The Expansion of The Dark Universe

CASICIACO RECOLETOS SEMINARY, INC.
THE EXPANSION OF THE DARK UNIVERSE

A Cosmological Paper
Bro. Alvin C. Laserna Jr.

May 2021
CASICIACO RECOLETOS SEMINARY, INC. 2
1. Introduction
Why does the universe continue to expand? This question could be suggested because of the
said scientific revolution since the late 20th century. During the time of Newton, it is believed that the
universe has this gravity that causes its stabilization. “Gravity keeps us grounded.”1 Hence, “until
recently, astronomers fully expected to see gravity slowing down the expansion of the cosmos.”2
However, the Hubble telescope during 1998 proved this wrong. The expansion of the universe has not
been slowing due to gravity, as everyone thought, but it has been accelerating.3 This expansion could be
related to change.
“Whatever changes, is changed by another.”4 This is what the principle of change states.
Because of this, many scientists, physicists, astrophysicists and even cosmologists are eager to explore
what must be the reason for this change. Many researches are done especially in the field of science in
order to establish a certain fact and contribute to a new knowledge. In fact, they deem themselves
successful and numbers of evidence have been laid to support what they have “discovered”. For them,
what caused this change is the “dark matter”. However, dark matter’s nature is still said to be
mysterious up until the present time.
Now, while the scientists, physicists, and astrophysicists are occupying themselves with this
matter, cosmologists ought to think not just within the box and pursue the matter as well. Rather, it is
just for them to explore the nature of the universe itself. Dark Matter, then, is needed to be known by
cosmologists for it is said that such matter composes the majority of the universe — that which is his
concern. Hence, this paper seeks to clarify the behaviour of the universe while taking into consideration
the “new” theory of science, i.e., the dark matter. Whether this dark matter is possible would also be
explored.
There are already cosmological principles regarding the universe’s expansion and science has
proven it right. But is this really something new? There could have been theories prior to dark matter
1
Adam G. Riess and Michael S. Turner, “The Expanding Universe: From Slowdown to Speed Up,” in Scientific
American, https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/expanding-universe-slows-then-speeds/, (date accessed: April 17,
2021).
2
Ibid.
3
“Dark Energy, Dark Matter,” in NASA Science: Share the Science, https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-
areas/what-is-dark-energy, (date accessed: April 4, 2021).
4
Quidquid movetur ab alio movetur. See: Celestine Bittle, The Domain of Being (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing
Company, 1939), 94.
that have prefigured it. Hence, it would be just that to start the discussion with some studies that would
lead one back to the concept of the universe prior to the theory of the dark matter. Then, some scientific
theories or principles that served as a foundation for this new theory would also be tackled. Here, it is
just to tackle the discovery of the dark matter by Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations for this
paved way to the said discovery. In order, however, to clarify such things philosophically, it would be
just to show some cosmological principles which seem to be related with such matters.
2. Body
2.1 Related Studies/Researches

