b c d e acatech; Lepoldina; Akademienunion, eds. (2016). Flexibility concepts for the German power
supply in 2050 : ensuring stability in the age of renewable energies (PDF). Berlin, Germany: acatech
— National Academy of Science and Engineering. ISBN 978-3-8047-3549-1. Archived from the
original (PDF) on 6 October 2016. Retrieved 10 June 2016.

2. ^ a b c d e Lund, Peter D; Lindgren, Juuso; Mikkola, Jani; Salpakari, Jyri (2015). "Review of energy
system flexibility measures to enable high levels of variable renewable electricity" (PDF). Renewable
and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 45: 785–807. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2015.01.057 .

3. ^ Sillman, J.; Uusitalo, V.; Ruuskanen, V.; Ojala, L.; Kahiluoto, H.; Soukka, R.; Ahola, J. (1 November
2020). "A life cycle environmental sustainability analysis of microbial protein production via power-to-
food approaches" . The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment. 25 (11): 2190–2203.
doi:10.1007/s11367-020-01771-3 . ISSN 1614-7502 .

4. ^ "Power-to-X: entering the energy transition with Kopernikus" (Press release). Aachen, Germany:
RWTH Aachen. 5 April 2016. Retrieved 9 June 2016.

5. ^ a b c d e Sternberg, André; Bardow, André (2015). "Power-to-What? — Environmental assessment of

energy storage systems". Energy and Environmental Science. 8 (2): 389–400.
doi:10.1039/c4ee03051f .

6. ^ Agora Energiewende (2014). Electricity storage in the German energy transition : analysis of the
storage required in the power market, ancillary services market and the distribution grid (PDF).
Berlin, Germany: Agora Energiewende. Retrieved 30 December 2018.

7. ^ Sterner, Michael; Eckert, Fabian; Thema, Martin; et al. (2014). Langzeitspeicher in der Energiewende
— Präsentation [Long-term storage in the Energiewende — Presentation]. Regensburg, Germany:
Forschungsstelle für Energienetze und Energiespeicher (FENES), OTH Regensburg. Retrieved 9 May
2016.

8. ^ Ausfelder, Florian; Beilmann, Christian; Bräuninger, Sigmar; Elsen, Reinhold; Hauptmeier, Erik;
Heinzel, Angelika; Hoer, Renate; Koch, Wolfram; Mahlendorf, Falko; Metzelthin, Anja; Reuter, Martin;
Schiebahn, Sebastian; Schwab, Ekkehard; Schüth, Ferdi; Stolten, Detlef; Teßmer, Gisa; Wagemann,
Kurt; Ziegahn, Karl-Friedrich (May 2016). Energy storage systems: the contribution of chemistry —
Position paper (PDF). Germany: Koordinierungskreis Chemische Energieforschung (Joint Working
Group on Chemical Energy Research). ISBN 978-3-89746-183-3. Retrieved 9 June 2016.

9. ^ Pagliaro, Mario; Konstandopoulos, Athanasios G (15 June 2012). Solar Hydrogen: Fuel of the Future.
Cambridge, United Kingdom: RSC Publishing. doi:10.1039/9781849733175 . ISBN 978-1-84973-195-
9.

10. ^ George Olah's renewable methanol plant

11. ^ König, Daniel Helmut; Baucks, Nadine; Kraaij, Gerard; Wörner, Antje (18–19 February 2014).
"Entwicklung und Bewertung von Verfahrenskonzepten zur Speicherung von fluktuierenden
erneuerbaren Energien in flüssigen Kohlenwasserstoffen" [Development and evaluation of process
concepts for storing fluctuating renewable energy in liquid hydrocarbons]. Jahrestreffen der
ProcessNet-Fachgruppe Energieverfahrenstechnik. Karlsruhe, Germany. Retrieved 9 May 2016.

12. ^ Foit, Severin; Eichel, Rüdiger-A; Vinke, Izaak C; de Haart, Lambertus GJ (1 October 2016). "Power-
to-Syngas – an enabling technology for the transition of the energy system? Production of tailored
synfuels and chemicals using renewably generated electricity". Angewandte Chemie International
Edition. 56 (20): 5402–5411. doi:10.1002/anie.201607552 . ISSN 1521-3773 . PMID 27714905 .

13. ^ Zakeri, Behnam; Rinne, Samuli; Syri, Sanna (31 March 2015). "Wind integration into energy systems
with a high share of nuclear power – what are the compromises?" . Energies. 8 (4): 2493–2527.
doi:10.3390/en8042493 . ISSN 1996-1073 .

14. ^ Salpakari, Jyri; Mikkola, Jani; Lund, Peter D (2016). "Improved flexibility with large-scale variable
renewable power in cities through optimal demand side management and power-to-heat
conversion" . Energy Conversion and Management. 126: 649–661.
doi:10.1016/j.enconman.2016.08.041 . ISSN 0196-8904 .

15. ^ "Sector coupling - Shaping an integrated renewable energy system" . Clean Energy Wire. 18 April
2018. Retrieved 6 March 2019.

Last edited 4 days ago by RobbieIanMorrison

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