BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY

SYSTEMA LAB (LBYBI12)

Exercise 8

THE FUNGI & LICHENS

Introduction

Our planet supports an estimated 1.5 million species of fungi. They occupy a distinct kingdom within the domain
Eukarya. Mycologists classify them in five divisions, namely: Chrytridiomycota (chytrids), Zygomycota (zygote fungi),
Glomeromycota (arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi), Ascomycota (sac fungi) and Basidiomycota (club fungi). This
classification is based primarily on differences in their sexual reproduction and associated sexual structures. All fungi
lacking or at least with yet to be known sexual reproduction have been traditionally lumped into a group called
Deuteromycota (imperfect fungi).

Despite vast diversity, however, fungi share certain common traits. They have chitinous cell wall and form spores as
reproductive structures. They are achlorophyllous and lack any plastid. They digest food outside their bodies and
release enzymes (exoenzymes) into the surrounding environment, breaking down organic matter into a form they
can absorb. This makes them very important decomposers of organic materials. While majority are opportunistic
saprobes (or decomposers), other fungi live as parasites or symbionts of other organisms.

Although some fungi may exist as one-celled organisms, many fungi grow by forming multicellular filaments called
hyphae. Such hyphae may be septate or nonseptate (coenocytic). Septate hyphae have septa or cross-walls within
the cells. Nonseptate hyphae lack these cross-walls and the cells are continuous, i.e. one-large branched cytoplasm
with many nuclei. A connected mass of hyphae is a mycelium. This makes–up the thallus, the fungal vegetative body.

Certain fungi grow in association with green algae or cyanobacteria. In this association, termed lichen, the
photobiont (green algae or cyanobacteria) synthesizes carbohydrates and other food substances while the
mycobiont (fungal partner) absorbs and provides moisture. These mycobionts, which are either sac or club fungi,
are obligate symbionts whereas the photobionts, are facultative symbionts frequently found independent of the
lichen symbiosis.

In this laboratory activity, representatives from Division Zygomycota, Ascomycota, Basidiomycota and lichens will
be examined.

Objectives
1. To distinguish the major groups of fungi and lichens based on their reproductive and vegetative structures.
2. To explore the diversity, economic and ecological importance of fungi and lichens.

Materials
Images of selected fungi

Procedure

Be familiar with fungal diversity and their diagnostic characteristics.

1. Division Zygomycota (zygote fungi)

This division currently includes approx. 1,000 known species. Most species grow as molds on bread, fruits or
rootcrops causing them to rot on storage. Some occur as parasites or symbionts of animals. The hyphae are
coenocytic, with septa found only where reproductive cells are formed. In the asexual phase, sporangia
 BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
SYSTEMA LAB (LBYBI12)

develop at the tips of the upright hyphae and may contain hundreds of haploid sporangiospores.

If the mold consumes all its food or the environmental conditions deteriorate, it may reproduce sexually.
Hyphae from opposite mating types unite and form zygosporangia which are resistant to environmental
extremes. Mating types possess different chemical markers but may appear identical. When conditions
improve, the zygosporangia germinate into new mycelia.

a. Be familiar with Rhizopus and its parts: rhizoids, sporangiophore, stolon and sporangium. Branching
rhizoids behave as roots, anchoring the fungus into its substrate, releasing digestive enzymes, and
absorbing nutrients for the fungus. Stolons are special horizontal strands of hyphae connecting the fungal
bodies. Sporangiophores are upright growing hyphae which bear sporangia at their tips.

Certain compatible hyphae form zygosporangium containing a thick-walled resting spore called
zygospore. The zygosporangium is suspended on both sides of these hyphae with suspensor cells.

In your worksheet, draw or attach a clear image of Rhizopus showing 1) rhizoids, sporangiophore,
stolon, sporangium and sporangiospores; and 2) zygospore, zygosporangium, and suspensor cells.

2. Division Ascomycota (sac fungi)

This is the most diverse group of fungi with approx. 65,000 known species from a wide range of marine,
freshwater and terrestrial habitats. The group is defined by the production of sexual spores (ascospores) in
saclike asci (sing. ascus). Unlike zygomycetes, ascomycetes develop fruiting bodies called ascocarps during
sexual stage. Most common forms of ascocarp include apothecium, cleistothecium and perithecium.

Apothecia are stalked and either disc-like, saucer-shaped, or cup-shaped with exposed asci. Cleistothecia are
spherical and must rupture or disintegrate to release their ascospores. Perithecia are globular or flask-shaped
with an apical opening for discharge of ascospores.

Ascomycetes reproduce asexually by producing asexual spores called conidia (sing. conidium) which are
formed externally at the tips of specialized hyphae, the conidiophores. Ascomycetes include both unicellular
and filamentous species. The filaments are septate and become dikaryotic (i.e. each cell of the filament
contains two separate haploid nuclei) after plasmogamy or fusion of the hyphae from different mating types.

Be familiar with the following ascomycetes:

a. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a unicellular ascomycete also known as the "baker's" or "brewer's" yeast as it is
used in the production of various food stuff, wines and beers. The cells are globose and ellipsoid to
elongate in shape. Multilateral (multipolar) budding is typical, producing blastoconidia or blastospores.
Yeasts also form globose ascospores in asci, which do not rupture at maturity. Each ascus contains 1-4
ascospores.

