Living in the environment

Chapter 1. The Environment & Sustainability

Environment= alle deeltjes en energy, levend en niet levend, die organismes beïnvloeden
Environmental science= leefsystemen studie over natuurlijke omgeving.

Interdisciplinair onderzoeken hoe…

1. De aarde/natuur werkt en (over)leeft.
2. Mensen en de omgeving op elkaar inwerken
3. We duurzamer kunnen leven

ecologie= vertakking van biologie dat focust op hoe organismes met hun levende en niet levende
omgeving interacten

ecosysteem= groep organismes die met elkaar interacten

3 scientific principles of sustainability

1. Solar energy: the sun’s energy warms the planet.
2. Chemical cycling: the circulation of chemicals & nutrients from the environment (soil & water)
through organisms and back to the environment. (AKA nutrient cycling)
3. Biodiversity: interaction between species provide vital ecosystem services and keeps populations from
growing too large.

Key components of sustainability

1. Natural capital= natural resources + ecosystem services. Keep us (+other species) alive and support
our economies.
a. Natural resources= materials & energy provided by nature that are essential to humans
• Inexhaustible (e.g. solar energy, wind energy, geothermal energy)
• Renewable (e.g. trees, topsoil, freshwater)
• Nonrenewable (fossil fuels, iron)
b. Ecosystem services= natural services provided by healthy ecosystems that support life & human
economies at no cost to us. (e.g. purification of air/water, renewal topsoil, pollination, pest
control)
b. Degrade natural capital
b. Humans use renewable resources faster than nature can restore them
c. Humans overload the earth’s air, water and soil with pollutants and wastes
c. Solutions
For the environmental problems we face
• work to protect the earths natural capital

Three additional principles of sustainability

I. Full-cost pricing= include environmental & health costs of producing and using goods and services in
their market price.
II. Win-win solutions= solutions that benefit the largest number of people as well as the environment
III. Responsibility to future generations= responsibility to leave the planet in the same or better condition
for the future generations.

Tragedy of the commons= thinking, that the little bit that I pollute into open-access resources does not
matter. If all people think like this, it has a huge effect.
biocapacity= ability of ecosystem to regenerate renewable resources used by humans to absorb wastes
and pollution

IPAT model

Impact=
P -> Population= growth of the human population means an increase in consumption of natural resources
A -> Affluence= resource use
T -> Technology=
• harmful: motor vehicles, coal burning power plants
• Beneficial: pollution control, fuel-efficient vehicles, solar cells

Major environmental problems:

• Climate change
• Loss of biodiversity (species & habitats)
• Ocean acidification
• Diminishing access to freshwater
• Resource waste
• Hazardous pollutants

Causes of environmental problems:

• Population growth
• Wasteful and unsustainable resource use
• Omission (exclusion) of the harmful environmental and health costs of goods and services in markt
prices
• Increasing isolation from nature (no connectedness to the earth: do not understand that everything
comes from the earth and that harming the earth means harming ourselves)
• Competing environmental world views
• Human-centered environmental worldview: natural world is a support system for human life. We are in
charge of nature and should manage it for the benefit of humans.
• Life-centered environmental worldview: all species have value in fulfilling ecological roles regardless if
they are useful to society. All species will become extinct but that does not mean that we should haste
the process through human activities
• Earth-centered environmental worldview: we are dependent on nature, the earth’s natural capital exists
for all species not just for humans.

How to live more sustainably

• Learning from nature
• Protecting natural capital
• Not wasting resources
• Recycling & reusing nonrenewable resources
• Using renewable resources no faster than nature can replenish them
• Full pricing
• Preventing ecological damage
• Finding win-win solutions
• Responsibility to future generations

Chapter 6. The Human Population

Exponential growth of humans: saved by new technology or unsustainable (using more natural capital)

3 factors
I. Landbouwrevolutie
II. Technologische revolutie
III. Death rates dropping sharply (antibiotics & knowledge)

3 trends related to current size, growth rate & distribution

I. Population growth decreased, population size increased
II. Unevenly distributed: in less-developed countries
III. From rural to urban areas

Cultural carrying capacity= max number of people that could live in reasonable freedom and comfort
indefinitely, without decreasing the ability of the earth to sustain future generations.

Population change formula:

Fertility rates
Replacement-level fertility rate= average number of children to replace the old generation.
Total fertility rate (TFR)= average number of children born to women of childbearing age in population.