2.1.1 The Composition of the Universe
The concern with the structure and evolution of the world as a whole goes back to time
immemorial that it is even viewed in the form of mythical and religious conceptions.5 Thales of Miletus
is considered as the first person who started this question in the Western thought and said that “water is
the source of all things.”6 After him, a number of thinkers were convinced that the universe is composed
of more than one element. One of these thinkers was Empedocles who believed that the world is made
up of earth, fire, air, and water which was combined together through love or repels each other through
strife.7 Such action paves way to the existence of different substances. “To these four Aristotle added a
fifth element, or quintessence, namely ‘aether.’”8
But science would tell us a different thing. The world, indeed, is composed of elements but such
elements are the ones that could be found in the Periodic Table of Elements.
2.1.2 The Expansion of the Universe
“But the ‘universe’ was at that time a much more limited concept than it became later on, and so-
called cosmology (or cosmogony) often dealt with the solar system alone,”9 if not only with the Earth
alone. In fact, it was, then, conceived that the heavenly bodies are the ones who revolve around the Earth
until the time of Copernicus and Galilei. This was furthered by Kant when he conceived the universe as
5
Helge Kragh, Cosmology and Controversy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 3.
6
William F. Lawhead, “Greek Philosophy Before Socrates,” Voyage of Discovery: A History of Western Philosophy
(USA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1996), 21.
7
Ibid, 37.
8
Celestine Bittle, From Aether to Cosmos (Milwaukee: The Bruce Publishing Company, 1941), 24.
9
Kragh, 3.
“although stable (‘which is the mark of the choice of God’), was also in continual evolution on a large
sca1e.”10
With the advent of modern technology, such statement of Kant was proven (except that it is not
attributed by all scientists to the Divine). “The great telescopes revealed the existence of numerous
nebulous stellar systems scattered around and provided, together with advances in spectroscopic studies,
a new picture of the universe.”11
Alongside with the expansion of the concept of the universe is the idea that the universe expands.
Alexander Alexandrovich Friedmann, a mathematician, is said to be one of the first persons who
predicted that the universe is expanding or evolving. He did not, however, directly state it that it was
said that “did indeed predict an expanding universe, but not the expanding universe.”12 Georges Edouard
Lemaitre, a cosmologist and a priest, is also said to be one of those who predicted the expansion of the
universe through his hypothesis of primeval atom.13
Their works, however, were not widely accepted during their times because of the Newton’s Law
of Gravity and the widely accepted conception that the universe is static.14 Given these, it could be said
that the universe should have deceleration in its expansion due to the presence of gravity which attracts
the heavenly bodies with each other or it must not expand nor contract.
“Then came 1998 and the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) observations of very distant
supernovae that showed that, a long time ago, the universe was actually expanding more slowly than it is
today.”15 Hence, proving that the universe, indeed, expands. But what causes the expansion?
2.1.3 The Cause for the Expansion of the Universe
“Scientists observed that galaxies rotate within space at vast speeds – so fast that they really
ought to be thrown apart. And yet, they remain intact.”16 It is said that the cause of this “pull” within the
planets is the gravitational force. Then, logically speaking, if such galaxies rotate in very fast speeds but,
10
Kragh, 3.
11
Ibid, 5.
12
Ibid, 27.
13
Ibid, 22.
14
Genoa Alexander, “Dark Matter & Dark Energy” in Academia,
https://www.academia.edu/9163514/Dark_Matter_and_Dark_Energy, (date accessed: April 4, 2021).
15
“Dark Energy, Dark Matter,” in NASA Science: Share the Science.
16
“Mysterious Universe: An Introduction to Dark Matter,” in Science and Technology Facilities Council, October
23, 2017 https://stfc.ukri.org/news-events-and-publications/features/the-story-of-dark-matter/mysterious-universe-an-
introduction-to-dark-matter/, (date accessed: April 4, 2021).
still, remain intact, hence, there must exist a lot of gravitational force. “All matter exerts this force but as
far as we can see, there is not enough in the way of planets, stars and other matter to produce the
gravitational force necessary to mesh galaxies together.”17 There must be, then, a kind of matter which
exerts such force but such matter is invisible to the eye. Hence, the name, Dark Matter.
During 1999, an article is published in the journal, ASP Conference Series, regarding “a
plausible, complete accounting of matter and energy in the Universe.”18 Included in such accounting is