In your worksheet, draw or attach a clear image of yeasts. Label the vegetative cells, blastospores.

b. Peziza, a cup fungus that produces apothecium usually attached on decaying wood. In cross-section,
Peziza shows a mycelium constructed of loose dikaryotic hyphae underneath, with tightly packed spore-
producing structures (called asci) on top.

In your worksheet, draw and label the following parts: hymenium (fertile layer consisting of asci);
ascopores (sexual spores within asci), hypothecium (thin layer of interwoven hyphae immediately below
the hymenium of an apothecium); ectal excipulum (outer layer of the apothecium) and medullary
 BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
SYSTEMA LAB (LBYBI12)

excipulum (inner layer of the apothecium).

c. Penicillium and Aspergillus. Both form long chains of conidia at the tip of phialides. In Penicillium, the
organization of the phialides at the tips of the conidiophores is very typical. They form brush-like clusters
which are also referred to as "penicilli". The conidia (2.5-5μm in diameter) are round, unicellular, and
appear like unbranching chains at the tips of the phialides. The phialides are flask-shaped structures
carried on secondary branches (metulae) that form on conidiophores.

In Aspergillus, the conidiophores originate from the basal foot cell located on the supporting hyphae and
terminate in a vesicle. Vesicle is the typical formation for the genus Aspergillus. Covering the surface of
the vesicle entirely ("radiate" head) or partially only at the upper surface ("columnar" head) are the flask-
shaped phialides which are either uniseriate and attached to the vesicle directly or are biseriate and
attached to the vesicle via a supporting cell, metula. Over the phialides are the round conidia (2-5 μm in
diameter) forming radial chains.

In your worksheet, draw the Penicillium and label the following: hypha, conidiophores, metulae, phialides
and conidia.

Draw the Aspergillus and label the following: hypha, conidiophores, vesicle, metulae (if present), phialides
and conidia.

3. Division Basidiomycota (club fungi)

This division includes approx. 30,000 species of mushrooms, puffballs, shelf fungi, rusts and smuts. The name of
the division is derived from basidium, the structure bearing the sexual spores (=basidiospores). The club-like shape
of the basidium also gives rise to the common name club fungi. All members have septate hyphae which upon
plasmogamy, also become dikaryotic.

Be familiar with the following basidiomycetes:

a. Agaricus bisporus, the common button mushroom

b. Pleurotus ostreatus, the oyster mushroom
c. Volvariella volvacea, the straw mushroom
d. Auricularia polytricha, the ear fungus
e. Ganoderma lucidum, the lacquered bracket fungus (also known as the Mushroom of Immortality)
f. Amanita muscaria, the fly agaric

In your worksheet, draw or attach a clear image of the representative basidiomycetes. Label the following
parts: stipe or stalk, annulus (if present), gill, cap or pileus, and volva (if present).

4. Lichens

Lichens occur in three general growth forms: a) foliose, with leaf-like thallus; b) crustose, with a crust-like thallus;
and c) fruticose, with an erect or pendant, usually much branched thallus with tissues that tend to form cylinders
but may also be flattened. Lichens are traditionally grouped based on these vegetative growth forms.

Lichens may reproduce both sexually and asexually. Sexual reproduction is carried out through the formation of
ascocarp or basidiocarp depending on the fungal component of the lichen. Hence, lichens may further be described
as ascolichen or basidiolichen based on their fruiting bodies.
 BIOLOGY DEPARTMENT, DE LA SALLE UNIVERSITY
SYSTEMA LAB (LBYBI12)

Asexual reproduction is carried out through formation of conidia. However, most lichens readily form isidia or
soredia.

In Cladonia sp, the short, sometimes branched outgrowths of the surface of the thallus are usually colored red, black,
brown, green or orange. These are ISIDIA. They are hard to the touch and each has an outer layer of cortex-like
tissue, enclosing an inner layer consisting of loosely packed hyphae and algal cells. They are narrowed at the base
and quite easily become detached.

In Ramalina nervulosa, SOREDIA are formed. Soredia consist of a few photobionts enveloped by a loose, spherical
mantle of hyphae. They are formed by the proliferation of the medulla and algal cells and may occur diffusely on the
surface of the thallus or in delimited areas called soralia. They are scattered by the hygroscopic movement of the
cortical tissue.

In your worksheet, draw or attach a clear image of the following lichens:

a. Parmelia, a foliose lichen. Label the ascocarp and the lichen thallus.
b. Cladonia sp., a fruticose lichen. Label the isidia and the lichen thallus.
c. Ramalina. Nervulosa, a fruticose lichen. Label the soredia and the lichen thallus.

References:

Campbell N et al. (2018). Biology: a global approach (11th ed). Pearson Education Ltd.
Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica, 2011. Web. 24 Sep. 2011.
<http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/37968/ascocarp>.
Quimio TH. 1996. Fungi: mycologists’ delight. The Museum of Natural History. University of the Philippines at Los Banos. Reece JB et al 2012.
Campbell Biology: Concepts & Connections (7th ed.). Pearson Education South Asia PTE. LTD. (Phil. Edition).
http://www.doctorfungus.org/thefungi
http://tolweb.org/Fungi/2377

Prepared by EH Mandia June2020