There is a range of estimates because there are many factors that determine TFR, it is a (calculated)
gamble.

Factors that affect birth & fertility rates

I. Children as part of the labor force
II. Raising & educating children
III. Pension systems (or lack thereof)
IV. Urbanization (access to family planning services)
V. Educational & employment opportunities for women
VI. Age when woman has her first child (less children if mom 25)
VII. Birth control methods
VIII. VIII.Religious beliefs/traditions/cultural norms
Factors that affect death rates
Life expectancy= average number of years a person born in a particular year can be expected to live.
Infant mortality rate= number of babies out of every 1000 born who die before their first birthday.
(Mostly malnutrition/infectious disease)

Population decline
If percentage of people >65 increases, these problems will occur:
• Threaten economic growth
• Labor shortages
• Less government revenues with fewer workers
• Less entrepreneurship or business formation
• Less new technology formation
• Public deficit to fund higher pension/health-care costs
• Pensions cut and retirement age increased.

Slowing population growth

1. Through economic development
• Demographic transition (population grows slowly if economic developed)
2. Educating & empowering women
3. Family planning
• Education & clinical services to help couples choose how many children to have and when
• e.g. birth spacing, birth control, health care for pregnant women & infants.

Population & 3 scientific principles of sustainability

• increasing solar, wind & other renewable-energy technologies can cut down pollution that increase bc
we have more people that use resources.
• Reusing & recycling materials to cut waste
• Focusing on preserving biodiversity to sustain ecosystems.
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Chapter 22. Urbanization and sustainability

Urbanization= creation and growth of urban & suburban areas
• more births than deaths
• Immigration from rural areas

Trends in urban population dynamics

1. Percentage of global population that lives in urban areas increases
2. Number & size of urban areas are increasing (most in underdeveloped countries)
3. Poverty is becoming urbanized (in less-developed countries)

Urban sprawl
definition= growth of low=density development on the edges of cities and towns
• lack of urban planning but a lot of affordable land, cars, money for highways
• Destroys forests, wetlands and cropland & increases air and water pollution
• Horizontal expansion (dispersed cities with suburbs)

Benefits of urbanization
• economic development
• Innovation
• Education
• Social & cultural diversity
• Jobs
• Access to medical care

Disadvantages
• Urban areas use 75% of natural capital.
• Lack of vegetation (so no air purification, generation of oxygen, removal of CO2, control of soil
erosion and wildlife habitat)
• Lack of biodiversity awareness (bc isolated from natural areas)
• Water problems
• Increase of water demand-> reservoirs or deeper wells
• Glacier disappear bc climate change (no water for city that depends on them)
• Flooding (city built on wetlands that absorb excess water)
• Pollution & health problems (air, water & wastes)
• Noise pollution (cause stress, high blood pressure, less concentration)
• Urban heat island (warmer, rainier, foggier, cloudier-> fucks with natural dilution & cleaning of
polluted air).
• Poverty

Motor vehicles
• car accidents
• Air pollution
• Noise pollution

Land-use planning
Definition= determine best present and future uses of various parcels of land
Zoning-> no cars in certain zones

Smart Growth
definition= recognizes urban growth and uses zoning & other tools to prevent sprawl to be
environmentally sustainable.

Preserving open space

• urban growth boundary
• Greenbelt (open space reserved for recreation, sustainable forestry etc)
• Parks

New urbanism
Cluster development= houses are built on parts of tract, the rest is for parks, walking, biking.

Goals
• walkable & bike-friendly neighborhoods
• Mixed-use and economic & cultural diversity
• Quality urban design (emphasize green space, architectural diversity)
• Sense of community
• Environmental sustainability
• Smart transportation (trains & busses)

Sustainable community development= economic development that focusses on the triple P’s on
community level.
• grow own food
• Generate own carbon-neutral energy
• Restoring ecosystems
• Recycling pollutants & wastes as resources

Eco-city= ultimate goal, residents don’t travel by car, all buildings are energy-efficient and there is a lot
of green

Eco-village= ecologically, economically and socially sustainable villages in rural and suburban areas or in
city neighborhoods.
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Chapter 24. Politics, environment and sustainability

Business thrive on new ideas that generate a lot of profit, but don’t take the environment in as a factor.
The government can act as a obstacle for these business and act as an advocate for the environment

Right balance
• Too much interference can strangle enterprise & innovation
• Too little can lead to environmental degradation & social injustices

Policy life cycle

• problem recognition
• Policy formulation
• Policy implementation
• Policy adjustment

Environmental problems and politics

Problems like biodiversity are too complex and mostly invisible. Its not worth fighting for as a politician
because it won’t get you reelected. They focus on more short-term issues.

