Developing Writing Skills

Isabela Anda DRAGOMIR
DEVELOPING
WRITING SKILLS
– from paragraph to composition –
 Editura Academiei Forțelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu”

SIBIU, 2020
Lucrarea a fost discutată şi aprobată în şedinţa Departamentului
Ştiinţe Sociale şi Umaniste Aplicate din data de 23.09.2020.
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României

DRAGOMIR, ISABELA-ANDA
Developing writing skills : from paragraph to
composition / Isabela Anda Dragomir. - Sibiu : Editura
Academiei Forţelor Terestre "Nicolae Bălcescu", 2020
Conţine bibliografie
ISBN 978-973-153-410-7
811.111
© 2020 Academia Forţelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu” din Sibiu
Academia Forţelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu” din Sibiu

Adresa: Str. Revoluţiei, nr. 3-5, Sibiu
Tel.: 0269/432990
Fax: 0269/215554
E-mail: office@armyacademy.ro
E-mail: editura@armyacademy.ro
Web: www.armyacademy.ro
Web: www.armyacademy.ro/editura
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................5
CHAPTER 1: COHERENCE AND COHESION ............................................7

1.1. Paragraph structure ............................................................................9
1.2. Topic, topic sentence, supporting details.........................................11
1.3. Discourse markers ...........................................................................14
1.3.1. Conjunctions .........................................................................14
1.3.2. Connectives ..........................................................................16
1.3.3. Transition words and phrases ..............................................18
CHAPTER 2: ORGANZING IDEAS..............................................................20

2.1. Patterns of organization ...................................................................20
2.2. Types of paragraphs ........................................................................32
2.2.1. Narrative paragraphs............................................................33
2.2.2. Descriptive paragraphs.........................................................34
2.2.3. Compare and contrast paragraphs.......................................35
2.2.4. Cause-effect paragraphs.......................................................36
2.2.5. Argumentative paragraphs....................................................37
CHAPTER 3: REGISTER AND STYLE .......................................................39

3.1. Language registers ...........................................................................40
3.2. Letters ..............................................................................................44
3.2.1. Informal letters .....................................................................45
3.2.2. Formal letters .......................................................................47
3.3. Military reports ................................................................................54
3
CHAPTER 4: EXPRESSING AND ARGUMENTING OPINIONS ............57
4.1. From paragraphs to essays ..............................................................57
4.2. Pro and con essays ...........................................................................62
4.3. Argumentative essays ......................................................................65
4.4. Contextualizing opinions – Letter to the editor ...............................69
CHAPTER 5: AVOIDING PLAGIARISM ...................................................74

5.1. Quoting.............................................................................................76
5.2. Paraphrasing.....................................................................................78
5.3. Summarizing....................................................................................84
CONCLUSIONS.............................................................................................87
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTED READINGS....................................89
WEBOGRAPHY.............................................................................................89
4
Developing writing skills – from paragraph to composition –
INTRODUCTION
The importance of English as a global medium of communication has

increased a lot in the present social, political, commercial and professional
contexts. With the advancements of information technology in various spheres
of society, English has become the most popular language for the world citizen.
In the military academies in Romania, English has long been taught as a core
subject throughout the entire educational journey, yet it is sometimes observed
that students are still lagging behind in achieving comprehensive productive
skills, especially writing.
This course aims at offering students a step-by-step guide to writing as a
productive skill. Good writing at every level involves discovery, planning,
developing ideas, creativity, and revision. Throughout this course, students will
learn a variety of techniques as well as receive pertinent guidelines on how to
understand and approach writing tasks at every level, how to address them
successfully, how to excel at solving them and, ultimately, how to perfect
writing skills.
Most students need to write paragraphs, compositions, argumentative
essays and reports for coursework and for exams. This course has been designed
to help students better understand the mechanisms of writing, from simple
paragraphs that are centred on the idea of coherence and cohesion, to more
complex productions, such as lengthy argumentations that pivot on personal
opinions and demand critical thinking skills.
The entire book is a gradual journey that takes students through
understanding the steps of written composition. In chapter one, it starts from
basic concepts such as paragraph structure, topic and topic sentence, the
importance of details and of coherence and cohesion and the respective
discourse markers. Chapter two of the course is dedicated to the most prevalent
patterns of organization and offers pertinent examples of different types of
paragraphs, both in terms of their theoretical structure and practical samples.
Chapter three deals with notions of register and style and clarifies the distinction
between formality and informality as reflected in different types of letters and in
5
writing for professional/military purposes. A significant portion of the course is

dedicated in chapter four to writing argumentations, and the approach takes the
students from the exercise of identifying and formulating opinions to
understanding and mastering the mechanisms of developing and supporting
points of view with pertinent and coherent arguments. No course about writing
would be complete without caveats about plagiarism. Chapter five discusses the
implications of this illegal (but unfortunately frequent) practice and provides
sound advice on how to avoid copying somebody else’s work and taking
undeserved credit for it. Techniques and strategies for quoting, paraphrasing and
summarizing are provided so as to encourage students to filter information they
take from other sources through their own thinking and language.
Throughout the course, the theoretical explanations are supplemented with
models and samples which are discussed and offered as examples that illustrate
possible responses to the tasks presented and analyzed.
This course has been developed to help students with their written
assignments in English at both undergraduate and postgraduate level. Students
who are not native speakers of English often find the written tasks they receive
to be very challenging. In addition to learning and mastering English vocabulary
and grammar, they have to learn new conventions of style, referencing and
format. In addition, lecturers often worry because of the students’ lack of critical
thinking skills, and are often concerned about their failure to answer specific
questions and their inability to develop answers logically. Issues around
language, format, style, plagiarism and referencing skills are significant
additional worries. This course sets out to address all these problems directly.
It recognises that while students are not expected to write perfect English,
accurate and effective language use is an essential skill for learners of English,
at any level.
6
CHAPTER 1
COHERENCE AND COHESION
When it comes to planned, non-impromptu texts, such as written discourse,

the manner in which the text is assembled largely depends on elements of
coherence and cohesion. Since deliberate writing involves a great deal of
thought and intention, the use of cohesive ties and devices of coherence
becomes of paramount importance for the overall message to be transmitted in a
clear organized manner.
The two concepts are habitually used together with a similar meaning,
which relates to how the discrete elements of written discourse come together to
make a unified whole. Although they are similar, they are not the same.
The main difference to be underlined here pertains to the distinction between
“micro” and “macro” levels of text, a conceptual division that helps understand
the transformation thoughts and ideas undergo throughout their journey of
becoming words, sentences, paragraphs, essays.
Coherence is defined as the quality of being logical, consistent and able to
be understood. It refers to a method of connecting ideas at paragraph level,
under the umbrella of rational unity. Basically, coherence refers to the
“rhetorical” aspects of writing, which include, for example, developing and
supporting an argument (e.g. thesis statement), synthesizing and integrating
readings, organizing and clarifying ideas.
Cohesion, on the other hand, refers to the act of forming a whole unit.
It links ideas at sentence level, far beyond “grammatically correct” utterences;
cohesive writing is effectively a subset of coherence.
One visual analogy would work extremely efficiently in this context.
If coherence is the building, then cohesion represents the bricks and cement which
make up the building. Bricks and cement can be put together to create any form
of structure. However, it is only when they are laid together properly that they form
a building. Similarly, a text will be cohesive if cohesive ties are used; however it
will only be coherent if the cohesive ties are used appropriately to create meaning.
7
Consequently, cohesion can exist without coherence, but coherence cannot be

achieved in the absence of cohesion.
Here are three examples of paragraphs that demonstrate the importance of
connecting ideas efficiently. While all three paragraphs transmit the same message,
the first is not as well constructed as the second, and the third is the best of the
three, as it illustrates better consistency and a more logical connection between
ideas. The last example illustrates effective coherence at paragraph level.
One of the practical tools that can help improve the coherence of any
writing is to use an outline before writing, or a reverse outline, which is an
outline written after the writing is finished. This outline, also known as a
concept map, is an illustration of ideas in a logical and organized manner, which
facilitates a coherent flow of the discourse.
8
Coherence and cohesion are effectively achieved not only through language
elements (connectives, discourse signals), but also with the help of writing
strategies, which specifically include organizing the different elements in the
paragraph structure, choosing the topic or formulating the topic sentence,
developing the supporting details, etc.
The following sections of this chapter are dedicated to deconstructing a
paragraph in order to identify the elements in its structure, to exploring the
differences between topic, topic sentence, and supporting details, and to
demonstrating the role of transition words and phrases for the overall coherence
and cohesion of a text.
1.1. Paragraph structure
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a main thought,

or idea, about a single topic. The structure of a paragraph is not complex.
There are usually three basic elements: (1) a topic, (2) a topic sentence, and
(3) supporting details. The topic refers to what the paragraph is about. The topic
sentence states the main, or dominating, idea. The sentences that explain the
main idea or point are called supporting details. These details may be facts,
reasons, or examples that provide further information about the topic sentence.
It is important, as a writer, to follow this structure in order to arrange ideas
logically and to express them clearly and effectively.
Broadly speaking, paragraph structure largely depends on the placement of
the topic sentence. The rule of thumb is to place the topic sentence first in the
paragraph – a position that enables the writer to state his or her main idea and
then move on to explain it. The topic sentence can also be placed last or in the
middle. One other possible paragraph structure is to state the main idea once at
the beginning of the paragraph and then restate it at the end or use both sentences
to fully explain the main idea. Although a topic sentence can be located
anywhere in a paragraph, it is generally more effective to place it first or last.
Here are some examples of paragraphs in which the topic sentence is
located differently. In the first example, the writer mentions the time period he
or she will focus on then continues with specific details about the 1990s.
The second example is a paragraph in which the topic sentence is placed in the
middle and creates a balanced proportionality between two different categories
of specific details. In the third one, the author first presents different types of
exercise, then concludes that exercise is generally healthy.
9
10
1.2. Topic, topic sentence, supporting details
The topic is the general idea of a paragraph. Topics are important to both
readers and writers. Identifying the topic of a paragraph helps readers to
understand what it is about. Choosing focused topics helps writers channel their
thoughts and organize their ideas.
The topic of a written text is like the topic of a conversation. It is the
person, place, object, or idea under discussion. It is the subject that the author
has chosen to discuss, describe, or explain. The topic can be identified by asking
the question: What am I writing about?
In the following example, the topic of the paragraph is Men’s life
expectancy. All ideas in the paragraph discuss, illustrate or explain the topic.
11
Given the consideration that the topic must be general enough to allow the
addition of interesting details that will engage the reader, but specific or narrow
enough so that to cover it adequately in a few sentences, it is important to
discuss some strategies of refining, or narrowing down the topic. These will also
prove relevant when writing essays, because starting from a well-selected topic
is a key element in mastering essay writing techniques.
Suppose the task is to write a paragraph about infantry equipment.
The topic would be:
This topic might be much too wide-ranging to be covered in just one

paragraph. Refining it means considering all the different aspects related to the
general topic: What kind of equipment? Weapons or vehicles? Individual
weapons? Which one/ones? The topic must be more specific, and limited to a
particular weapon and its specific purpose.
In order to decide whether the topic is too general or too specific,

brainstorming or branching might be helpful strategies to generate ideas. If the
topic can be developed in multiple directions, or if the details cover a wide range
of choices, then the topic is probably too general. If the topic cannot be
explained or supported, it means that the topic might just be too specific.
While the topic is a word or words, the topic sentence is the sentence that
tells what the paragraph is about. It is usually located at the beginning or, more
infrequently, in the middle or at the end of a paragraph. A paragraph’s topic
12
sentence must be general enough to express the paragraph’s overall subject and
specific enough so that the reader can understand the paragraph’s main subject
and point.
In the following example, the topic sentence identifies the topic as animal
welfare and states that KFC claims its animal welfare advisory council is key to
its animal welfare program.
The details all relate to the main idea and support it, by explaining the
topic sentence, which is highlighted.
For this particular example, you can visualize the paragraph structure as
follows:
13
The topic sentence and the details in the example work together to develop
a coherent paragraph. The more general topic sentence is explained by the
specific supporting details.
1.3. Discourse markers
Discourse markers are an important element of written logical

organization. First and foremost, they are used to relate ideas. Writers may use
linking elements within paragraphs or between paragraphs so that ideas flow
smoothly between sentences and between paragraphs. They may be described as
the “glue” that binds together a piece of writing, making the different parts of
the text “stick together”. They are extremely important, because if they lack, a
piece of writing would not appear logically constructed and the connections
between the different pieces of the written text (words, sentences and
paragraphs) would not be evident. Nonetheless, care should be taken in order to
avoid the over-use of discourse markers. Using them in excess or exaggerately,
when unnecessary, can make a piece of writing too “artificial” and weighty.
Discourse markers can be categorized into:
 Conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating, correlative)
 Connectives
 Transition words and phrases
1.3.1. Conjunctions
Conjunctions are of three types:
1. Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two

independant clauses that are set off by a comma. They are universally known as
FANBOYS, an acronym derived from the initial letter of the most common
coordinating conjunctions.
F/for – reason
A/and – addition e.g. They cleaned their weapons and left.
N/nor – negative addition
14
B/but – contrast, concession

O/or – choice e.g. You can use a AK47 or an M16.
Y/yet – concession, unexpected result
S/so – result e.g. I was late, so they waited for me.
2. Subordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join a

dependent (subordinate) clause to an independent (main) clause. They can be
used at the start of a sentence and a comma is needed at the end of the adverbial
phrase when it precedes the main clause, or in the middle of a sentence.
e.g. He missed the bus because he woke up late.

