Vibration Analysis

5
Machinery vibration
characteristics
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 1 WI 203

SKF Reliability Maintenance Institute
Module objectives
• To introduce the concepts of spectrum analysis and to provide a general

overview of how analysts recognize and analyze typical machinery
problems
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FFT spectrum analysis
• FFT spectra provide information

to help determine the location of
the problem, the cause of the Amplitude
problem, and with trending, how
long until the problem becomes Frequency
critical
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Spectrum analysis: two-step approach
• First, collect useful

information, then
• Analyze
Asset Information Page – Front and Back
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Step 1 - collect useful information
Identify all components of the machine that could cause

vibration
What are the possibilities?
• The number of fan blades or impellers, gear teeth,
coupling type, belts, sheave diameters, etc.
• Type of bearings at each bearing location and their
defect frequencies
• Speeds of other machines running in the same vicinity
• Orientation, vertical or horizontal, overhung or center-
hung
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Identify components that cause vibration
1800 RPM
2400 RPM
5-Blade Fan
Motor
Gearbox
Gear Mesh Frequencies
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Step 1 – collect useful information…
Obtain all historical machinery data:

• Are previously recorded values, spectra, logs, control room data, or
overall trend plots available?
• Was a baseline recorded?
• Talk with operators. Often, this provides insight into the original
problem (coupling changed, flow increased, fan cleaned, etc.)
• Check maintenance records and talk to the mechanics that service the
machine
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Step 1 – collect useful information…
Identify the machine’s running speed.

Knowing the machine's running speed is critical when analyzing an FFT
spectrum. There are several ways of determining running speed:
• Read the speed from instrumentation
• Look for peaks in the spectrum at 1,800 or 3,600 RPM if the machine is
an induction motor (1,500 and 3,000 RPM for 50 Hz countries)
• The running speed peak in a vibration spectrum is often the first
significant peak reading from left to right. Look for this peak and for
peaks the harmonics of running speed
• Use a tachometer
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Step 1 – collect useful information
Identify what type of measurement produced the FFT spectrum:

• Was it a displacement, velocity, acceleration, enveloped acceleration,
etc., measurement that produced the spectrum?
• Where was the probe positioned?
• Are plots scaled consistently for easy comparison?
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Step 2 – analyze
General analysis techniques:
• Use a coin or the probe tip to get a hand-feel of the vibration on the
machine, the base, and any piping, ductwork, or other attachments
• Acquire tri-axial (H, V, A) vibration data at each bearing
• For analysis purposes, acquire relative phase measurements. This
improves the likelihood of a successful diagnosis
• Evaluate overall vibration readings across the entire machine train
– Where does the vibration appear to originate (highest amplitude)?
– What probe directions have the highest amplitude? (significant)
– Do the dominant frequencies have a relationship to rotating
components?
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Spectrum analysis – identify frequency ranges…
Low frequency rotational events and harmonics High frequency events

< 1X (i.e., unbalance, misalignment, looseness, etc.) (i.e., bearing or gear mesh)
1X 10X
Amplitude
2X 3X
4X
Frequency
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Spectrum analysis – identify frequency ranges
• Identify any harmonics of running speed (1X, 2X, 3X, etc.)

• Identify bearing fault frequencies
• Identify fan blade frequencies, if applicable
• Identify number of gear teeth, if applicable
• Identify pump impeller frequencies, if applicable
• Identify adjacent machinery vibration, if applicable
• With electric motors, identify peaks at line frequencies; determine if
they are electrical or mechanical
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Spectrum analysis – verify and determine
severity
Verify:
• Look for harmonics of the fault frequencies
Determine severity:
• Compare vibration amplitude with ISO standards
• Compare the current amplitude to past readings (best method)
• Compare the amplitude to other readings obtained by similar machines
running under the same conditions
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Spectrum example
• Known good measurement collected 1 Baseline spectrum (norm)

when machine was known to be in 1X
good running order 2X Bearing Gear mesh

3X freq.. freq.
• 1X running speed peak is significantly

higher than normal. Indicates a 2
vibration signal occurring once per Higher than normal
1X vibration signal
shaft revolution. Typically caused by
misalignment or unbalance
• Higher than normal 1X running speed 3
peak and bearing fault frequency peaks
Higher than normal
indicate that 1X rotational problem has 1X and bearing
caused bearing damage vibration signals
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Harmonics
• A harmonic is a frequency that is an exact multiple of a non-sinusoidal