Environmental justice= ideal whereby every person is entitled to protection form environmental hazards
regardless of race, gender, age etc.
-> most polluting factories dump onto minority communities

Environmental policy principles

• reversibility principle: avoid decisions that are irreversible when it turns out they are harmful. e.g.
nuclear waste
• Precautionary principle: there is evidence that an activity threatens human or environmental health,
prevent it from happening or reduce the harm.
• Prevention principle: make decisions that prevent environmental problems from occurring or
worsening
• Net energy principle: prohibit or limit energy resources that have no benefits regarding the environment
• Polluter-pays principle: the polluters pay through taxes. Stimulates development of innovative ways to
reduce & prevent pollution and wastes.
• Environmental justice principle: no group of people should be treated unfairly when it comes to
environmental problems.
• Holistic principle: focus on long-term solutions that address root causes of interconnected problems
instead of short-terms solutions and treating them separately.
• Triple bottom line principle: balance economic, environmental and social needs when making policy
decisions.

Influencing environmental policy

Individuals matter= bottom up significant political change. They are the ones that brought pressure to
politics to help the environment.

Environmental leadership
• lead by example: own lifestyle and values to show others that environmental change is possible.
• Work within existing economic and political systems to bring environmental improvement: vote for
environmental pro candidates and communicate with elected officials.
• Vote with your wallet: do not support environmentally harmful companies.
• Run for some sort of local office
• Procope and work for better solutions to environmental problems
• Good leaders inspire others to lead

Environmental law and lawsuits

Environmental law= body of laws and treaties that broadly define what acceptable environmental behavior
is for individuals, groups business and nations.

Five categories of environmental law

I. Requires evaluation of the environmental impacts of certain human activities.
II. Set standards for pollution levels
III. Set aside/protects certain species, resources and ecosystems
IV. Screens new substances for safety and set standards
V. Encourages resource conservation

Environmental groups
Their role
• Monitor environmental activities of governments, corporations and international agencies
• Influence negotiations and agreements
• Expose corruption and violation of environmental agreements

Grass-root groups= bottom-up political, social, economic, environmental change by citizens.

Environmental security
Countries are concerned about national & economic security. But all economies are supported by natural
capital so they are intertwined with these securities, so environmental security also needs to be taken into
account.

Green planning= creation of long-term environmental management strategies with the ultimate goal of
achieving greater environmental and economic sustainability and high quality of life for the citizens.

Guidelines for sustainable societies

I. Preventing or minimizing environmental problems
II. Marketplace solutions
III. Win-win solutions/trade-offs
IV. Honest and objective

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Chapter 5. Species interactions, ecological succession and population control
Keystone species= exert a large, stabilizing influence throughout an ecological community

Species interaction
-> play a role in limiting the population size and resource use of the interacting species in an ecosystem

I. Interspecific competition
• Competition between different species to gain resources (food, water, light, space)
• Ecological niches more overlap= more competition for key resources
• Competitive exclusion principle= niches of two different species can overlap but not simultaneously
fully occupy the same niche
• Resource partitioning= evolving trait that allows species to share when their niches overlap.
II. Predation
• predator-prey relationship= one species feeds on another species
• coevolution= natural selection process in which changes in the gene pool of one species leads to
changes in the gene pool of another species.
III. Parasitism
• parasitism= one species lives in or on another organism (parasite weakens the host but rarely kills it,
otherwise no food source)
• Parasites help keep their host populations in check
IV. Mutualism
- mutualism= interaction has benefits for both species (e.g. pollination, clownfish+anemone)
V. Commensalism
• commensalism= interaction that benefits one species and leaves the other unaffected (e.g. air plants,
bird nest in trees)

Ecological succession
Definition= communities of plant and animal species are replaces by more complex communities
Primary ecological succession= gradual establishment of communities of different species in lifeless
areas (melted glacier, abandoned road)-> no nutrition
Pioneer species= first species to occupy barren environment (carried by wind or water e.g. mosses
Secondary ecological succession= community develops on a site of existing community and replaces or
adds to the resident species (burned/cut forest, flooded land)-> some nutrition