the presence of the dark matter and energy. Up until these days, scientists do not cease to look for the
presence of this dark matter in the universe.
Scientists have been hunting dark matter for a long time. Swiss-American astronomer,
Fritz Zwicky, first theorised its existence back in 1933. Later, in the 1970’s, the
American astronomer Vera Rubin discovered firm evidence to support the existence of
dark matter. Rubin predicted we’d find dark matter itself within 10 years; but almost half
a century later, we’re still looking. However, that’s not to say we haven’t made
progress.19
But, does dark matter really exist? Would this mean that the universe is not static? If it is not,
what is the effect of gravity in the space? To answer such questions, it would be better to at least know
the definition of gravity in a scientific manner. To know how would science answer such questions
would also be justifiable.
2.2 Scientific Principles
2.2.1 The Law of Gravity
Isaac Newton is the usual person associated with gravity. He, however, did not discover gravity
itself but only its effect in the cosmos because gravity is already present since then. The law of universal
gravitation states that “every object in the universe attracts every other object with a force proportional
to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the
centers of the mass of the objects.”20
By this one could say that there is this force that makes the objects in the universe stick with each
other. One could say, as well, that this may be the reason why universe was then conceived as something
static for there is a force that holds them together. Albert Einstein himself proposed this in 1917 “as a
17
“Mysterious Universe: An Introduction to Dark Matter,” in Science and Technology Facilities Council.
18
Michael S. Turner, “Dark Matter and Dark Energy in the Universe,” in ASP Conference Series, vol. 666 (1999), 1.
19
20
Helen E. Caintic, Physical Science (Quezon: C&E Publishing, Inc., 2016), 123.
manifestation of the centuries-old prejudice that the universe as a whole be unchanging.”21 Hence, one
could say that even Einstein, also believed this theory.
However, through the observation “that luminous objects are moving away from the observer
[i.e., the Earth]”22 and “it has been noticed that all galaxies are moving away from the Earth.”23 Hence,
one could say that the universe is expanding. But “gravitation regulates the movements of the planets”24
and it must follow that “planets have a tendency to fall toward the sun”25 as what Newton stated. So,
what is the effect of gravity in the universe? While Newton would say that gravity is making things fall,
Einstein would say that it does not just make things fall. “Gravity made the universe go ’round.”26
Every object in the universe has their own gravitational force that attracts each to the other. For
some scientists, heavenly bodies in their own ways are not enough to produce another gravitational force
that would hold the universe and, at the same time, cause its expansion.27 This paved way to the theory
that “dark matter” exists.
2.2.2 The Dark Matter
True nature of dark matter is still unknown. Though many researches have been made already for
its search, no one could yet prove its existence. Hence, dark matter might not even exist.28
However, many scientists are convinced that it exists through its effects in the expansion of the
universe as mentioned in the previous parts of the paper. It is also said that everything that can be seen
constitutes only 5% of the universe.29 The other 95% is composed of dark matter and energy.30
As a matter, it is said that it also exerts gravitational force enough to draw other matter
towards it that it is also considered to be that which is responsible not just for the acceleration of the
21
John D. Barrow, “Cosmology, Theories,” https://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/ESSAYS/Barrow/barrow.html, (date
accessed: April 27, 2021).
22
Caintic, 164.
23
Ibid.
24
Bittle, From Aether to Cosmos, 429.
25
Ibid.
26
Tom Siegfried, “Einstein’s genius changed science’s perception of gravity,” in ScienceNews, October 4, 2015,
https://www.sciencenews.org/article/einsteins-genius-changed-sciences-perception-gravity, (date accessed: March 4, 2021).
27
28
“10 Things You Need To Know About Dark Matter,” in Science and Technology Facilities Council, April 13,
2018, https://stfc.ukri.org/news-events-and-publications/features/the-story-of-dark-matter/10-things-you-need-to-know-
about-dark-matter/#:~:text=It%20distorts%20the%20appearance%20of,by%20dark%20matter's%20gravitational%20force,
(date accessed: March 4, 2021).
29
“Dark Energy, Dark Matter,” in NASA Science: Share the Science.
30
Ibid.
expansion of the universe but also for the binding of galaxies.31 “This force is so huge that it physically
bends the light around galaxies, distorting their appearance.”32 In other words, in trying to prove the
existence of dark matter in the universe, scientists resorted to displaying its effects in the cosmos.
2.3 Philosophical Principles