(impact type) fundamental frequency
• The fault fundamental frequency may be produced from a variety of
sources
– Shaft speed, a pump’s vane pass frequency, bearing fault
frequencies, or gear meshing frequencies
• With rolling element bearing faults, harmonics of the fault’s fundamental
frequency typically appear first
– Fault frequency harmonics are the earliest indicators that a bearing
problem exists
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Harmonics (looseness)
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Non-harmonics
• Non-harmonics are non-integer multiples of a vibration frequency

• In some cases, the analyst may mistake a non-harmonic as a running
speed harmonic
– Mistaking a non-harmonic as a running speed harmonic could be a
misdiagnosis of misalignment
• Fundamental bearing fault frequencies are also non-harmonic with
respect to shaft running speed
• When looking for harmonics and non-harmonics, the fundamental
frequency must be identified and understood before its potential
harmonics are investigated
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Rolling element bearing defects
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Sidebands
• Sidebands are produced when one frequency modulates another or

when one amplitude modulates another
• The dominant peak appears at the primary vibration frequency
– Referred to as the centre frequency
• The frequency that is modulating the centre frequency appears as two
peaks equally spaced around the centre frequency (sidebands)
– As a problem worsens, the sideband amplitudes increase and
additional sidebands appear
– The spacing between the centre frequency and the sidebands
identifies the originating problem
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Sidebands (gear tooth backlash)
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Waterfall plot
• A waterfall plot trends spectrum changes
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Analyzing “typical”
machinery
problems
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Unbalance - typical spectrum (pure unbalance)
High 1X
Low Multiples of 1X
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Static unbalance
Centrifugal force [N] = unbalance mass X radius X speed

e
Unbalance [gms mm] = unbalance mass X radius
m ω2
Specific unbalance [μm] = (unbalance mass X radius) / Rotor Mass [g mm/kg]
F Eccentricity = Specific unbalance [μm] = Unbalance / Rotor Mass [g mm/kg]
M = Rotor mass
m = Unbalance mass
r = Radius
F = Centrifugal force
e = Eccentricity of centre of gravity due to unbalance force
ω2 = Speed
M
r
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Couple (moment) unbalance
IF1I = IF2I
ØF1 + 180o = ØF1
F1
Cg Cg = Centre of Gravity
F2
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Dynamic unbalance
Couple Static + Couple

Static
= Dynamic
F1 F1
Cg
Cg Cg
F2 F2
F Cg = Centre of Gravity
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Unbalance - Diagnosis
Static unbalance -
vibration across machine
“in phase”
Couple unbalance -
vibration across machine
“180 degrees out of phase”
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Unbalance - typical indications
• (Overall vibration) - high energy, radial vibration

• (Spectrum) - higher than normal amplitude at 1X running speed frequency
• (Spectrum) - With the high 1X, there are little or no amplitude increases at running speed
harmonic frequencies (2X, 3X, 4X, etc.)
• (Spectrum) - 1X amplitude increases proportional to the square of speed increases
• (Phase) - Sensor shows 90° phase shift between horizontal and vertical positions on the same
bearing
• (Phase) - For predominantly static unbalance, there is usually no phase shift across the machine or
coupling in the same measurement position.
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Corrections & Field Balancing
Correction is straightforward.
• Weight has to be either added or removed from the rotating element
Field Balancing
• Running at their own operating speed
• Minimum disassembly
• Incorporates effects of temperature, pressure,
distortion and other environmental influences
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STOP!
• Real life balancing conditions require a thorough
understanding of machinery vibration and balancing
techniques. We strongly recommend that you attend the SKF
Reliability Maintenance Institute Machinery Balancing course
to gain balancing skills necessary for successful machinery
balancing jobs.
• This course’s Balancing module simply reviews balancing