Because he woke up late, he missed the bus.
The subordinating conjunctions illustrate different meaning relationships,

as shown in the table below:
Table 1
Subordinating conjunctions
REASON
SIMILARIT
/ CONTRAST TIME PURPOSE CONDITION CONCESSION
Y
CAUSE
because just as while after so that if although
since whereas before whether even though
as when when even if
due to
the despite the
while in case that
fact fact that
that
provided in spite of the
so..that since
that fact that
such…
as unless
that
such a
until
…that
15
3. Correlative conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join phrases or

words that carry equal importance within a sentence.
e.g. The Colonel asked to see not only Private Daniels, but also his
platoon leader, Lieutenant Hoi. However, neither the soldier nor the
lieutenant was able to explain what happened during the mission.
Here is an enumeration of the most used correlative conjunctions:

as…as, just as…so, both…and, hardly…when, scarcely…when, either…or,
neither…nor, if…then, not…but, whether…or, not only…but also, no sooner…
than, rather…than.
1.3.2. Connectives
Connectives are discourse markers that join two independent clauses, but
with a semicolon (;) or a period (.). They can occur in three positions in a
sentence: initial (beginning) position, medial (middle) position, and final (end)
position. The punctuation is different, depending on the position of the
connector. Good writers use the position of discourse markers to give particular
emphasis to the element that immediately precedes the connector. They also
make sure that they vary the position of the discourse markers to avoid
monotony.
Initial position: the connective is positioned at the beginning of the second

clause.
e.g. He woke up late; therefore, he missed the bus.

He woke up late. Therefore, he missed the bus.
Medial (middle position): The connector is positioned in the middle of the

second clause, usually between subject and verb. In this case, the subject is
emphasized and contrasted.
16
e.g. Paul and Mark are best friends. Paul spends his free time reading
modern science fiction books; Mark, on the other hand, is more
interested in physics and mathematics.
Final (end) position: the connector is positioned at the end of the second
clause.
e.g. Paul spends his free time reading modern science fiction books;
Mark is more interested in physics and mathematics, on the other hand.
Connectives link and relate sentences and paragraphs. They assist in the
logical flow of ideas as they signal the relationship between sentences and
paragraphs. In prose, the material is supported and conditioned not only by the
ordering of the ideas, but also by connectives which signal order, relationship
and movement.
Some of the most commonly used connectives are listed below.
Note especially how these connections function to link, develop and organize
ideas.
Table 2
Connectives and their usage
USAGE CONNECTIVES
and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover,

addition of
in addition, then, of equal importance, equally important,
ideas
another
next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now,

subsequently, then, when, soon, thereafter, after a short time,
time the next week (month, day, etc.), a minute later, in the
meantime, meanwhile, on the following day, at length,
ultimately, presently
first, second, (etc.), finally, hence, next, then, from here on,
order or
to begin with, last of all, after, before, as soon as, in the end,
sequence
gradually
17
USAGE CONNECTIVES
above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right / left,

space and nearby, opposite, on the other side, in the background, directly
place ahead, along the wall, as you turn right, at the top, across the
hall, at this point, adjacent to
for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as,

to signal an
moreover, furthermore, just as important, similarly, in the same
example
way
as a result, hence, so, accordingly, as a consequence,

results consequently, thus, since, therefore, for this reason, because of
this
purpose to this end, for this purpose, with this in mind, for this reason(s)
comparison like, in the same manner / way, as so, similarly
but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless,

contrast
nonetheless, yet, and yet, on the other hand, on the contrary, or,
connectives
in spite of this, actually, in fact
to in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally,

summarize on the whole, therefore, as I have said, in conclusion, as you
or report can see
1.3.3. Transition words and phrases
Transition words and phrases are phrase linkers that are normally used at
the beginning of the sentence/clause. They express different relations between
sentences, depending on the meaning and the logic of discourse.
e.g. In contrast to his older brother, who enjoys sports and outdoor
activities, Joshua loves reading books and spending time indoors.
18
The table below illustrates the logical relations expressed by the most usual
transitions:
Table 3
Transition words and phrases
CONCESSION REASON ADDITION SIMILARITY CONTRAST

in addition
despite because of similar to in contrast to
to
different
in spite of due to furthermore like
from
as a result
besides unlike
of
One of the main goals of a writer is to present ideas in a clear and

understandable way. To help readers move through often complex ideas, well-
structuring a written text as a whole, as well as constructing individual
paragraphs that comprise it are essential writing skills. In order to cope with the
challenges of presenting ideas in an articulate and logical fashion, it is important
to use a wide array of linking elements that not only guide readers through the
connections of the writer, but also help authors to induce a deliberate sequencing
of their ideas across the written product.
The main purpose of discourse markers is to establish and show logical
relationships between ideas. Given the quite populated categories of discourse
markers discussed in this chapter, one extra role might be added – they help
ensure a sense of variety to a written text. However, it can be monotonous to
read a piece of writing which abunds in discourse markers. The writing may
seem obscure, weighty and over-pompous. Therefore, it can sometimes be
helpful to omit discourse markers if they do not serve any useful purpose.
Knowing when to omit a particular discourse marker is a subtle aspect of
language use and normally comes with extensive practice in both reading and
writing.
19
CHAPTER 2
ORGANIZING IDEAS
Organizing ideas is indeed, one of the most challenging aspects of writing.

It has to do not only with coherence and cohesion, consistency and clarity, but
greatly depends on the logical flow of ideas and the cognitive structuring of the
writer’s own thoughts and message. Especially with more complex texts
(comparisons, cause and effect paragraphs, argumentations), a solid mastery and
efficient use of critical thinking skills become the most significant abilities of a
writer.
Organization impacts on the manner in which ideas are presented;
it reflects the way in which thoughts, concepts and notions are put into words;
ultimately, good organization fosters logical, clear and coherent communication.
2.1. Patterns of organization
Effective communication starts with a clearly organized set of ideas

following a logical, consistent pattern. Consequently, one of the most important
decisions a writer has to make relates to the pattern of organization that is used
to structure and order information.
There are many patterns a writer can use to organize ideas. The choice of a
specific pattern (or combination of patterns) depends upon the particular topic of
the writing and on the objectives the writer has. There is no rule to follow in
selecting a specific pattern of organization; one must simply think carefully
about which pattern makes the most sense in better transmitting the information.
Text structures, or patterns of organization, not only vary from writing to

writing, but may also change from paragraph to paragraph within a single piece
of writing, depending on the type of message that needs to be transmitted: a
story, a description, a comparison, an argumentation, etc. There are many
20
different ways of organizing the same information, and often two or more
different organizational patterns are combined to create a final written product.
This section describes the most commonly used patterns of organization.
Chronological (time) order

A chronological pattern of organization arranges information according to
time (chrono). A text that is structured chronologically reflects a progression of
time, either forward or backward. Chronological structuring works best with
story telling. In writing, stories take the form of narrations, which are basically
a journey through time, a chronologically-structured event and the details
associated with it.
When using a chronological pattern, each main section of information
represents a particular period of time, and the sub-points contained within each
main section refer to significant events that occurred within that time frame.
A variation of this organizational pattern involves dividing a topic into
“past-present-future” or “before-during-after” segments.
21
With more complex narrations, signal words are used to locate the events
on the timeline, according to the order in which they occurred (past narrations),
succeed (present narrations) or will take place (future narrations).
e.g. first, next, then, after, while, the next day, the following morning, later,
a few hours later, that Wednesday, by noon, when she was seventeen,
before the sun rose, next month, etc.
22
23
Spatial order
Spatial organization, also known as descriptive writing, is a pattern of
organization that arranges information according to how things fit together in
physical space; i.e., where one thing exists in relation to another. This pattern
works well with descriptions, when the writer wishes to create a mental picture
of something which has various parts identifiable by their location in space.
Examples include descriptions of people, places and objects.
Signal words may be used in order to indicate that the writer is following
a spatial pattern to organize the information.
e.g. next to, below, just to the right, a little further on, to the south of New
York, a few feet behind, in California, turning left on the pathway, etc.
This is how the visual representation would appear, according to the

description.
VOLCANO
conduit
magma
bedrock
24
Climatic order (of importance)

In this pattern, steps or ideas are prioritized according to a hierarchy of
value. When using the climatic pattern of organization, information can be
structured from the most important to the least important or viceversa. This text
structure is usually applied to compare and contrast paragraphs or to explain
cause and effect.
Preferred signal words include comparative constructions used to
emphasize the importance of one idea over another.
e.g. more important, most difficult, harder, by far the most expensive, even
more damaging, worse, the best, etc.
The following visual representation of a climatic pattern relates to the

example paragraph below.
25
Topical order
This pattern is the most commonly used format, and typically works when
the other patterns do not specifically apply. A topical pattern arranges
information according to different sub-topics within a larger topic, or the “types”
of things that fall within a larger category. According to this pattern, each “type”
represents a main section of information. The topical structure can be applied to
definitions, analogies and argumentations.
Typical transition words include structures that facilitate ordering and
categorization.
e.g. first, another, the second, in addition, furthermore, also, etc.
26
Sequential pattern
A sequential pattern of organization is similar to a chronological pattern,
but arranges information according to a step-by-step sequence that describes a
particular process. In a sequential pattern, each main section of information
represents a main step to be followed in order to complete a specific process.
The sequential pattern works very well for instructions.
Sequential organization is frequently confused with chronological order.
However, chronological order is not the same as chronological sequence.
Indeed, there is a key difference that distinguishes the two patterns: texts
organized chronologically occur at a specific time and setting, with activities
that are well-arranged on a timeline; texts describing processes do not occur at
any specific time and place, and the sequence is derivative (one step cannot
occur before or after another).
Usually, the sequence is made more explicit by the use of signal words that
relate the steps of the process in a logical progression.
e.g. first, next, before, then, last, finally, etc.
This is what the sequencing of steps looks like in a visualization of the

process.
27
Compare and contrast pattern

The compare and contrast organizational pattern arranges information
according to similarities and differences between two or more items.
The compare and contrast paragraph can be written according to two
types of organizational patterns: the block pattern and the point-by-point pattern.
 In a block pattern, the writer first presents all topic A information, then
gives all topic B information. Generally, this is the easiest pattern to organize
and write.
 A point-by-point pattern first offers a topic A element compared and/or

contrasted with a topic B element, then a second topic A element is compared
and/or contrasted with a topic B element, and so on until all terms of comparison
and/or contrast have been eliminated.
28
There is a wide variety of language structures that can be used to express

similarities and differences.
Structures indicating similarities Structures indicating contrast
 Adjectives and prepositions: exactly/  Adjectives: comparative and
almost/practically the same…as, somewhat/ superlative forms
rather very/quite similar to, like  Prepositions: unlike, contrary to, as
 Conjunctions: both…and, neither…nor, opposed to
not only…but also  Adverbial clauses introduced by:
 Predicative structures: to closely/greatly whereas, while
resemble, to have things/features/aspects/  Verbal structures: to contrast with,
characteristics/qualities/attitudes in to differ from, to be different from
common, there are certainly many/  Connectives: however, on the other
several/two similarities hand, nevertheless, although, but
 Connectives: similarly, correspondingly,
likewise, in the same way
29
Cause-effect pattern
This pattern is used to show the various causes and effects of different
conditions. In terms of structure, a cause and effect paragraph describes a
causal relationship between the topic sentence and the supporting details, which
either present the effects (what a certain situation has lead to or has resulted in)
or the causes (reasons or explanation why something is the way it is, or why it
happened the way it did). Consequently, there are two major variations to this
pattern, depending in whether the paragraph discusses the causes of a certain
condition (focus-on-cause pattern) or if the information is focused on explaining
the effects of a specific situation (focus-on-effects pattern).
Cause #1
Cause #2 SITUATION
Cause #3
Effect #1
SITUATION Effect #2
Effect #3
30
For more complex texts, whether at the level of paragraph or composition