2.3.1 The Concept of Space
After laying down some scientific principles, it is just to lay down some philosophical principles
as well. Though science may have theories, philosophers not necessarily agree with them. Because of
this, it is always just no examine scientific theories/ principles using philosophy.
Philosophically, if one would consider the universe as something which contains all bodies, then
one could consider the universe as a space. Following the definition of the Scholastics, “space is a
conceptual being with a foundation in physical nature.”33 Furthermore, it is considered as an “abstract
extension considered as a receptacle for bodies.”34
Space have three kinds: real, possible, and absolute. “Real space is constituted by real things.”35
It is the place where one moves and have his physical being.36 This concept of real space, however, by
D.Q. McInerny does not suffice to define what real space really is. His definition of real space is so
much limited to the movements of persons. Persons, however, are just some of what constitutes the real
space. Thus, the space which is occupied by all ponderable and imponderable matter in the universe is
what real space is.37 Possible or ideal space is the space which is not yet occupied but occupiable by
extended bodies.38 Lastly, the absolute space would refer to the sum of real and possible space.39
2.3.2 The Essential Constitution of Bodies
Taking into consideration the concept of the real space, one may ask the question what composes
the imponderable and ponderable matter? Or simply, what is the constitution of natural bodies? Many
31
“10 Things You Need To Know About Dark Matter,” in Science and Technology Facilities Council.
32
Ibid.
33
34
Ibid, 166.
35
D.Q. McInerny, The Philosophy of Nature (Lincoln: The Alquin Press, 2001), 191.
36
Ibid.
37
38
Ibid.
39
Ibid.
philosophers tried to answer this question. In fact, the very start of the Western thought started with this
question.
One may say that all things are made up of atoms. This is not denied by philosophers in the sense
that science even helped to prove that this is a face. These atoms, however, would only cover the
physical constitution of bodies. If, however, scientist try to push through that atoms are the essential
constitution of the physical bodies, philosophy needs to refute this.
To go to the conclusion that atoms are the essential constitution of bodies would make defend
philosophical atomism. There are two kinds of this atomism: the mechanical and dynamic. “Mechanical
atomism maintains that all atoms are homogenous.”40 This, however, is proven to be false even by
science for one knows that each element has different atomic weight, properties and activities. Dynamic
atomism, on the other hand, states that “matter is still essentially homogenous, and atoms remain
substantially unaltered throughout their existence.”41 This, however, “can give no account of the
difference between inorganic and organic bodies.”42
What philosophy offers, especially that of Modern Scholastics, is the hylosystemism. In this
view, what constitutes the body are the “hylomeric heterogeneous matter particles.” This view is made
in order for philosophy to pave way to the facts discovered by science.
2.3.3 The Existence of Aether
Such theory, however, would just cover the reality of ponderable matter. In fact, the issue in
proposing the theory of hylosystemism is to prove what essentially constitutes the inorganic materials.
There is, however, another element which is proposed, since the time of Aristotle, that also constitutes
the space—the quintessence or the aether.
In the view of the cosmologists, aether still exists. During the time of Celestine Bittle, this
aether is considered to be a postulate of science because of the activities that happen in the space.
However, there are still spaces between ponderable matter in space. Hence, aether needs to exist to fill in
such spaces. Lest, “action at a distance” which is impossible, would be possible.
3. Conclusion/Discussions to Resolve the Problem
3.1 Possibility of the universe’s expansion
40
41
Ibid, 256.
42
Ibid, 258.
After laying down the principles and theories, it is just to synthesize the ideas to arrive at a
certain conclusion.
There is the presence of the gravity in the universe and this is undeniable. This is even proven by
Isaac Newton and accepted by number of scientists. In fact, there exists the Law of Gravity. Law as it is,
one could not deny its existence in the universe.
The problem, however, lies not with the existence of the gravity in the universe but, rather,
regarding its effects. Science offered two possibilities: first, that the universe is being made static due to
gravity and, second, that the universe expands.
What is true between the two? Given the philosophical definition of space, one could say that the
expansion of the universe is possible. The universe is so vast that one could not look at it in its entirety
yet. However, given that there is still a space which is not yet occupied but occupiable, which is called
possible space, one might say that universe can still expand. One must take note, however, that though