capabilities and introduces a balancing procedure to familiarise
you to the machinery balancing process
2022-03-22 ©SKF
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 30 [Code]
WI 203
SKF [Organisation]
Understanding Unbalance
An out of balance rotor will produce radial motion and forces that are harmful to
bearings and seals, and that may affect surrounding machinery or workers. Three
common problems that can lead to unacceptable balance in machinery include:
•Inadequate design and purchase specifications.
•Poor supplier quality and/or failure to adhere to specifications.
•Improper machine assembly
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Center of Rotation and Center of Gravity
Center of Gravity
equal to center of
rotation – Balance!
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Opposing Forces
A B
Force A Force B
Force A = Force B = Balance
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Opposing Forces
Force A Force B
Force A Force B = Unbalance
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Opposing Forces
Force A Force B
Force A Force B = Unbalance
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Residual Unbalance
The amount of unbalance remaining in a rotor after balancing or in its as-

found condition
Units for balance grade assessment:
Oz•in (ounce-inch), g•in (gram-inch), g•mm (gram-millimeter)
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Residual Unbalance
Weight = 62 grams
Radius = 6 inches
Residual unbalance = 62 x 6 = 372 g•in (gram • inches)
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Unbalance Force
F = m • r • 2
Force increases with the speed squared (rigid rotors)
Increasing speed can push the limits of the bearing design and/or life
calculations
Decreasing residual unbalance will improve performance at higher
speeds
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Static Unbalance
Two equal weights in the same

position
Weights are centered axially about
rotor center of gravity
Static unbalance can be duplicated
with a single weight at the center
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Static Unbalance Correction
Correct with two weights equally

spaced about the center of gravity in
the same position
Correct with one weight at the
center of gravity equal to the sum of
the two individual weights
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Couple Unbalance
For pure couple unbalance – two

weights equal distance from center
of gravity but 180 degrees opposite
each other
Cannot be “duplicated” with a single
weight or two weights at the center
of gravity
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Couple Unbalance Correction
Correction weights placed 180

degrees opposite unbalance at each
balance plane
Any other correction will produce
static unbalance
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Dynamic Unbalance
Combination of static and couple

unbalance
Most common type of unbalance
encountered
Correction of only one component
leaves the other (e.g., correct the
static and a pure couple remains)
End view
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Misalignment
Angular Misalignment
Parallel Misalignment
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Misalignment – cause and effects
Angular Misalignment Parallel/Offset Misalignment
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Misalignment – typical spectrum
High 1X and/or 2X, 3X
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Misalignment - Diagnosis
Angular misalignment
axial measurements across
coupling 180 degrees out of phase
Parallel misalignment
radial measurements across
coupling 180 degrees out of phase
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Misalignment - typical indications
• (Overall vibration) - high energy, radial and axial vibration

• (Overall vibration) - unbalance generally produces high motion in the horizontal plane due to
differences in bearing support stiffness. If vertical amplitudes are higher than the horizontal
readings at the same bearing, misalignment is suspected.
• (Spectrum) - higher than normal 1X and harmonic amplitudes occur in both axial and radial
positions. If 2X is less than 30% of 1X, suspect unbalance, >30% and <50%, misalignment
probable, >50% and less than 100%, strong misalignment,
• (Spectrum) – possible vibration at number of coupling elements times RPM.
• (Phase measurements) – in the radial readings on each machine, look for combinations of 0°
and180° degree phase relationships in the vertical and horizontal planes.
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Misalignment - summary
• Misalignment produces higher than normal vibration at running speed and

possible harmonics of running speed out to approximately 5X running speed.
• Axial vibration at running speed is generally greater than 30% of the lowest radial
amplitude.
• Phase relationships across the coupling in the axial or radial planes may indicate
“pure” forms of misalignment but are ineffective when dealing with complex
misalignment or multiple sources of vibration.
• Misalignment generally produces combinations of zero and 180-degree phase
relationships in the vertical and horizontal planes.
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Alignment Methods
Straight edges and feeler gauges
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Straight Edges and Feeler Gauges
Advantages
• Fast, easy to achieve rough alignment
Disadvantages
• Inaccurate
• Different “feel”
• Coupling eccentricity and axial runout produce errors
• Aligns couplings, not shafts
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Rim and Face
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Rim and Face Readings
Advantages
• Improves quality of alignment
• An option when both shafts cannot be rotated
Disadvantages
• Sensitive to coupling runout
• Bar sag
• Dial reading errors
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Reverse Dial Indicator Method
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Reverse Dial Method
Advantages
• Indicates off of shafts/fixtures for shaft alignment
• Inexpensive
Disadvantages
• Bar sag
• Parallax errors
• Requires graphing or separate program
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Laser Method
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Laser Method
Advantages
• Speed
• Easy to see
• Accuracy, shaft-to-shaft alignment
Disadvantages
• Potential laser interference
• Too easy to use
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Misalignment – summary
• Misalignment produces higher than normal vibration at running speed