(essay), two other organizational patterns are employed. Such patterns of
organizing ideas normally encourage the production of more than a paragraph,
given the dichotomy of the concepts that underlie each type and which often
need to be addressed as two separate ideas.
Advantages-disadvantages pattern
This pattern organizes information and supporting details about a topic by
dividing it up into its “positive” and “negative” parts, or the pros and the cons.
It is effective when the writer wishes to discuss both sides of an issue without
taking a persuasive stance. Usually, this pattern is applied when writing
argumentations, be they objective (the author deos not favor one over the
other) or based on personal opinion (one category outweighs the other).
As noted in the example paragraph, given the complexity of the topic
(advantages and disadvantages of globalization), text structures and
organizational patterns overlap, since creating logical relations between intricate
ideas cannot rely solely on one response strategy. The benefits and the negative
aspects of globalization are explained in terms of cause and effect relations,
following a well-established topical and climatic order.
31
Problem-solution pattern
A problem-solution pattern separates information into two main categories,
one that describes a problem and one that offers possible solutions. This pattern
is typically used in persuasive writing, where the author’s main purpose is to
convince the reader to support a certain course of action. The pattern is effective
in order to draw attention to the existence of a problem, and then to generate a
change in opinion or behavior that in turn provides a solution or facilitates the
adoption of an already-existing one. In the problem section, the writer explains
different aspects of the problem being discussed and offers evidence to support
and confirm it. In the solution section, the writer identifies a potential solution
and supports its effectiveness over other possible solutions. Again, in light of the
complexity of the issue, patterns of organization and text structures intersect and
critical thinking skills are activated.
32
33
2.2. Types of paragraphs
The paragraph is the basic unit of composition. In written form, the act of
communication is divided into paragraphs to distinguish one main idea from
other main ideas, subordinated to the same main topic. As mentioned before, a
paragraph comprises a topic sentence and several other sentences which contribute
to or support the idea in the topic sentence. In other words, all these sentences
must be related to the topic and must therefore refer back to the topic sentence.
Notice the arrows in the following diagrams, indicating different degrees of
complexity in a paragraph, depending on the manner in which supporting
sentences/details relate to the topic sentence or to preceeding supporting sentences.
Based on the presented patterns of organization, the following section will

discuss in detail five types of paragraphs — narrative, descriptive, compare
and contrast, cause-effect and argumentative. Each type can be used to
describe or explain a variety of things. It is essential to know how to use each
paragraph type for the right purpose and for the correct message. On the whole,
narrative paragraphs tell a story, by detailing events, descriptive paragraphs give
vivid descriptions of a person, a place or an object, compare and contrast
paragraphs analyze the similarities and the differences between two persons,
places or objects, cause-effect paragraphs establish logical relations between
causes and their consequences or between the events that lead to a certain cause,
and, last but not least, argumentative paragraphs express opinions about a given
issue. These five types of paragraphs are powerful tools for writers and their
adequate utilization ensures a clear, relevant and pertinent construction of
communication.
34
2.2.1. Narrative paragraphs
Narrative paragraphs tell a story, by describing the unfolding of events in a

chronological order, with focus on the sequence of the activities in the order in
which they occur.
Topic sentence
This type of paragraph is introduces the event to be narrated
used to tell a story. Supporting sentences
give details about the actions in the order in
which they occured
Conclusion
provides a sense of finality to the story
NARRATE
Useful transitional words and phrases
first, next, then, after, while, the next day, the following morning, later, a few
hours later, that Wednesday, by noon, when she was seventeen, before the sun
rose, next month, etc.
Sample paragraph
I remember when I first arrived in the United States. Even before the plane
landed, the little windows in the airplane revealed snow and ice-covered houses
and buildings. As I walked off the plane, cold air crept though the ramp that
led to the airport terminal. Some people inside the airport were wearing big coats
35
and hats, which I had seen on television, but never up close. I felt a little dizzy
and needed to sit down, and then my cell phone rang. It was my Aunt Sophia.
She was waiting for me outside in the passenger pick-up area, so I walked
quickly to the exit, forgetting all about my luggage. When the sliding glass
door opened to the outside, there was my aunt – a woman I hadn't seen in over
ten years – wearing a fur coat and waving her arms frantically in my direction.
2.2.2. Descriptive paragraphs
Descriptive paragraphs describe a person, a place or an object, by providing

detailed information about the characteristics of the described item. The pattern
of organization is spatial, with logical reference to the elements of description
(from general to particular, from a distant to a close-up view).
Topic sentence
This type of introduces the item to be described
paragraph is used to Supporting sentences
describe a person, a give details about the characteristics
place or an object. and/or functions of the item
36
DESCRIBE
Conclusion
(not necessary) provides a sense of
closure to the description
next to, below, just to the right, a little further on, to the south
of New York, a few feet behind, in California, turning left on the
pathway, etc.
Sample paragraph
Let’s describe my lovely
neighbourhood which is located in
suburban San Franciso. I currently
live on Sycamore Street. Along my
street there is a supermarket, a
bakery, three bookshops and also a
Chinese and an Italian restaurant.
Bus service is always on time.
Policemen and firefighters are very active and ready to intervene if
something happens in our neighborhood. In the middle of my
neighborhood there is a big lake and a recreation park where people
have fun in the summer. My neighbours are very kind, friendly and
useful. One day my neighbors organized a party so I think we could
call my neighborhood a community.
2.2.3. Compare and contrast paragraphs
A compare and contrast paragraph is required when the task is to examine

the similarities and the differences between two people, objects and places.
The comparison focuses on similarities, while the contrast explains the
differences. The pattern of organization can be climatic or topical.
Topic sentence
This type of paragraph is used introduces the items to be compared and
to draw comparison and contrasted, noting main similarities and
contrast. differences
Supporting sentences
identify, describe and explain similarities and
37
COMPARE
AND
CONTRAST differences
Conclusion
summarizes and interprets the similarities and
the differences discussed
COMPARISON: exactly/ almost/ practically the same…as, somewhat/rather
very/quite similar to, like, both…and, neither…nor, not only…but also,
to closely/greatly resemble, to have things/features/aspects/characteristics/
qualities/attitudes in common, correspondingly, likewise, in the same way
CONTRAST: unlike, contrary to, as opposed to, whereas, while, to contrast
with, to differ from, to be different from, however, on the other hand,
nevertheless, although, but
Sample paragraph
All matter can be changed in two ways: chemically and physically. Both chemical
and physical changes affect the state of matter. Physical changes are those that
do not change the make-up or identity of the matter. For example, clay will
bend or flatten if squeezed, but it will still be clay. Changing the shape of clay
is a physical change, and does not change the matter’s identity. Chemical
changes turn the matter into a new kind of matter with different properties.
For example, when paper is burnt, it becomes ash and will never be paper again.
The difference between them is that physical changes are temporary or only
last for a little while, and chemical changes are permanent, which means they
last forever. Physical and chemical changes both affect the state of matter.
2.2.4. Cause-effect paragraphs
A cause-effect paragraph describes a causal relationship between the topic

sentence and the supporting sentences. The information in the paragraph could
explain the causes of a certain condition or describe the effects of a specific
situation. The order can be topical or climatic.
This type of paragraph is Topic sentence

used to etablish causal introduces the cause of a situation or the
relationships between the effects a condition has
elements under discussion. Supporting sentences
38
identify, describe and explain causes and effects

CAUSE- Conclusion
summarizes and interprets the causes and
EFFECT effects dicussed
because, due to, consequently, therefore, as a result, hence, thus, given that
Sample paragraph
Many people are confused about why our economy went to shambles in 2008.
The crisis was actually the result of a combination of many complex factors.
First, easy credit conditions allowed people who were high-risk or unworthy
of credit to borrow, and even people who had no income were eligible for
large loans. Second, banks would bundle these toxic loans and sell them as
packages on the financial market. Third, large insurance firms backed these
packages, misrepresenting these high-risk loans as safe investments.
Fourth, because of the ease of acquiring credit and the rapid growth in the
housing market, people were buying two or three houses, intending to sell
them for more than they paid. All of these factors created bubbles of
speculation. These bubbles burst, sending the whole market into a downward
spiral, causing employers to lose capital and
lay off employees. Consumer spending then
plummeted and most businesses suffered.
The economy is like a big boat, and once it
gets moving quickly in the wrong direction,
it’s hard to turn it around.
2.2.5. Argumentative paragraphs
Argumentations are probably the most complex types of paragraphs.

They include and combine different types of organizational patterns. Argumentative
paragraphs are written when the author needs to express a point of view, which
he/she then supports with evidence. Evidence to support the position can include
reasons, personal experience, statistics, confirmed facts and expert research.
Topic sentence
ARGUE introduces the issue and states the position for

or against
39

any language structures that express logical relations between the elements
supporting the argument (sequence, cause-effect, description, comparison and
contrast)
Sample paragraph
Going abroad to study or to live is not always a
pleasure. Anybody can have difficulties trying to
adapt to the customs and traditions of the new
country. I believe that a person living abroad
should try to get assimilated into the new
culture. First, it has been demonstrated that the
culture shock doesn’t last forever. After a period of time, the discrepancy
between cultures will appear smaller. The second reason is that struggling with
all kinds of problems will conduct to a greater final satisfaction. Finally,
a person who adapted to a new culture will be a bridge connecting the two
cultures. This is an important step in the attempt of understanding the
differences and the similarities. All in all, I think it is importat that a person do
whatever necessary to adapt to the host culture.
On a general note, a paragraph is a unit of writing that consists of one or
more sentences focusing on a single idea or topic. Writing a specific type of
paragraph greatly depends on the task that underlies the text. By way of
example, if the task is to write about how one spent the Christmas holiday, then
the selected paragraph will be a narrative one. If the task indicates a parallel to
be drawn between two elements, the paragraph type is comparison and contrast.
Also, if the tak is formulated as to express agreement or disagreement regarding
a certain issue, then the logical choice would be an argumentative paragraph.
On a side note, for educational purposes, the task should always be formulated
so as to indicate unequivocally the expected performance, by making use of the
operational verbs that trigger the targeted linguistic behavior of the student.
A well-written paragraph has the following structure:
40
CHAPTER 3
REGISTER AND STYLE
This chapter discusses the notions of register and style and explores the
manner in which two types of written communication – letters and reports –
integrate in the larger context of formality and informality.
A writer must adapt his or her communication to a variety of contexts, be
they personal, professional, informal, formal, subjective, objective, etc.
It basically means that writers have to choose the appropriate language, based on
different situations. Register and style are linguistic varieties which function in
different contexts (Kortmann 2005:255f). The choice of register and style is
41
called “situational variation” and is driven by the social occasion, the target
audience, and the purpose of communication. In turn, register and style
determine the choice of vocabulary, grammatical structures, and format and
organization patterns. A distinction could be made in that register includes levels
of formality (familiar, informal, formal), while style refers to lexical and
grammatial variations and their use in the written text.
3.1. Language registers
Familiar register is typically used between people who know each other
very well. In writing, it applies to short messages or notes. This register is
characterized by grammar inconsistencies (missing subjects or auxiliaries, omission
of articles and prepositions), spelling codes (abbreviations, short forms of words),
lack of punctuation. Stylistically, the familiar register usually contains slang and jargon.
42
Informal register reflects a close relationship between the writer and the
audience and a certain degree of casualness in terms of the topic. It differs from
the familiar register as more care is taken with grammar, lexic, spelling and
punctuation. This register is preferred for emails or letters to friends, personal
diaries and journals, blogs, etc. The tone is conversational and the style is
colloquial and unpretentious, and may include slang and clichés, jokes, figurative
language, symbols and abbreviations, acronyms, short or incomplete sentences,
paragraphs or no paragraphs, personal opinions, extra punctuation, passive and
active voice.
Formal register is mostly used in professional contexts as well as in

academic writing. It rigorously observes the rules of written grammar, allows for
a well-informed selection of low-frequency vocabulary, respects text mechanics
(spelling and punctuation, layout) and often follows a set of rules of do’s and
don’t’s. The tone is impersonal and typically remains objective and emotionless.
This register is employed for formal letters, reports, professional emails,
business correspondence, essays, etc.
43
This register is characterized by a series of specific rules that need to be

respected in formal writing.
1. Do not use contractions. Use:

 is not instead of isn’t
 have not instead of haven’t
 cannot instead of can’t
 could not instead of couldn’t
 will not instead of won’t
 would not instead of wouldn’t
 etc.
However, contractions can be used if you are quoting someone’s exact
words in your writing.
e.g. “Two-thirds of the infantry platoon can’t swim underwater”,

the lieutenant confessed.
2. Spell out numbers less than one hundred.
e.g. 19 nineteen, 22 twenty-two, 78 seventy-eight, etc.
3. Avoid using I, You, We, Us. Write in third person point of view instead.
e.g. You One can buy a used car for under $5,000.
We The group decided to invest in the compay.
44
4. Where applicable, use passive voice instead of active voice, in order to

avoid attributing agency – which gives a subjective note to the writing.
e.g. The students must hand in the reports by next Friday.