the universe expands, its expansion is still limited for infinite magnitude and number is an impossibility.
The expansion of the universe could be related to change. The principle states that whatever is
moved is moved by another. Scientists, nowadays, would refer to the dark matter as that which causes
this expansion of the universe.
3.2 The Nature of Dark Matter and Aether
But less is known regarding the nature of the dark matter yet even up to these days. Thus, its true
nature is not yet known. However, scientists try to prove the existence of the dark matter through its
effects in the cosmos, especially in terms of the expansion of the universe. They say that such matter
exerts very powerful force that physically bends the light around galaxies, distorting their appearance
whenever they are viewed in telescopes.
One thing that may be related to the dark matter, in the field of cosmology and philosophy, is the
aether. Just like the dark matter, “the existence of the aether has never been positively demonstrated.”43
But aether is postulated by science, during the time of Bittle, or else, action at a distance would be
possible. This, however, is absurd.
These two, however, are not really the same. Dark matter exerts a very powerful force while the
aether would only serve as a “medium in order to account for gravitation, for the transmission of
43
radiation, for the effects of cohesion, chemical affinity, electromagnetic attraction and repulsion,
mechanical force, and elasticity, and for the existence of fields of force and wave action in the
universe.”44 In other words, while dark matter is considered as the source of the force by scientists,
aether is defined only through which the force and “actions” in the universe travels. Given this, dark
matter is not aether.
3.3 Dark Matter in the Cosmos
As mentioned, few is said about dark matter even up to these days. All that is known is that it is
invisible, and that it exerts great amount of force. Because it releases great amount of force, it could not
be aether because aether is an imponderable matter which has no weight.45 By this one could say that
dark matter has weight. Two evidences could be laid to prove this. The first one is regarding the
transformation of mass to energy which paves way to the second, the formula for force, the statement
that says force is the product of mass and acceleration. Taking this in consideration, there is, then, a
necessity to have a mass to produce a force.
But is dark matter possible? To ask the question of possibility, one would need to ask if dark
matter has a positive reference to reality. Science says that dark matter is the reason of the forces in the
universe. It is also known that, indeed, such forces exist in reality. By this, dark matter could exist. One
must also ask whether dark matter has contradiction in its constituent elements. Is it possible that
something invisible could have a weight? To answer this, one could take into consideration the many
gaseous elements which are not really visible to the naked eye. However, one knows they exist and
science have proven their existence. Dark matter, since no one knows what really its nature is, remains
as a possibility for it may also have properties like those of gaseous elements that has its own system of
atoms within it but still, is invisible. As long as it does no harm, also, to the creatural beings, one could
say that God could have created it as well. By this, dark matter would have its efficient cause.
Since, however, science has not really proven that it really exists, still, dark matter remains as a
possibility.
Though it may exist, one must not still deny the existence of aether. The existence of dark matter
endangers the existence of aether such that the scientists, nowadays, would seem to include only the
visible matter and the dark matter as that which consists the universe. Aether seems to have not place
44
45
Ibid, 21.
already in the cosmos especially in the interstellar space. But the interstellar space could not just be
composed of all dark matter and visible matter alone. Else, action at a distance would, again, be
possible.
Aether should still be in the cosmos for one knows that there are changes through forces in the
cosmos. If these forces would have no means to travel through, forces and matters would just simply
collide with each other and there could be no cosmos but rather chaos. But, there is still life and
existence. By this, one could say that there is still an organization. The universe maybe dark that few is
known compared to that which is unknown. Dark matter may not have been that much discovered and
proven yet. Whatever it is, there must be a reason for such thing to exist like the existence of aether.
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CASICIACO RECOLETOS SEMINARY, INC.

THE EXPANSION OF THE DARK UNIVERSE

Bro. Alvin C. Laserna Jr.

2.1 Related Studies/Researches

2.3 Philosophical Principles

3.1 Possibility of the universe’s expansion

Congratulations! Your grade is A+

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