and possible harmonics of running speed out to approximately 5X
running speed
• Axial vibration at running speed is generally greater than 30% of the
lowest radial amplitude
• Phase relationships across the coupling in the axial or radial planes may
indicate “pure” forms of misalignment, but are ineffective when dealing
with complex misalignment or multiple sources of vibration
• Misalignment generally produces combinations of zero and 180° phase
relationships in the vertical and horizontal planes
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Bent shaft
• Usually appears identical to a

misalignment problem
• Phase measurement
comparisons along the
machine train are needed to
distinguish between the two
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Bent shaft – diagnosis
• Axial measurements across

machine typically 180° out of
phase
• Radial measurements across
machine are typically in phase
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Bent shaft – typical indications
• (Overall vibration and spectrum characteristics) Similar to misalignment

• (Phase measurements) In the axial position, a phase shift of 180° exists
across the shaft, and...
• (Phase measurements) In a radial position, there is no phase shift
between bearings across the shaft
• If both the above phase conditions are true, the problem is probably a
bent shaft
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Mechanical looseness
• The machine has come loose

from its mounting
• A machine component has
come loose
• The bearing has developed a
fault, which has worn down the
bearing elements or the
bearing seat
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Mechanical looseness – diagnosis
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Mechanical looseness – indications
• (Overall vibration) – There is high energy radial vibration, especially in

the vertical measurement plane, and...
• (Overall vibration) – There is normal (low) vibration in the axial plane
• (Spectrum) – There is an abnormally high running speed amplitude,
followed by higher than normal harmonics of running speed, and
perhaps 1/2 harmonics of running speed (from 2X - 10X). Harmonic
peaks may decrease in amplitude as they increase in frequency (except
at 2X, which, when measured in the vertical position, can be higher in
amplitude)
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Mechanical looseness – summary
• If there are a series of three or more synchronous or 1/2 synchronous

multiples of running speed (range 2X to 10X), and their magnitudes are
greater than 20% of the 1X, then there may be mechanical looseness
• If the machine is rigidly connected (no coupling or belt),
and the radial 2X is high, then there may be mechanical looseness
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Soft Foot
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Soft foot…
• One of the most prevalent machine installation problems
• A condition where one or more feet of a machine are not sitting flat and
fully on the base
• When a soft foot is tightened down, it can cause a multitude of problems
from internal misalignment to motor air gap problems
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Radial readings all around casing
4 mm/sec
9 mm/sec
14 mm/sec 8 mm/sec
19 mm/sec 13 mm/sec
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Phase readings at machine feet
45° 55°
1 3
Plan View of
Motor
2 4
60° 250°
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Cocked bearing
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Cocked bearing – summary
• Like misalignment, a cocked bearing usually generates considerable axial

vibration. However, phase measurements from the suspect bearing’s
axial position help differentiate the two
• If the phase readings among the adjacent four sensor locations vary
considerably, a cocked bearing is indicated. Success in diagnosing this
condition is directly related to the stiffness of the bearing support and
the flexibility of the shaft
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 74 WI 203

Resonance…
• A condition where a structure vibrates at very large amplitudes for a

given force level
• Not a source of vibration, but an amplifier of vibration
• Most resonance conditions are from a rotating or periodic force
produced inside the machine
• Occurs when a machine operates at a speed near one of its natural
frequencies
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Resonance
amplitude
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Resonance
• Machine designers design machinery components so that the machine

operates at a speed 20-30% higher/lower than the resonant frequencies
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Resonance – characteristics
• An unusually high amplitude at one location on a machine compared to

others
• Sensitivity to speed changes. Increases or decreases in speed produce
large changes in amplitude
• Repeated episodes of cracking. The high stresses produced by a
resonant condition promote fatigue
• Difficulty when balancing. Resonance at running speed makes balancing
difficult
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 78 WI 203