The reports must be handed in by next Friday.
5. Avoid using slang, idioms, exaggeration (hyperboles) and clichés, such

as b/c, idk, awesome/cool, okay/ok, check it out, in a nutshell, Time is money,
My way or the highway, Never say never.
6. Do not start sentences with words like: and, so, but, also. Instead, use
transitions and more complex conectives: nevertheless/nonetheless,
additionally/furthermore/moreover, however/although, consequently/as a result
of, etc.
7. Avoid abbreviations and acronyms.
e.g. coord. coordinated

DOD Department of Defense
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
8. Do not use phrasal verbs.
e.g. get off, step out, go on, call off, turn in, etc.
9. Always write complete sentences.
e.g. I really don’t know what might happen….

10. Write longer, more complex sentences.
e.g. I did it because he wanted me to. The only reason I accepted

to do it was the fact that he had requested it.
11. Use gender neutral occupational titles.
e.g. businessman/businesswoman businessperson

policeman/policewoman police officer
45
cleaning lady janitor
12. List names in alphabetical order or according to rank/position.
e.g. Jane Abbots, Bill Davies, John Morgan, Sarah Tibley

GEN Ian Macintosh, COL Bill Gant, CAPT Tom Moore
Here is a parallel between the informal and the formal register in terms of
vocabulary, grammar and punctuation.
INFORMAL FEATURES FORMAL FEATURES

VOCABULARY
Common words Low-frequency words
Phrasal verbs Latin words
Slangs, clichés Neutral expressions
GRAMMAR
Active constructions Passive constructions
Verb phrases Noun phrases
Simple sentences Complex sentences
SPELLING
Abbreviations
Acronyms Full words
Contractions
3.2. Letters
Nowadays, with the development of the internet and the fast-changing

technology, writing letters has become a long-forgotten practice. Hand-writing
letters on a piece of paper, placing them in an envelope, buying a stamp and
mailing them to someone far away is no longer a social pratice and the
old-fashioned letters have been replaced by emails. However, the electronic
mail is just a means of sending the information, as the rules of composition, the
46
use of language and the choice of register and style remain largely applicable for
emails as for letters. In what follows, the theoretical explanations and the
practical exemplifications will refer to the term of “letter”, in its generic sense of
correspondence.
A letter is basically a message, written or printed, that is adressed to a
person (a friend, a relative, an official, a newspaper editor, etc.) or a group of
people (students’ society, the local NGOs, local authorities, etc.) for a specific
reason (to offer personal information, to request information, to make a
complaint, to express opinion, etc.). The two main categories of letters discussed
here are:
 Informal letters, to people that are friends or family, written in a

personal, chatty style;
 Formal letters, to managers, officials, etc., written in a polite, formal
style.
Regardless of the type of letter to be written, a few organizational

principles should be applied in order to give the writing product a specific
format. The ideal letter consists of three sections:
1. Introduction/Opening remarks
2. Body
3. Conclusion/Closing remarks
In analyzing different types of letters in the following sections of this

chapter, reference will be made to layout and contents in the framework of this
three-part structure.
3.2.1. Informal letters
Informal letters are sent to people that are close to the writer (friends,
colleagues, relatives). They include personal information and are written in a
personal, chatty tone, recognized as informal style.
47
Are written in order to give personal news,

make invitations, give advice, express
congratulations, etc.
INFORMAL
LETTERS
Introduction/Opening remarks
 Begin with Dear, followed by the addressee’s first name: Dear Bob,
Dear Ellie, or simply with the name of the addressee: Richard,
It is important to remember to use a comma (,) after the name.
 Include opening remarks: How are you?, How have you been?, It’s
been a long time since we last talked/saw each other, I hope this email/
letter finds you well, I hope you and your family are doing well, etc.
Body
 State your reason for writing
 Develop the topic in detail (1-3 paragraphs)
Conclusion/Closing remarks
 Invite the person to write back/meet
 Include closing remarks: I am looking forward to seeing you, I can't
wait to see you soon, I can't wait to hear from you, I am looking
48
forward to hearing from you soon, I hope to hear from you soon, See
you soon, Send my love to…, Give my regards to...
 Say goodbye to the reader and add signature (your name): Best wishes,
Best, Kind regards, Best regards, Lots of love, Love, etc.
Informal style
 everyday vocabulary, e.g. I had a great day
 colloquial expressions/idioms, e.g. drop me a line
 phrasal verbs, e.g. get on, settle in
 short forms, e.g. I’ll, don’t, won’t
Consider the following task:
Write a letter to a friend who lives abroad and whom you visited
during the summer. Thank him/her for the time you spent there,
give him/her news about yourself and invite him/her to come to
Romania for the winter holidays.
A possible response letter will have the following content and structure:
Dear Mark, INTRODUCTION
I hope this letter finds you and your family well. OPENING
I am sorry it took me so long to decide to write to you. REMARKS
I have been quite busy since I returned home.

First of all, I want to thank you for a wonderful
summer holiday. It was the most interesting holiday BODY
I’ve ever spent. I could never imagine that I would
have so much fun in a foreign country and make such –paragraph 1
good friends like you.
Since I came back home I have gone to work
everyday. It is a difficult period for us because we
have a lot to do in order to implement the new NATO –paragraph 2
standards in our unit. Sometimes I feel very tired and
I’d like to have a short break at least for a day or two.
It is not possible at this moment, but I’ll get a few
days off at the end of the month.
49
I hope that we will meet again as soon as

possible. Have I told you how amazing winters are
here? Wouldn’t you like to come to Brasov for –paragraph 3
Christmas? I promise I’ll teach you some Romanian
carols, and we can also go skiing in the montains
nearby. What do you say?
I’m looking forward to hearing from you soon. CLOSING
Give my regards to Sophie. REMARKS
Best, SIGNATURE
Martin
3.2.2. Formal letters
Formal letters follow a certain pattern and formality. They are strictly
professional in nature, directly address the issues concerned and are written in a
formal style, with a polite, impersonal tone. They are typically sent to people in
official positions or people that the writer does not know well. Any type of
business letter or letter to authorities falls within this category.
All formal letters respect some conventions and a specific structure.
Moreover, they have to be simple, clear and address the topic directly.
FORMAL They are written in official or professional

contexts, to give or request information, to
LETTERS inform, to complain, etc.

– Use the following:
 Dear Sir/Madam, if the addressee’s name is unknown
 Dear Mr…./Mrs…/Ms… if the name of the recipient is known
 Dear followed by the position if such information is available and the
name of the addressee is unknown: Dear Editor, Dear President,
Dear Professor,
 Dear followed by position and name in case these details are known:
Dear Dr. March, Dear Professor Green,
 Dear Student, Dear Customer, Dear All, if the addressee is a collective
or an abstract entity
50
– Use opening sentences according to the type of letter

Body
– State your reason for writing
– Develop the topic in detail
– Repeat the most important points, depending on the purpose of the letter
– Include closing remarks: I look forward to hearing from you/meeting you,
I await your reply with interest,
– Add full name and sign after (Yours) sincerely, if the recepient is known
and (Yours) faithfully, if the recipient is unknown
According to their purpose, formal letters can be of different types.
The next section will focus on the contents and structure of three types of formal
letters, according to the reason for writing: letter of application, letter of
complaint and letter of request.
Letter of It is written to apply for a job, position

application
– Begin with:
 Use Dear Mr…./Mrs…/Ms… if the name of the recipient is known
– Use an opening sentence that links the letter to the context in which it is
written, i.e. as a response to a job advertisment: I am writing in response
to…,With reference to…..,
Body
– Give detailed information about:
 Age
 Current situation/job
 Education/qualifications
 Experience
 Personal qualities/skills
 Etc.
51
– State availability for an interview/meeting
– Give contact details
– Include closing remarks: I look forward to hearing from you/meeting you,
I await your reply with interest,
– Add full name and sign after (Yours) sincerely, if the recipient is known and
(Yours) faithfully, if the recipient is unknown
As an example, an application letter written for the folowing task might

have the suggested content and structure:
Write a letter of application for a teaching position at your local

high school.
Dear Mrs. White, INTRODUCTION
With reference to your advertisement in OPENING SENTENCE

Wednesday’s edition of the San Antonio Post,
I am interested in applying for the position of
high school teacher.
I am 34 years old and currently teaching in BODY
San Antonio. I have a B.S. degree awarded by
the Texas University in 2006. I completed my – age, current job,
certificate in education at Austin Teacher education
Training College in 2010.
I have been working for Palo Alto
Secondary School in San Antonio since 2007. – experience
During this time, I have enjoyed teaching a
variety of subjects, such as English, History and
Geography.
52
I consider myself to be punctual, industrious

and reliable. I enjoy working with children and – personal qualities
teenagers and have good people skills.
I enclose a reference from my present CONCLUSION
employer. I would be grateful if you would
consider my application. I am available for – availability
interview any weekday morning. I look forward
to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
(signature) SIGNATURE
Jane Bowman
Letter of It is written to complain about a product or
complaint service
– Begin with:
– Use an opening paragraph, structured according to the 3Ws:
 WHY – state your complaint/reason for writing: I am writing to
complain about…, I am sorry to disturb you with a complaint…..,
 WHAT – shortly describe what happened (a few narrative sentences)
 WHERE/WHEN – mention the time and place of the incident
Body
– Give detailed information about:
 the product/service
 specific points/aspects related to the complaint
– Tell what action(s) to be taken/what is expected to happen
– Give a deadline to respond/solve the problem within
– Include closing remarks: I look forward to hearing from you, I await your
53
reply with interest, I am waiting for an answer as son as pssibe/at your

earliest convenience
Register and style
– Use polite yet assertive words
– Avoid threats and extreme measures
A complaint letter written in response to the suggested task might have the
following content and structure:
You have purchased a device from an electronics store. After a

while, it stopped working properly. Write a letter of complaint to
the manager of the store, explaining the situation and your
expectations.
Dear Manager, INTRODUCTION
I am sorry to contact your company with a

complaint. I have phoned your customer service and
OPENING REMARKS
they suggested I should write a complaint letter.
Last month, on the 25th, I bought an iPhone from
– why
your specialized store in Los Angeles. I chose a
11 Pro model, a very expensive product. Since
– where
I returned back home, to Monterey, I have used it
without any issues. However, yesterday, as I was
– what
trying to charge it as usually, it stopped working.
First of all, when I connected it to the charger, BODY
it did not charge at all. I tried to use a different
charger (the phone came with a spare one), but it – details about the
proved not to be the right solution. After a few malfunction
moments, the screen went blue, then black and
54
finally it shut off completely.