Rate of ecological succesion

• Facilitation: pioneer species have different niche requirements, so when new species move in, they
move out.
• Inhibition: species hinder establishment & growth of other species (e.g. pine needles on ground too
acidic for other species)
• Tolerance: plants in late stages of succession succeed because they are not in direct competition (e.g.
shadow plant, less sunlight than tree above them)

Sustainability in ecosystems
• ecological inertia AKA persistence: ability of an eco system to survive moderate disturbances
• Resilience: ability of an ecosystem to be restored through secondary ecological succesion after severe
disturbance
-> If a really large area is damaged, resilience is not enough. Beyond the tipping point.e.g. tropical
rainforest (also very diverse so more difficult to get to secondary ecological succession.

Populations
• definition= interbreeding individuals of the same species
• 4 variables for population size

Age structure= distribution of individuals among various age groups

Age groups
• pre-reproductive stage
• Reproductive stage
• Post-reproductive stage
-> if most individuals in reproductive stage= increase in population size
-> if most individuals in post-reproductive stage= decrease in population size

Limits of population size

• range of tolerance= range of variations in its physical & chemical environment within which it is most
likely to survive (e.g. water temperature, level of oxygen, rainfall)
• Optimum range= best conditions for the population (size will increase)
• Limiting factors= some factors are more important in regulation the population growth
• Population density= number of individuals in a population within an area (high density leads to
disease & lack of resources

Populations cannot grow indefinitely

• J-shaped curve of exponential growth turns into S-shaped curve.
• overshoot= exceeding maximum population size. Results in dieback/population crash

Reproductive Patterns
• R-selected species= capacity for a high rate of population growth
• Short life span
• Produce many offspring
• Little to no parental care
• e.g.: algae, bacteria, frogs, insects
• Opportunists: so irregular & unstable boom-and-bust cycles

• K-selected species= tend to do well in competitive conditions (near carrying capacity of population
size)
• Long life span
• Produce later in life and a few offspring
• A lot of parental care
• e.g. whales, humans, birds of prey, tropical rain forest trees
Survivorship curve
definition= species with different reproductive strategies have different life expectancies
3 types:
I. Late loss (high survivorship to a certain age, then high mortality)
II. Early loss (survivorship is low early in life)
III. Constant loss (constant death rate at all ages)

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CHAPTER 12. FOOD PRODUCTION AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Food security= access to safe and nutritious food for a healthy and active lifestyle
Food insecurity= chronic hunger & poor nutrition that threatens their ability to lead a healthy and active
lifestyle.

Chronic undernutrition= not getting enough protein, key vitamins and minerals from your food
Chronic malnutrition= diet with cheap food loaded with fats sugar and salt causes a lack of protein,
minerals & vitamins.

Both forms lead to..

• Lower life expectancy
• more vulnerable to disease
• hinder physical & mental development
• Threaten ability to lead healthy & productive lives

Lack of vitamins & minerals

-> mostly lack of Vitamin A, iron & iodine (jodium)

Vitamin A
• go blind, within a year, half of them die.

Iron
• Lack of iron= anemia
• Fatigue
• More likely to get an infection
• Dying at childbirth

Iodine (jodium)
• Essential for: thyroid gland (produces hormones for metabolism)
• Stunted growth
• Mental retardation
• Goiter (swollen thyroid gland-> leads to deafness)

Overnutrition= food energy intake exceeds energy use. Causes excess body fat.
• lower life expectancy
• More vulnerable to disease (can
• Threaten ability to lead healthy & productive lives
Food specialization violates the biodiversity. If one of them becomes depleted, the consequences would be
horrendous.

Increase in global food production through technological development

1. Irrigation: water supplied to crops by artificial means
2. Synthetic fertilizers: manufactured chemicals containing nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, calcium etc
3. Synthetic pesticides: manufactured chemicals that kill/control populations of organisms that hinder
crop production

Forms of agriculture

A. Industrialized
Industrialized agriculture= production large quantities of crops and livestock using motorized
equipment with financial capital, fossil fuels, water, fertilizers, and pesticides.
monoculture= producing a single crop at a time on a plot of land
Plantation agriculture= growing specialized crops such as bananas, coffee and cacao in tropical
developing countries to sell to developed countries

B. Traditional
Traditional subsistence agriculture= enough crops or livestock for a family’s survival
Traditional intensive agriculture= enough food for a family and extra food can be sold. They use more
labor, fertilizer and water.
Polyculture/intercropping= large number of different plants are planted together but mature at different
times. Helps protect and replenish soil and reduces the chance of losing food due to pests, bad weather etc.