Identifying resonance
• Run-up or coast-down tests

• Bump or impact tests
• Plotting of the vibration pattern, operating deflection shape, or mode
shape
• Sensitivity to bracing
• Shaker tests
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Correcting resonant conditions
• Bracing or stiffening
• Changing the speed of the machine
• Damping treatments
• Reduce or eliminate the vibration source
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Impact or Bump Test Concept
An Impact, Bump or Rap Test is a simple repeated

impact test applied to a machine or product to excite
the structure. This allows you to measure its natural
frequencies. A bump test is carried out to determine if
resonance is responsible for high noise or vibration
levels.
The signal involved is not steady state and it’s

magnitude will vary. The expected input range has to be
set manually.
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Impact test (1)
Expected size of impact?
+50g
g
-50g
seconds
0 sec 40 sec
0.1
0.2
0.5
The magnitude of the signal will depend on; 1
• the frequency response of the structure 2
5
• the force being applied (how hard it is being hit) 10
• the mass of the hammer being used (how big the 20
hammer is) 50
100
• the sensitivity of the accelerometer
Therefore an estimation has to be made of the expected

full scale range of the signal in transducer units. (The range
options change based on the transducer type selected)
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Impact test (2)
Two types of averaging take place;

Exponential is a continuously moving
average
Peak Hold holds the highest spectral peaks
that are measured during the test
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Forced Response Testing
Need to predict the response of a structure or mechanical system to

external forcing:
• Rotor Excitation
• Base Excitation
• External Forcing
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Forced Response Testing
How is it done?
• Apply a harmonic excitation to the system

• Forced vibrations are the resulting vibrations caused by
periodic forces within the system
• Forced vibration is also termed as "steady deterministic
vibration."
• At resonance, the frequency of the excitation force matches
the natural frequency
• At resonance, the amplitude of the displacement is much
larger than at low frequency
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Why do bearings fail?
• Lubrication
– Too much
– Too little
– Contaminated
• Excessive load caused by:
– Misalignment
– Unbalance
– Bent shaft
Spall on outer race
– Etc.
• Improper handling or installation
• Age
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 86 WI 203
Typical bearing failure rate
Vibration
Pre-warning Time
Bearing
Failure
Detection by
Lubricant Analysis
Detection by
Acoustic Emissions
Damage Detection by Listen

Starts and Feel
Detection by Vibration
Time
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Bearing fault frequencies
• BPFO – Ball Pass Frequency Outer

Race
• BPFI – Ball Pass Frequency Inner
Race
• BSF – Ball Spin Frequency
• FTF – Cage Frequency or
Fundamental Train Frequency
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Displaying fault frequencies
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Bearing failure stages
Stage 1 Stage 2
No apparent change on typical velocity spectrum Defect’s harmonic frequencies appear
Defect’s “fund.” Defect’s “harmonic”

frequency range frequency range
Stage 3 Stage 4
Defect’s fundamental frequencies also appear Defect’s harmonic frequencies develop multiple
and may exhibit sidebands sidebands (haystack), fundamental freqs. grow
and also develop sidebands
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Low frequency spectral analysis
• Velocity 0-2,000 Hz
• Need to know bearing geometry
• Faults do not significantly effect the overall level
• Fault information can be buried in background noise level
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High frequency spectral analysis
• > 2,000 Hz
• Acceleration most sensitive parameter
• Spectral information not meaningful
• Trend overall value
• Cannot identify source
Refer chapter 4 for processing methods
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 92 WI 203