Since the warranty for this product is available CONCLUSION
until the end of this year, I think the problem can be
solved by your service department within this period – deadline for
of time without extra costs. As specified in the solutioning
contract and in the warranty certificate, I expect you
to offer me a new working phone to replace this one. – what is expected
Please let me know how we can manage this. to happen
I am waiting for an answer as soon as possible. CLOSING REMARKS
Respectfully,
(signature) SIGNATURE
Emil Chidean
Letter of It is written to request information about

a job, a course, a product or a service
request
– Begin with:
– Use an opening sentence that links the letter to the context in which it is
written, i.e. as a response to an ad: I am writing in response to…,This is with
reference to…..,
– Declare your interest: I would like to…, I’d love to…, I would be interested in…
Body
– Ask for detailed information regarding:
 Procedure
 Duration
 Cost
 Specific characteristics
 Function
 Availability
 Etc.
55
– Mention a deadline by which to receive the information
– Provide contact details
– Include closing remarks: I look forward to hearing from you, I await your
reply with interest, I am waiting for an answer as son as pssibe/at your
earliest convenience
By way of example, a request letter written for this task could have the
following content and structure:
You have read an advertisement for a specialized course you have

been long interested in. Write a letter of request to the institution
organizing the course in order to find out more details.
Dear Sir/Madam, INTRODUCTION
This is with reference to your advertisement OPENING REMARKS

in the “Jane Defense” for Logistics Level 3 Expert
classes. I have a B.Sc. degree in Organizational
Management from the LFA in Sibiu, Romania, and
I would be interested in joining your institute for
the expert training.
Please let me know about the application BODY
procedure: type of test, date and eligibility.
I would also like to know the duration of the – details about the
training programme, the length and number of course
classes per week and the graduation minimum
standards. Information about the fees payable and
the study materials would also be extremely
56
helpful.
CONCLUSION
I would like to enroll as soon as possible, so
– deadline
an early response will be most appreciated.
You can email me at jreacher@armyacademy.com
– contact details
or contact me by phone at 0040722676257.
I look forward to hearing from you at your CLOSING REMARKS
earliest convenience.
Respectfully, SIGNATURE
LT Jack Reacher
3.3. Military reports
Military reports are official texts, written for professional purposes, in

work-related contexts and about real situations, pertaining to tasks that military
(and sometimes civilian) personnel deal with as part of their job. Reports are
usually written according to a pre-etablished format, by respecting specific
standards and particular requirements.
In general terms, reports are defined as informative pieces of writing
concerning a particular person, place, situation, or plan, that are addressed to
one’s superior/colleagues, members of a committee, and which are written in
response to a request or instruction. Depending on the purpose for which they
are written, NATO reports fall into three major categories: progress reports,
inspection reports, after-action reports.
As with any piece of writing that must be studied and learned, the correct
composition of military reports is built on pre-defined standards in terms of
content, structure, format and style.
The content must obviously repect the task and should be tailored
according to the requirements imposed by the context and situation-appropriate.
57
The structure should follow the same organizational pattern that typifies
any piece of writing based on the principles of coherence and cohesion:
introduction, body, and conclusion.
The format takes into consideration the divison of the content according to
paragraphs and the organization of each paragraph in accordance with the rules
of composition: each paragraph develops an individual idea, and is composed of
a topic sentence and supporting details.
The style of the military report is formal and impersonal, characterized by

complex sentences, the avoidance of colloquial language, the predominant use
of the passive voice, the employment of relevant linking words and phrases, and
the circumvention of personal opinions, feelings and emotions.
They are informative and written in

professional contexts / work-related
situations
– give initial details according to a specific format
TO:
FROM:
SUBJECT:
DATE: LOCATION:
DESCRIPTION OF EVENTS:
Body
– detail on the content of the report
– dedicate one separate paragraph to each idea
58
– conclude based on the information given in the body of the report
– may provide assessment, recommendations, suggestions, advice, and / or
speculations about possible causes or consequences
– end with specific information
DATE: SIGNATURE:
59
Study the following example and notice how the report is written in order
to respond to the task:
TO: Capt. Mike Austin INTRODUCTION

FROM: Lt. Al Gore
SUBJECT: Course presentation
DATE: Nov, 02, 2006 LOCATION: FLC, Sibiu
DESCRIPTION OF EVENTS:
BODY – details
Yesterday I graduated from the English course at about the course
the Foreign Language Center in Sibiu. It was a very – graduation day
interesting experience and I learnt a lot of new and (past narration)
valuable things. Yesterday afternoon we had the
graduation ceremony, and before that we had to take
the final exam, which was very difficult and lasted for
3 hours. During the graduation day, we had a very big
ceremony with all the students that graduated that day
and all the teachers and other guests, friends and family.
During the course I made a very good friend – description of
which I still keep in touch with. He is from Timisoara a mate
and is also a lieutenant, like me. He is 25 years old, a
tall, athletic person. He is a blue-eyed, dark-haired,
very charming man. He proved to be a very good
colleague, a very sociable and reliable person; he
helped me a lot throughout the course.
I consider that this course was very challenging CONCLUSION
but also a good and beneficial experience for me, in the – assessment/
light of my future career. Now, I have better chances to recommendations
go on a mission or on a course abroad. I recommend
that this course be followed by military personnel in
need of improving their English knowledge and skills.
DATE: May, 02, 2020 SIGNATURE: Lt. Al Gore CLOSING REMARKS
60
CHAPTER 4
EXPRESSING AND ARGUMENTING OPINIONS
In academic settings, the teaching-learning continuum is mainly based on

presenting abstract and complex content on which students conduct further
research in order to acquire expert knowedge about a specific topic. Then, students
are strongly encouraged and even systematically taught to form their own
opinions, to have individual points of view, to position themselves in line or
against different theories they study. The final step of academic accomplishment
is to be able to defend these opinions and viewpoints and doing so involves
fashioning a coherent set of ideas into an argument.
The word “essay” comes from the Latin word “exagium”, which roughly
translates as “presenting one’s case”. This makes pieces of writing that express and
articulate opinions be considered genuine presentations of one’s case, and therefore
essays. Essays are personalized written compositions, especially if we think
about argumenting private, individual opinions about different topics and issues.
This chapter discusses the modality of transitioning from smaller fragments
of texts to more complex ones, with particular emphasis on argumentations as
types of written compositions and their contextualization as letters to the editor.
4.1. From paragraphs to essays
The essay is a paragraph in an extended form, a sequence of connected

paragraphs, organized around one central idea. There is a logical connection, in
terms of both content and structure, between the paragraph and the essay:
a paragraph has a topic sentence, a body, a concluding statement
an essay has an introduction, a body, a conclusion
61
In the example provided, notice how the paragraph has been transformed
into an essay, by developing the topic sentence and its supporting details into
five distinct paragraphs.
62
There is a simple step-by-step technique to upgrading a paragraph to essay

level. The central strategy is to extend and build up on the main ideas that are
synthetically tackled in the initial paragraph. As noticed in the given example,
the topic sentence (1) has become the introduction of the essay, developed into a
stand-alone paragraph of five sentences all linking to the main idea expressed by
the initial topic statement. Sentences (2), (3) and (4) have been expanded into
paragraphs, by adding supporting details to the key statement of each. Finally,
the concluding sentence (5) has been converted into the conclusion of the essay,
structured as a final thought that encapsulates the thesis statement of the entire
writing.
In the same way, any paragraph could be enlarged with ideas that come to
support the main points existing in a shorter version of a writing product. If we
parallel the structure of the paragraph to that of an essay, we obtain the
following representation:
PARAGRAPH ESSAY
63
Generally, an essay has the following structure:

INTRODUCTION: – prepares the reader for what follows;
– contains the thesis statement, the essay’s central
idea (it must be general enough to include all the
topic sentences in the essay);
BODY: – the longest part;

– explains and supports the thesis statement (usually focusing
on 2-3 main points);
CONCLUSION: – mirrors the introduction, by reiterating the thesis/main

idea;
– signals the end of the essay and leaves the reader with
a final thought.
1. INTRODUCTION
SUPPORTING MATERIAL
1st supporting paragraph
2. BODY
2nd supporting paragraph
Optional, depending on the type of essay

3rd supporting paragraph
3. CONCLUSION
64
There are some steps that must be taken into consideration and
systematically applied when writing an effective essay:
1. Selecting the topic so as to be interesting, resourcesful, appealing,

relevant and last but not least, debatable, so that an opinion can be formed about it.
2. Narrowing down the topic, in order to focus on one specific aspect of a

wider and otherwise exhaustive subject.
65
GENERAL
TOPIC
narrowing down
HISTORY OF THE
DESERT WARFARE
SPECIFIC
TOPIC
OPERATION
“DESERT STORM”
Gen.
Schwarzkopf’s
counteroffensive
strategies
3. Writing the thesis statement, which must clearly state, in sentence form,
the essay’s central point, the main idea supported by the essay. It must be well
developed, but also specific, limited and direct.
e.g. My army experience was really good.
66
The leadership and the examples set by my

commanders helped me mature greatly and made my
army experience both educational and exciting.
67
4. Organizing/Writing the body in order for the information presented here

to support and discuss the thesis statement. Developing the body is
basically reduced to derivating topic sentences from the thesis statement,
which will be further analyzed in separate paragraphs.
THESIS STATEMENT
I totally agree with capital punishment as a way of dealing

with convicted criminals.
TOPIC SENTENCE 1
The punishment should fit the crime.
TOPIC SENTENCE 2
The penalty should be perceived as a deterrent.
TOPIC SENTENCE 3
This type of punishment satisfies the society’s desire for retribution.
5. Writing a conclusion that reiterates the thesis statement and gives the
essay a sense of closure and finality.
4.2. Pro and con essays
Offering the “Pro” and the “Con” sides of a controversial topic entails
analyzing the positive and negative aspects, or the advantages and disadvantages
of a specific issue, or simply choosing between them. It is a challenging task, as
it involves discussing two conflicting sets of facts and making a rational
judgment about their relative validity. Furthermore, such an essay encourages
critical thinking by requiring the examination of a debatable issue from different
perspectives.
A good essay of this type should consist of:
1. an introductory paragraph which clearly states the topic to be discussed,
without expressing opinion;
68
2. a main body which presents the for and against points along with
justifications, examples or reasons, in separate paragraphs;
3. a closing paragraph which states opinion or gives a balanced
consideration of the topic.
Based on this structure, the pro and con essay is usually constructed around
4 paragraphs:
Paragraph 1 – INTRODUCTION
This first paragraph states the topic and summarizes the issue without
giving opinion. It is a balanced introductory remark that announced the purpose
of the writing – to explore pro and con sides of an issue or to discuss its
advantages and disadvantages.
Paragraph 2 – PRO arguments

In this paragraph, the pro side of the debated topic is supported with
justifications, examples, and/or reasons.
Paragraph 3 – CON arguments

In this paragraph, the con side of the debated topic is supported with
justifications, examples, and/or reasons.
Paragraph 4 – CONCLUSION
The final paragraph expresses the writer’s personal opinion on the issues
and provides a balanced summary of the topic. To make the ending of the essay
more effective, the personal opinion can be accompanied by a relevant quotation
or even a rhetorical question.
69
An example task for a pro and con essay may be the following:
A possible answer in the form of a pro and con essay would read:
It is now easier than ever to access the INTRODUCTION

internet, whether you are using a computer, a phone – state the issue
or a tablet. There is no doubt that many young
people are spending more and more time online, – announce main
with both positive and negative consequences. points of discussion
One advantage of the internet is that young BODY
people can do research for their schoolwork and
homework. This often helps youngsters broaden their – PRO argument
knowledge and have a good academic performance.
Another positive aspect is that people can practice
foreign languages by chatting with people from
other countries. This is also a good way of keeping – advantages
in touch with friends and family all over the world.
On the other hand, there are a number of

negative consequences. Some young people become – CON argument
addicted to online gaming and waste too much time
playing such games. This can have a negative effect
on their school performance, exercising and social
interactions. Furthermore, too much virtual life can – disadvantages
alienate people from reality and make them lose
contact with the outside world (family, friends, etc.)
To sum up, spending too much time on the
CONCLUSION
internet can have a negative impact on young
people but also advantages. Personally, I think the
– balanced summary
internet is an incredible tool and its benefits
of the discussion
outweigh the dangers. However, we should be
– personal opinion
careful not to use the internet excessively.
70
4.3. Argumentative essays
An argumentative essay is a piece of writing that takes a stance on an issue.