C. Organic
Organic agriculture= crops grown without synthetic pesticides, fertilizers or GMO. Livestock with
organic feed and no antibiotics or grow hormones.

Meat consumption
• as a country’s income grows, more people tend to eat meat.

Fish & shellfish

• industrial fishing fleets
• Aquaculture/fish farming= growing & harvesting fish or shellfish in enclosures. Fastest type of food
production

Environmental effects of food production

I. Energy use
Food has been made and transported with help of fossil fuels.
II. Industrialized agriculture
• biodiversity loss
• Soil erosion, infertile, water logging & desertification
• Water pollution
• Air pollution
• Human health; contamination, waste, pesticides
III. Excessive irrigation, soil salinization & waterlogging
waterlogging= saturation of soil with irrigation water so that the water table rises close to the surface
IV. Biodiversity loss
Argobiodiversity= the genetic variety of animal and plant species are decreasing.
Instead of saving seeds, GMO companies forbid farmers to save them
Soil salinization= accumulation of salts in upper soil layers through irrigation water that can disrupt crop
growth and even kill plants.
V. GMO’s
Benefits
• need less water, fertilizer & pesticides
• Resistant to insects, disease, frost & drought
• Grow faster and raise yields (amount of crops)
• Tolerate higher level of herbicides
• Longer shelf life
Disadvantages
• unpredictable genetic & ecological effects
• Toxins in food
• Repel or harm pollinators
• Promote pesticide-resistant insects, herbicide-resistant weeds and plant diseases
• Disrupt seed market and reduce biodiversity
VI. Industrialized meat production
Benefits
• increased meat production
• Higher profits
• Less land use
• Reduced overgrazing
• Reduced soil erosion
• Protection of biodiversity

Disadvantages
• confinement and crowded animals
• Industry needs a lot of grain, fishmeal, water and fossil fuels
• The most greenhouse gas emissions
• Animal wastes pollute water and ground
• Antibiotics that make people sick
VII. Aquaculture
Benefits
• high efficiency
• High yield
• Reduces over-harvesting of fisheries
• Jobs & profit

Disadvantages
• large input of land, grain and fishmeal
• Large waste output
• Loss of mangrove forests
• Dense population vulnerable to disease

pest= any species that interferes with human welfare

Global warming & pests= increase the population of some insects and makes them hungrier by speeding
up their metabolism

Synthetic pesticides
Disadvantages
• Remain deadly in environment; Pollute water air and land
• Can kill beneficial species as well as pests
• Promote genetic resistance in pests
• Are expensive for farmers
Benefits
• saves human lives from insect-transmitted diseases (typhus-lice, bubonic plague-rat fleas, malaria-
mosquito)
• Increase food supply
• Help farmers control soil erosion (apply herbicide instead of weeding soil by plowing)
• Help farmers increase profits
• Biopesticiden are safer & more effective

Alternatives to synthetic pesticides

• fool the pest: rotating types of crops each year & adjust planting times so that they starve
• Provide homes for pest enemies
• Implant genetic resistance
• Bring in natural enemies
• Insect scents (pheromones) to lure them in traps or attract predators
• Natural methods to control weeds (cover crops, hand weeding)

Soil conservation= reduce topsoil erosion and restore soil fertility

• Terracing
• contour planting (planting crops in rows across the slope of the land),
• strip cropping (alternating strips of a row crop(corn/cotton) and another crop that completely covers the
soil; so called over crop)
• Alley cropping (legumes that add nitrogen to soil are planted with orchard trees or fruit shrubs that
provide shade)
• Windbreaks (trees around crop fields to reduce wind erosion)

Organic fertilizer
• animal manure (dung & urine)
• Green manure (freshly cut or growing green vegetation)
• Compost

Inorganic fertilizers do not replace organic matter even though they replace the nutrients.

Government action for agriculture

• control food prices (good for consumers, not for farmers)
• Subsidies (encourage farmers to increase food production - most money goes to industrialized food
production)