Enveloping
1 – Typical Velocity Spectrum 2 – Acceleration Enveloping Process
Band Pass Filter is specified

according to defect harmonic
frequencies of interest
300 Hz 10 kHz
3 – Acceleration Enveloping Process 4 – Acceleration Enveloped Spectrum
Low frequency events filtered out, high Defect fundamental

frequency fault harmonics emphasised frequency
Resulting enveloped signal,
due to low signal to noise ratio, these measured in gE
high frequency harmonics are then
summed and folded back to the defect’s Fundamental
fundamental frequency frequency
harmonics
10 kHz 300 Hz
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Selecting the envelope filter
• The acceleration envelope process groups energy related to the bearing

defect and excludes all others
Bandpass Filter
5 Hz – 100 Hz
Accelerometer 50 Hz – 1 kHz Envelope

Detector
500 Hz – 10 kHz
5 kHz – 40 kHz FFT Spectrum
Felt Rolls, Bearings Bearings Gears
Frequency - Hz Filter #1 Filter #2 Filter #3 Filter #4
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Selecting the enveloping filter
Filter Frequency Band Speed Range Analyzing Range
1 5 – 100 Hz 0 – 50 rpm 0 – 10 Hz
2 50 – 1,000 Hz 25 – 500 rpm 0 – 100 Hz
3 500 – 10,000 Hz 250 – 5,000 rpm 0 – 1,000 Hz
4 5,000 – 40,000 Hz 2,500 – … rpm 0 – 10,000 Hz
Note: Detection is peak to peak
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Acceleration envelope spectrum of bearing
approaching failure
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Problems in sleeve bearings
Excessive clearance
• lots of harmonics
• squaring of the waveform
• wearing in load zone – higher vertical vibration
• bearing wear shows increase in gap voltage at proximity probes
1x RPM 3x
2x 4x
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 97 WI 203

Oil Whirl
• vibration less that 1x rpm
• usually between 42% & 48% rpm
• amplitudes severe if 50% of bearing clearances
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Oil Whip
• when whirl locks on to 2nd critical speed
• vibration doesn’t change with speed changes
• amplitude only limited by bearing clearances
• severe damage to machine if left uncorrected
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 99 WI 203

Rubbing
• caused when rotating part contacts stationary part
• lots of harmonics and ½ half harmonics
• sometimes causes squaring of one side of the waveform
1x RPM 3x
2x
4x
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Belt problems
 x Pulley Diameter x Pulley RPM
Belt RPM =
Belt Length
For example, assume that a fan pulley is 37.5 cm in diameter, and rotates
at 2400 rpm. The belt length is 465 cm, and = 3.14159. Therefore, the
rpm of the belt is:
 x Pulley Diameter x Pulley RPM

Belt RPM =
Belt Length
= 3.14159 x 37.5 x 2400

465
= 608 rpm
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Belt problems
Worn, Loose or Mismatched Belts
• high amplitudes pulsing up and down
• pulses in time with machine rpm
• may require high resolution spectrum to separate belt frequencies
Driver / Driven
Belt Freq.
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Belt problems
Belt / Pulley Misalignment
• high axial vibration, mostly 1x rpm
• readings collected from one machine show highest amplitude of other

component
Driver / Driven
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Belt problems
Belt Resonance
• when belt natural frequency coincides with other forcing frequency
• high amplitudes coming from belts
• can be solved by altering belt tension
1x rpm
Natural Freq.
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 104 WI 203

Hydraulic / Aerodynamic
Pump normal spectrum
• Steady amplitudes, may have sidebands of 1x rpm around Blade
Pass Frequency (BPF)
• BPF = number of blades x rpm
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 105 WI 203

Cavitation
• high frequency, low amplitude, wide noise floor
• caused by air in the fluid
• possible to see BPF harmonics in the noise floor
1x
BPF
2x BPF 3x BPF
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 106 WI 203

Turbulence
• low frequency, high amplitude, narrow noise floor
• caused by variations in air pressure
• usually less than 1x rpm
1x
BPF
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 107 WI 203

Eccentric rotor or casing
• uneven gap between rotor and casing
• high vibration at BPF & Harmonics
• directional vibration similar to soft foot
1x
BPF 2x BPF
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 108 WI 203

Gear drives
Gear Mesh Frequency = Number of teeth x shaft speed
In a singles stage gearbox (increasing or decreasing) then

the formula can be expanded to:
GMF = #T1 x rpm1 = #T2 x rpm2
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 109 WI 203