In a good argumentative essay, a writer attempts to explain readers their point of
view about a topic by stating their reasoning and providing evidence to back it
up.
The complexity of writing such an essay lies in the fact that it entails
numerous preparatory activities and requires to practice a wide array of skills
associated with them: researching a topic, collecting, generating, and evaluating
evidence, and finally establishing a position on the topic and supporting it.
Detailed investigation of the topic allows the deepening of content knowledge
and facilitates exposure to different points of view regarding the topic, enabling
a personal position to be formed and supported with evidence found during the
research stage. Regardless of the amount or type of research involved,
argumentative essays must establish a clear thesis and follow sound reasoning.
While it might be seen as a combination of other types of essays,
the real emphasis for this type of writing is placed not so much on the ways in
which the opinion is expressed (which could be done by narration, description,
comparing and contrasting, cause-effect, problem-solution, analysis, synthesis,
explanation, etc.) but on the logical, pertinent and relevant formulation of a
personal standpoint and the coherence of the argumentation that supports it.
A common method for writing an argumentative essay is the
five-paragraph approach. This is, however, by no means the only formula for
writing such essays. If it sounds straightforward, that is because it is; in fact, the
method consists of:
1. an introductory paragraph;
2. three evidentiary body paragraphs that include discussion of the
arguments;
3. a conclusion.
71
The general structure of a 5-paragraph argumentative essay follows this

format:
Paragraph 1 – INTRODUCTION
The first paragraph of an argumentation establishes the context by defining
the topic in a general way. In addition, the introductory paragraph expresses the
viewpoint of the author, who straightforwardly position themselves pro or
against the issue. This formulation of opinion on the background of the
contextualization of the topic is called thesis or thesis statement. It is essential
that the thesis be appropriately narrowed so as to answer the specific
requirements in the task. If this portion of the essay is not mastered accurately,
it will be quite difficult to compose and follow through with an effective
argumentation.
Paragraphs 2 (argument 1), 3 (argument 2), and 4 (argument 3) – BODY

The following three paragraphs compose the body of the argumentation
and support the standpoint taken in the thesis statement based on three
arguments chosen to express agreement or disagreement with the issue.
Given the fact that a paragraph is a fragment of text centered on one idea, each
paragraph in the body will support and develop one argument. While this allows
for clarity, direction and organization, it is also critical to ensure coherence, at
paragraph level – in that all supporting details should be subordinated to the
topic sentence/argument – and cohesion, at the level of the entire text, by
fluently connecting the paragraphs/arguments with each other and to the thesis
statement.
As each paragraph is developed to sustain one argument, all supporting
details must follow a common thread and ultimately link back to the main idea
of the paragraph. Although the argumentation can be constructed according to
different patterns of organization (see Ch. 2), the subordination of the details
must be clear, logical and easy to follow. Regardless of the organizational
structure chosen, the information that supports the thesis must be
well-researched, accurate, detailed, pertinent and up-to-date. It should be based
on sources that provide credibility, such as quotations, statistics, facts, examples,
and might sometimes (although not very often) include relevant personal
experience.
72
Paragraph 5 – CONCLUSION
In addition to the introduction, this portion of the essay should take on the
heaviest weight of the argumentation. Just as first impressions, last impressions
also count, and it will be the writer’s final remarks that will leave an immediate
impression on the reader. Consequently, the conclusion must be effective and
powerful. A well-rounded argumentation synthesizes the information presented
in the essay by restating the thesis, reviewing the arguments and expressing a
final thought. Completeness is a key element here, as the concluding remarks
must leave no doubt as to the writer’s opinion or the arguments behind it.
It is also important to adapt the register and style to the specific type of
writing. Against this backdrop, language is an essential element that not only
characterizes a cultivated mind able to have and support opinions, but also
facilitates a correct and clear expression of complex thoughts and ideas.
73
Here is a list of the most common expressions used for different

language functions when writing an essay:
USEFUL LANGUAGE
To express opinion: To list/add points: To introduce
I believe that In the first place, viewpoints:
I think that To start/begin with, It is argued that
I consider that First/ First of all/Firstly, People argue that
If you ask me, First and foremost, Some believe that
In my opinion/view, Second/ Second of Supporters claim that
To my mind, all/Secondly, Opponents say that
To my way of thinking, What is more, According to…,
The way I see it, Another major reason… In the words of…,
It seems/appears to me (that) Also, As X mentioned in…,
It is my belief/opinion (that) Besides, To quote X,…
I (definitely) think/feel Furthermore, As demonstrated
(that) Moreover, by…,
I am inclined to believe that In addition to this/that, As shown by…,
As far as I am concerned, Apart from this, Given that…
To introduce examples: To emphasize: To conclude:

For example Obviously, To sum up,
By way of example Clearly, All in all,
For instance Especially, In conclusion,
In other words Mainly, In a nutshell,
Such as Specifically, All things considered,
To illustrate Needless to say, Taking everything
That is, In particular, into account,
74
4.4. Contextualizing opinions – Letter to the editor
One question students often ask themselves or their teachers is “Why do we

learn these things?” Indeed, the link between real life practices and educational
activities sometimes eludes instruction. In today’s fast-pacing world that fosters
change at the speed of light, one often wonders if school is updated or outdated.
In order to avoid situations in which education might be accused of lagging
behind, it is imperative to adapt activities and tasks to the contexts and
requirements of real life.
Against this backdrop, the specific type of essay discussed in this section
responds to the need to contextualize an authentic necessity and materialize it in
written form. Educated people read newspapers and magazines and react to the
information presented there. Even more so, they feel the need to make their
reaction public. So they write a letter to the editor, for different purposes: to
support or oppose a stance taken by the publication in its editorial; to respond to
another writer’s letter to the editor; to comment on a current issue being debated
by a governing body – local, regional or national, depending on the publication’s
circulation.
However, there are some elements whose pre-existing condition is crucial
for the understanding of this type of task. Writing a letter to the editor involes
the existence of a person having written an article/editorial (the editor),
a reaction to the opinion presented there (agreement/disagreement) and, most
importantly, the desire to express that reaction in a letter addressed to the editor
(the written product). All these elements are encapsulated in a so-called prelude,
a narrative containing all the necessary details that go into the construction of
the task: the context in which the issue should be dealt with, the source of the
article, the most relevant point of the article (the one that is supposed to trigger a
reaction), the requirement and the conditions in which it must be fulfilled
(standards of performance). Additional details are usually provided in the form
of aspects to refer to, or guidelines for the arguments to be used in support of the
point of view.
For instructional purposes, the letter to the editor is described as a complex
type of formal letter, written in formal style (see Ch. 3, 3.1) and following the
structure of an argumentation (see Ch. 4, 4.2). Writing such a letter involves
civic responsibility and liability for one’s opinions and reasoning.
75
Deconstructing the prelude for a letter to the editor could prove

instrumental in understanding the context, the trigger, the requirements and the
expected standards of performance:
In a recent address to NATO, the US

President, Donald Trump, has called for
the Alliance’s expansion in the Middle
East, reiterating his demand that NATO
boost its role in the region. “NATO should
be helping us with the Middle East”,
Mr. Trump said. “Having an international CONTEXT
flavor there is good”. However, European
leaders hesitate to support Washington
over the killing of top Iranian commander,
Maj. Gen. Qassem Soleimani, as they
were not warned in advance and fearing
that more violence could be generated.
In the January issue of The Wall Street
Journal, editor Alex Leary argues that the
Alliance’s decision to expand its
TRIGGER
involvement in the Middle East would
represent a shift in NATO’s mission and
even a rebranding of the 71-year old
organization. The journal invites its
readers to debate on whether the Alliance REQUIREMENT
should enhance its presence in the region
of the Middle East. Write a 500-word
letter to the editor of WSJ, giving your
STANDARDS
opinion about the issue.
Refer to the following aspects:
 the importance of US in NATO
ADDITIONAL
 NATO’s charter principles INFO
(collective defense, NATO values)
 the fight against terrorism
Using this technique of making sense of an apparent lengthy and

complicated input is actually helpful in addressing the task itself. The prelude
naturally places the issue to be discussed in a broader context (NATO, Middle
East expansion, official reactions), indicates the expected response
76
(agree/disagree with the Alliance’s expansion in the Middle East) and states the
form in which the task has to be solved (a letter to the editor of 500 words),
additionally providing guidelines for three arguments that can be equally used
regardless of the stance taken (pro or con expansion).
A possible response to such a task, following the structure of a
five-paragraph argumentation, might have the following content:
Dear Editor,
INTRODUCTION
I am writing in regard to the article published
in the latest issue of the WSJ Magazine. The topic,
concerning the involvement of the North Atlantic THESIS
Treaty Organization in the Middle East is, indeed, a STATEMENT:
very pertinent one. NATO is the entity that ensures
peace and security predominantly in the North
Atlantic space. It is based on cooperation and – definition of the
mutual support between allies, in terms of political issue
and military decision-making and actions. The debate
you brought to light concerns the extent to which
the Alliance should, if at all, get involved in the
Middle East region. In my opinion, NATO should – opinion
make its presence more visible in that area, given
the fact that the United States – the initiator of the
proposal – is an important part of the organization
and that the founding values of the Alliance include
collective defense, crisis management and the fight
against terrorism, which is the most prevalent
disruptive element in the region.
First of all, the United States’ proposal should BODY:

be taken into account and eventually agreed upon. Argument 1:
The US is the predominant power in NATO, the – main idea
main source of the Alliance’s doctrine and also the
most important contributor in terms of capabilities. – supporting details
For instance, more that 24,000 US soldiers are
77
currently involved in NATO operations around the

world. Furthermore, the US provides a large
portion of the Alliance’s funding and has constantly
met all NATO’s targets in terms of defense
expenditure and equipment acquisition. Based on
these reasons, I believe that the Americans’
proposal deserves thorough consideration.
Secondly, the United Nations charter principles Argument 2:

and, implicitly, NATO’s values, pivot on the concept
of collective defense. This cannot be achieved if – main idea
terrorism is still a pending problem which, albeit
regional, has worldwide ramifications. The Middle – supporting details
East area does not typically fall under NATO’s
mandate, but the Alliance has had a Mediterranean
dimension since its inception. With the threat of
terrorism growing out of control in the area, NATO
should be rededicated to defending common
security interests and liberal values against the new
totalitarianism brewing in the Greater Middle East.
Therefore, I consider that security in the age of
terror and jihad requires a more active and preventive
approach and that NATO should reorient its
defense strategies so as to cover this area, too.
This idea links to the third point, that of Argument 3:

terrorism and the mechanisms to fight it. Combating – main idea
terrorism is a continuous and multidimensional task
that requires an integrated approach. NATO is the – supporting details
only security organization that is capable of dealing
with this challenge and, although the shift in the
Alliance’s outlook in this matter entails a
rebranding of the organization’s doctrine and, on a
more practial level, a re-chanelling of defense
budgets, I consider that NATO should enhance its
78
presence in the region. In deciding on the matter,

the European allies should ponder the key lesson
Americans learned from 9/11: “ignoring escalating
threats doesn’t make you any safer”.
As a conclusion, I will reiterate my belief that CONCLUSION

NATO should get more involved in the Middle
East area, as a legitimate guarantor of peace and – reiterate opinion
security. It may deplete the Alliance of valuable
resources, it may foster a power-play between the – summarize main
European allies and the US and it may be seen as points
an over-stretching of the organization’s initially
assumed mandate. Nonetheless, it is a task worth
investing in, one that reflects NATO’s core
mission: defense against any threat.
79
CHAPTER 5
AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
In a society that is becoming increasingly driven by and dependent on

technology, and in which the internet provides a wide array of information at an
incredible pace and with the least possible effort, the simple act of copy-and-
paste may seem harmless, but it has serious implications and ramifications in
academic and professional settings.
According to the definition provided by the Merriam-Webster dictionary,
to plagiarize means “to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as
one’s own; to use (another’s production) without crediting the source; to
commit literary theft; to present as new and original an idea or product derived
from an existing source”. Plagiarism, therefore, refers to actions taken in order
to intentionally credit somebody else’s ideas or words without referencing the
source. It may describe imitation of the language and/or thoughts without
authorization and the representation of an author’s work as one’s own, without
attributing it to the original source. Plagiarism basically means stealing, piracy,
fraud, falsification.
In light of these remarks, plagiarism becomes a profoundly ethical issue.
A writer who submits plagiarized work in the hope of benefiting from it
(personally, financially, and academically) breaks a number of regulations that
pertain to professionalism, morality, decency and respect. Furthermore,
plagiarizing is an act that compromises the integrity of the author who passes off
stolen work as their own. It is an unethical practice with great impact on the life
and career of the writer, regardless of their status and position (student,
academia, professional writer, etc.). Aside from the normal consequences
(losing other people’s respect, jeopardizing one’s academic/professional carrer,
losing the student status or financial support), plagiarism may also result in legal
action, as the original creator is officially entitled to sue the wrong-doer and ask
for compensation.
80
Once plagiarism is understood and its implications acknowledged, avoiding

it becomes a common-sense practice. The main strategy is to write original
works, contributing own ideas and adding value by including personal insights,
opinins and perspectives. However, different types of writing may involve
research (thesis papers, dissertations, projects, argumentations, etc.), which entails
study of other authors’ contributions to the field. As academic tasks usually
demand a portion of literature review to substantiate the findings presented in a
paper, it is only natural to resort to already existing information that fosters a
deeper understanding of a particular topic. Using credible sources to fundament
one’s opinion or even agreeing and disagreeing with a specific point of view is a
practice that is required at academic level and which involves using other
people’s work and integrating it into one’s own. The challenge is to do so
without “stealing” others’ contributions and being accused of intellectual fraud.
When it comes to referencing sources, different citation styles are
recommended, each having their own standards, requirements and formats,
depending on the disciplines involved. For example, APA (American
Psychological Association) is used by Education, Psychology, and Sciences; MLA
(Modern Language Association) style is used by the Humanities; Chicago/Turabian
style is generally used by Business, History, and the Fine Arts; IEEE Style is often
used in Engineering. For military writing, which might by general agreement
fall under the category “Sciences”, the APA style is preferred. 1 Nonetheless, the
military sometimes draft, issue and use their own manuals of style, which
contain specific guidelines on how to cite particular documents from this
profession, sometimes even by domain.2
Regardless of the citation style of preference, it is essential to maintain a
consistent approach throughout a piece of writing and to use references and
bibliography in order to mention the source and give the readers information
about it and a chance to consult it for further details.
Without insisting on referencing styles, but rather on the theory behind the
development of practical skills, the following chapter is dedicated to describing
different ways of avoiding plagiarism, of which the focus will be on methods
and techniques of quoting, paraphrasing and summarizing.
1
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Seventh Edition is
the official source for APA Style.
2
For example Military Citation, Seventh Edition, August 2001, issued by The Judge
Advocate General’s School United States Army, provides unique style conventions and
citation formats to address military-specific sources.
81
5.1. Quoting
Quoting is defined as the exact reproduction of somebody’s written or

spoken words. As a general rule, quotations are usually a brief segment of text
that matches the source word for word or is identical to the source and that is
obligatorily attributed/referenced to the original author/source. In order to avoid
plagiarism when inserting a source’s words into one’s writing, verbatim, it is
mandatory to use quotation marks around the text to denote that the words
belong to someone else. This technique is known as direct quoting and, in
addition to the reproduction of the words, it should also include the mentioning
of the source (name of the author/s, title of the book/article/study, number of
page where the quotation can be located, year of publishing) so that readers have
all the necessary information for further research.
It is not recommended to overuse direct quotations. However, they are
useful in a text because they provide strong evidence, act as an authoritative
voice, and support the writer’s statements. Here are two examples of direct
quotations, in which you can observe the different ways the reproduced
fragment has been embedded into the text.
Information about the source – the author(s), year of publishing and page
number could be offered as parenthetical, at the end of the quotation (first
example), or embedded within the introductory phrase, in which case the
author(s)’ name will be followed by the publication year, in brackets, while the
page where the quoted fragment was taken from is mentioned at the end, also in
parantheses (second example).
82
There are a number of rules to be obeyed when quoting:

 there must be a good reason to use a direct quotation;
 the quoted words should support personal work, not replace it;
 the quotation should sound authoritative, be pertinent and relevant to
the topic/issue presented or for the point made;
 quotation marks (“…”) must be always used;
 the exact text must be reproduced, including punctuation and capital
letters;
 a short quotation often works well integrated into a sentence;
 longer quotations, also known as block quotations (usually more than
40 words) should start on a new line, be indented and omit quotations
marks. Also, the parenthetical citation should come after the closing
punctuation mark.3
5.2. Paraphrasing
3
In APA style
83
Paraphrasing is rewriting a source’s ideas or information into your own

words, while fully communicating the initial meaning. Paraphrasing is a writing
technique that does not involve matching the source word for word but that
requires that the original source be referenced. Apart from being a strategy that
helps circumvent plagiarism, learning how to paraphrase correctly is a
facilitating instrument when taking notes from reading and lectures, or
interpreting visual information from graphs, tables, charts and diagrams, for
instance.
Paraphrasing involves a series of steps that need to be applied before the

actual process, as well as a fair range of techniques to be employed in order to
transfer meaning from somebody’s words to one’s own language.
There are some considerations to be applied before proceeding to the
concrete act of paraphrasing:
 read the source carefully; it is essential that you understand it fully;
 identify the main point(s) and key words;
 rewrite the original text in your own words, trying to remember the
central ideas and essential information;
 review your paraphrase checking that it accurately reflects the original
in your words and style;
 record the original source (including the page number) so that you can
(later) provide a reference.
84
Considering that paraphrasing means rewriting information in one’s own

style, and that in writing, personal style is given by the individuality of
expression, i.e. personal language and discourse, a number of techniques can be
utilized for a successful paraphrase. In general, these mainly involve working on
three language aspects: vocabulary, structure, and discourse cohesion.
 Vocabulary: use synonyms (words or expression which have a similar
meaning) where appropriate. Key words that are specialized subject
vocabulary do not need to be changed. If you want to retain unique or
specialized phrases, use quotation marks (“…“).
 Grammar and sentence structure. Break up a long sentence into two
shorter ones or combine two short sentences into one. Change the voice
(active/passive) or change word forms (e.g. nouns, adjectives).
 Cohesion: ensure that you keep the original meaning and maintain the
same relationship between main ideas and supporting points.
More specifically, the alterations that can be operated from the point of
view of the language fall into the following categories. Note than in the
following examples, (some of) the changes have been highlighted:
1. Changing a word from one part of speech to another
Original: Medical professor John Swanson says that global changes
are influencing the spread of disease.
Paraphrase: According to John Swanson, a professor of medicine, changes
across the globe are causing diseases to spread (James, 2014).
2. Using synonyms
Original: The U.S. government declared that the AIDS crisis poses a
national security threat. The announcement followed an
intelligence report that found high rates of HIV infection could
lead to widespread political destabilization.
Paraphrase: The government of the United States announced that
AIDS could harm the nation’s security. The government warned
the population after an important governmental study concluded
that political problems could result from large numbers of people
infected with HIV (Snell, 2015).
85
3. Changing numbers and percentages to different forms

Original: Minority groups in the United States have been hit hardest by
the epidemic. African Americans, who make up 13 percent of the
U.S. population, accounted for 46 percent of the AIDS cases
diagnosed in 1998.
Paraphrase: The AIDS epidemic has mostly affected minorities in the
United States. For example, in 1998, less than 15 percent of the
total population was African, but almost half of the people
diagnosed with AIDS in the United States that year were African
America (Jenson, 2000).
4. Changing word order: this might include changing from active to
passive voice or moving modifiers to different positions.
Original: Angier (2011) reported that malaria kills more than one
million people annually, the overwhelming majority of them
children in sub-Saharan Africa.
Paraphrase: Every year, more than a million people are killed by
malaria, and most of the victims are children who live in
sub-Saharan Africa (Angier, 2011).
5. Using different definition structures
Original: Lyme disease is an inflammatory disease caused by a
bacterium transmitted by ticks (small bloodsucking arachnids that
attach themselves to larger animals). The disease is usually
characterized by a rash followed by flu-like symptoms, including
fever, joint pain, and headache.
Paraphrase: Lyme disease – a disease that causes swelling and
redness-is caused by a bacterium carried by a small arachnid
known as a tick. The ticks attach to and suck the blood of animals
and humans, transferring some of the Lyme disease bacteria into
their hosts and causing symptoms similar to the flu (Wald, 2005).
86
6. Using different attribution signals

Original: “That’s because there are so many different ways the
diseases could have arrived,” veterinarian Mark Walters declared
in his recent book, Six Modern Plagues.
Paraphrase: According to Mark Walters, a veterinarian who wrote Six
Modern Plagues, the disease could have arrived in numerous ways
(Peterson, 2004).
7. Changing the sentence structure and using different connecting words
Original: Although only about one-tenth of the world’s population
lives there, sub-Saharan Africa remains the hardest hit region,
accounting for 72 percent of the people infected with HIV
during 2000.
Paraphrase: Approximately 10 percent of the world’s population
resides in sub-Saharan Africa. However, this area of the world
has the highest percentage of AIDS-related illnesses. In fact, in
2000, almost three-fourths of the population had the HIV virus
(Bunting, 2004).
Original: In the northeastern United States, people are building homes

on the edge of woods, where ticks that carry Lyme disease hitch
rides on deer. In addition, in Africa, hunters bring back the meat
of animals that scientists think may transmit Ebola, a usually fatal
disease that causes massive hemorrhaging in its victims.
Paraphrase: In the United States, residential areas are being built near
wooded areas in the northeast. These areas are also the homes of
ticks carrying Lyme disease. Also, according to scientists, hunters
in Africa kill animals that may carry the Ebola virus (an often
deadly virus that causes massive hemorrhaging) (Yaya, 2004).
87
By and large, paraphrasing should not be limited to one of the techniques

listed above. Rewording and formatting somebody else’s writing is a complex
process that typically involves the use of a combination of strategies, depending
on the type of information to be altered and, of course, on the language skills of
the writer.
A word of caution, nonetheless: if done incorrectly, paraphrasing can slip
into plagiarism. This is why it is advisable to also include a short citation that
could represent the vantage point of the entire paraphrase and to use as many
techniques as possible in order to avoid total replication.
In academic writing, the decision to use outside sources to enhance one’s
argument and acquire credibility is often a challenge both from the point of view
of the content, and from the point of view of the language. Successfully
inserting outside sources without taking away the voice and personal footprint of
the writer largely depends on using the appropriate verbs, according to the
language functions that are aimed at. The key strategy in selecting the right
introductory structure is to take into account both the original author’s view and
the writer’s reaction to it. There are several verbs – called signal phrase verbs –
that work very effectively in order to introduce both quotations and paraphrases.
e.g. After the war is over, the General reports that “It seemed a useless
battle to fight even from the start” (Lewis, 2018, p. 56).
The author argues that “subjecting non-smokers to toxic second-hand

smoke is not only unfair, but a violation of their right to a safe environment”
(Carter, 2019, p. 34).
By calling them ignorant, the author implies that the Talibans were
unschooled and narrow minded (Thies, 2018, p. 89).
The Department of Defense denies claims that the new military bridge will
damage the fragile ecosystem of the Potomac River (Branson, 2020, p. 109).
88
Below is a list of effective signal verbs that are used for integrating quoted
or paraphrased material into one’s work. They often provide a broader
contextualization and a more natural insertion of the cited/paraphrased work into
one’s own material.
mention, add, point out, note, command,

Verbs to introduce a
find, observe, discuss, express, consider,
fact/statement
explore, illustrate
Verbs to introduce a claim claim, argue, posit, reason, assert, propose
Verbs to introduce what emphasize, stress, highlight, focus on,

the author focuses on center the argument around
Verbs to introduce what exclude, overlook, ignore, downplay,

the author excludes omit, neglect
Verbs to introduce what agree, endorse, affirm, confirm, support,

the author agrees with echo, assert
disagree, refute, deny, contradict,

Verbs to introduce what
criticize, reject, dispute, challenge,
the author disagrees with
negate, call into question
Verbs to introduce what

acknowledge, admit, grant, concede
the author’s qualified opinion
A number of phrases can also be used to place the original author’s work
into the wider academic conversation:
A recent article by contrasts/compares…

X promotes the idea that….
X has written extensively about….
X conceived the idea/notion that…
X is credited with…
X cleary elucidated…
X has demonstrated that…
89
5.2. Summarizing
Summarizing a text, or distilling its essential concepts into a paragraph or

two, is a useful study tool as well as good writing practice. A summary is
basically a synthesis of the key ideas of a piece of writing, restated in one’s own
words – i.e., paraphrased. When summarizing, it is important to remember that a
summary does not mean copying the exact wording of the original source.
A summary has two aims:
(1) to reproduce the overarching ideas in a text, identifying the general
concepts that run through the entire piece;
(2) to express these overarching ideas using precise, specific language.
Summarizing should not rely on the language the author has used to
develop his or her points, and therefore, the writer must find a way to give an
overview of these points. It also involves making decisions about which
concepts to leave in and which to omit, taking into consideration the objective
one has in summarizing and also one’s view of what is important in the text.
Here are some tips for summarizing:
 Include the title and identify the author in your first sentence.
 The first sentence or two of the summary should contain the author’s
thesis, or central concept, stated in one’s own words. This is the idea
that runs through the entire text, as should be seen as the right answer
to the question: “What is this piece/article about?” However, it should
be noted that the main idea in an academic document or article may not
be stated from the very beginning; instead, it may be gradually
developed throughout the piece or it may become fully apparent only at
the end. At this point, reading techniques (scanning, skimming) must be
activated and employed.
 When summarizing a longer article, it might prove useful to break it
down into various phases/stages in the explanation or argument,
according to the ideas expressed in individual paragraphs or in groups
of related paragraphs. The article should be divided into sections (if it is
not already so in the published form), and one sentence should be
formulated so as to cover the key ideas in each section.
90
 Ideas that are not actually central to the text must be omitted. Also, it is
not mandatory to reproduce the author’s exact progression of thought.
 Minor details and specific examples must also be left out. However, if an
extended example is a key part of the argument, it should be mentioned.
 A summary does not include opinions or personal reactions. It is an
objective reproduction of someone else’s ideas and thoughts, in a
synthetic way and with original language.
The amount of detail included in a summary will vary according to the
length of the original text, how much information is needed and how selective
the writer wants to be. The following example illustrates how a fairly long
excerpt can be summarized into one paragraph or in just a line:
e.g. Original:
America has changed dramatically during recent years. Not only
has the number of graduates in traditional engineering disciplines such
as mechanical, civil, electrical, chemical, and aeronautical engineering
declined, but in most of the premier American universities engineering
curricula now concentrate on and encourage largely the study of
engineering science. As a result, there are declining offerings in
engineering subjects dealing with infrastructure, the environment, and
related issues, and greater concentration on high technology subjects,
largely supporting increasingly complex scientific developments.
While the latter is important, it should not be at the expense of more
traditional engineering.
Rapidly developing economies such as China and India, as well as
other industrial countries in Europe and Asia, continue to encourage
and advance the teaching of engineering. Both China and India,
respectively, graduate six and eight times as many traditional engineers
as does the United States. Other industrial countries at minimum
maintain their output, while America suffers an increasingly serious
decline in the number of engineering graduates and a lack of
well-educated engineers. (Source: Excerpted from Frankel, E.G.
(2008, May/June) Change in education: The cost of sacrificing
fundamentals. MIT Faculty Newsletter, XX, 5, 13.)
91
One-paragraph summary:
In a 2008 Faculty Newsletter article, “Change in Education:
The cost of sacrificing fundamentals,” MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst
G. Frankel expresses his concerns regarding the current state of
American engineering education. He notes that the number of students
focusing on traditional areas of engineering has decreased while the
number interested in the high-technology end of the field has
increased. Frankel points out that other industrial nations produce far
more traditionally-trained engineers than we do, and believes we have
fallen seriously behind.
One-line summary:
MIT Professor Emeritus Ernst G. Frankel (2008) has called for a
return to a course of study that emphasizes the traditional skills of
engineering, noting that the number of American engineering
graduates with these skills has fallen sharply when compared to the
number coming from other countries.
Both examples are good summaries, because they identify the writer, the
date of publication, and the source, and restate the key ideas using original
wording. Moreover, it can be noticed that both summaries report on the author’s
point of view, but they do so neutrally.
92
CONCLUSIONS
Writing has traditionally been a neglected area of foreign language

teaching, and most probably the least popular skill to acquire among students.
However, it has lately emerged as an important element of the communication
dyad, which also involves speaking, i.e. the oral manifestation of social
interaction and exchange of information.
Writing to communicate requires going beyond mechanical copying or
early writing skills. It requires learners to actively and critically use the target
language, to employ complex cognitive skills, to analyze information and to
produce something on their own so as to interact with readers who are typically
absent from the communicative event.
Starting from the premise that writing effectively requires both writing
skills and language proficiency, this course has streamlined the idea that written
expression involves mastery of specific task-related strategies, while language is
perceived as the medium of communication. Consequently, the theoretical, as
well as the practical approach in this course are substantiated by the belief that
effective writing abilities are only developed at the intersection between
task-related and language-related skills.
Task-related skills involve task fulfillment, task format, and correct usage
of register and style. They require the writer to respond to the task appropiately,
using the suitable format and an adequate paragraphing to show a logical
development of ideas. In other words, task completion requires learners to make
the purpose of writing clear, to use relevant and adequate ideas, to choose the
appropriate text type and, depending on the context, the proper tone and style.
It also entails awareness of different types of writing (paragraphs, letters,
reports, essays), depending on the purpose of communication. Relevant and
adequate ideas largely depend on knowledge of the topic. Different kinds of text
organizations refers to descriptive, narrative, argumentative and expository
texts. Again, these texts can be structured according to different organizational
patterns such as classification or listing type, problem-solution type, advantages-
93
disadvantages type, comparison/contrast type and so on. An expert writer has

the ability to communicate effectively using these different types of written
texts. The job of the teacher is to help their learners attain this ability.
Language-related skills require the learners to show language proficiency:
the use of words and expressions appropriate to the given task; an awareness of
word formation, style and collocation in the selection and use of words and
expressions; accuracy of spelling; the ability to use a wide variety of
grammatically correct sentence structures; the suitable linking devices that
ensure the coherence and the cohesion of the text; and use of important
punctuation marks to make meaning clear.
The present course has aimed at explaining writing in practical terms, while
demonstrating that there should be a link between real-life needs and instruction,
both from the perspective of the language and from that of the tasks.
Understanding the theoretical explanations and the related illustrative examples
in the gradual manner they have been presented in the course will definitely
improve writing skills. Furthermore, it will lead to the acquisition of a secondary
set of language-related abilities:
– an informed selection of grammar and lexical structures;
– a logical pattern of organization in the development of ideas;
– an appropriate choice of register and style;
– an overall better approach to writing tasks and contextualizations.
Nonetheless, developing writing skills is a long-term investment. Far from
being a mere matter of transcribing language into written form, writing is a
thinking process that demands a conscious intellectual effort over a considerable
period of time. The present course has been intended to offer students of English
an opportunity to clarify and deepen their theoretical understanding of writing as
a productive skill while creating a fertile framework for their future journeys
into the intricate realm of written expression.
94
BIBLIOGRAPHY AND SUGGESTED READINGS
American Language Course, (2003). A Guide to Effective Army Writing. Defense

Language Institute, English Language Center, Lackland Air Force Base, Texas.
Arnaudet, M. & Barret M. E. (1990). Paragraph Development: A Guide for
Students of English. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.
Baker, L. (1987). Towards Enhancing Written Communication Skills in the
Army: Cognitive and Metacognitve Perspective. U.S. Army Research
Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences.
Evans, V. (2002). Successful Writing. London: Express Publishing.
Kortmann, B. (2005). English Linguistics: Essentials. Cornelsen Verlag.
Neville, C. (2007). The Complete Guide to Referencing and Avoiding
Plagiarism. Open University Press.
Poșa, O. A. & Dragomir I. A. (2007). A Practical Approach to Developing
Writing Skills. Sibiu: Editura Academiei Forțelor Terestre ,,Nicolae Bălcescu”.
Stinghe, M. et al. (2019). Developing Advanced Writing Skills. Sibiu: Editura
Academiei Forțelor Terestre ,,Nicolae Bălcescu”.
Wilbers, S. (2007). Keys to Great Writing. Cincinnati, Ohio: Writers Digest
Books.
WEBOGRAPHY
https://nps.edu/web/gwc/body-paragraphs-and-topic-sentences
https://nps.edu/web/gwc/organization
http://faculty.washington.edu/ezent/impo.htm
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/
apa_formatting_and_style_guide/general_format.html
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/essay_writing/
argumentative_essays.html
https://writing.wisc.edu/handbook/assignments/quotingsources/
https://www.nmu.edu/writingcenter/quoting-paraphrasing-and-summarizing
95
Tehnoredactare computerizată:
Marcela GREGER
Copertă:
Octavia-Andreea MOLDOVAN
Multiplicare:
Florin CUNŢAN
Finisare:
Valentin BRAŞOVEANU
Iulian CREŢU
 Editura Academiei Forțelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu”

0404, C 159/2020
– Gratuit –

Developing Writing Skills

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Developing Writing Skills

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Developing Writing Skills

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Isabela Anda DRAGOMIR

 Editura Academiei Forțelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu”

Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naţionale a României

© 2020 Academia Forţelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu” din Sibiu

Academia Forţelor Terestre „Nicolae Bălcescu” din Sibiu

CHAPTER 1: COHERENCE AND COHESION ............................................7

CHAPTER 2: ORGANZING IDEAS..............................................................20

CHAPTER 3: REGISTER AND STYLE .......................................................39

CHAPTER 5: AVOIDING PLAGIARISM ...................................................74

The importance of English as a global medium of communication has

writing for professional/military purposes. A significant portion of the course is

COHERENCE AND COHESION

When it comes to planned, non-impromptu texts, such as written discourse,

Consequently, cohesion can exist without coherence, but coherence cannot be

1.1. Paragraph structure

A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop a main thought,

1.2. Topic, topic sentence, supporting details

This topic might be much too wide-ranging to be covered in just one

In order to decide whether the topic is too general or too specific,

1.3. Discourse markers

Discourse markers are an important element of written logical

Conjunctions are of three types:

1. Coordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join two

B/but – contrast, concession

2. Subordinating conjunctions are discourse markers that join a

e.g. He missed the bus because he woke up late.

The subordinating conjunctions illustrate different meaning relationships,

3. Correlative conjunctions correlate, working in pairs to join phrases or

Here is an enumeration of the most used correlative conjunctions:

Initial position: the connective is positioned at the beginning of the second

e.g. He woke up late; therefore, he missed the bus.

Medial (middle position): The connector is positioned in the middle of the

and, also, besides, further, furthermore, too, moreover,

next, afterward, finally, later, last, lastly, at last, now,

above, behind, below, beyond, here, there, to the right / left,

for example, to illustrate, for instance, to be specific, such as,

as a result, hence, so, accordingly, as a consequence,

comparison like, in the same manner / way, as so, similarly

but, in contrast, conversely, however, still, nevertheless,

to in summary, to sum up, to repeat, briefly, in short, finally,

1.3.3. Transition words and phrases

CONCESSION REASON ADDITION SIMILARITY CONTRAST

One of the main goals of a writer is to present ideas in a clear and

Organizing ideas is indeed, one of the most challenging aspects of writing.

2.1. Patterns of organization

Effective communication starts with a clearly organized set of ideas

Text structures, or patterns of organization, not only vary from writing to

Chronological (time) order

This is how the visual representation would appear, according to the

Climatic order (of importance)

The following visual representation of a climatic pattern relates to the

e.g. first, another, the second, in addition, furthermore, also, etc.

e.g. first, next, before, then, last, finally, etc.

This is what the sequencing of steps looks like in a visualization of the

Compare and contrast pattern

 A point-by-point pattern first offers a topic A element compared and/or

There is a wide variety of language structures that can be used to express

For more complex texts, whether at the level of paragraph or composition

2.2. Types of paragraphs