Gear drives
57 Teeth
1440 rpm
How many teeth

on this gear?
6688 rpm
15 Teeth 33 Teeth
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 110 WI 203

Applying the formula, GMF = #T1 x rpm1 = #T2 x rpm2 to the first stage of the gearbox,
then:
GMF = 57 x 1440 = 15 x rpm2
Therefore, to calculate the speed of the intermediate shaft is done as follows:
GMF = 57 x 1440 = 82080
GMF = 15 x rpm2 = 82080 = 15 x rpm2
 rpm2 = 82080 / 15 = 5472 rpm
To calculate the #Teeth on the output shaft at the second stage of the gearbox is done in
exactly the same manner:
GMF = 33 x 5472 = #T x 6688
GMF = 180576 = #T x 6688
 #T = 180576 / 6688 = 27 teeth
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 111 WI 203

Gear normal spectrum
Should be able to see gear & pinion speeds
All low amplitudes
GMF may have sidebands of rpm
No natural frequencies present
2x & 3x GMF should be significantly lower than 1x GMF
1x Gear
1x Pinion
GMF
2x GMF 3x GMF
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 112 WI 203

Gear Defects
Tooth Wear
•GMF and harmonics show increase in amplitude
•2x & 3x GMF usually increase quicker than 1x GMF
•Excites natural frequency of the gear
•As wear progresses, sideband amplitudes increase and more “families” of sidebands
1x Gear
1x Pinion
GMF
Fn
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 113 WI 203

Gear Defects
Tooth Overloading
• GMF & Harmonics show increase in amplitude
• no natural frequencies present
• if sidebands remain at low amplitude, GMF amplitude may be normal
1x Gear GMF
1x Pinion
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 114 WI 203

Gear Defects
Backlash or Eccentricity
• if eccentricity is the problem, 1x rpm shows increase in amplitude along with GMF
• normally excites natural frequency of gear with 1x rpm sidebands
•If backlash, vibration drops when put on load
1x Gear
1x Pinion
GMF
Fn
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 115 WI 203

Gear Defects
Gear Misalignment
• always excites 2x GMF
• 2x & 3x GMF can all show increased amplitudes
• sidebands at 2x GMF are often at 2x rpm
• sidebands not always same amplitude
1x Gear
1x Pinion
2x GMF
GMF
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 116 WI 203

Gear Defects
Cracked or Broken Tooth
• best seen in time wave form
• impacts can be 10 to 20x higher than in spectrum
• time between impacts is 1/rpm
1/RPM
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 117 WI 203

Electric motors
• Current flow in stator generates magnetic field, inducing current to flow

in rotor bars
• Current flow causes rotating magnetic field which causes rotor to move
• In a 3-phase machine, magnetic field completes one revolution for each
cycle of mains frequency
• Motor runs slightly slower than mains frequency and the greater the
load, the slower it runs
• 2-Pole motors run just below line frequency
• 4-Pole motors run just less than half line frequency
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 118 WI 203

Electric motors
• Cracked or broken rotor bars:

• 3-Phase, 2-Pole motor magnetic field rotates at line frequency
• As broken rotor bar passes the pole, s drop in current occurs
• Difference between magnetic field and rpm is slip frequency
• Fluctuations occur at slip frequency x 2-poles
• 1 peak at line frequency and sidebands at 2x slip frequency
• # poles x slip frequency is called Pole Pass Frequency
• Direct relationship between height of the sidebands and number of
broken rotor bars
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 119 WI 203

Rotor bar defect
100
Current
CURRENT (amps)
S
50
0
no. of
-50
broken bars
-100
0 200 400 600
Time 2fs
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 120 WI 203

Induction Motors
Mechanical problems
Electrical problems
• Unbalanced magnetic forces
• Cracked / broken rotor bars
• Unbalanced phases
Test at 75% of load
Electrical “Slip”
High resolution spectrum needed 200 Hz / 3200 lines of resolution
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 121 WI 203

Field (Stator) & Armature Problems
Consider an uneven air gap (rotor sits lower in the stator)

Each pole is energised twice, once +ve & once –ve, equal magnetic
strength, but opposite polarity
Intended to keep magnitude strength balanced or equal
If rotor is the centre of the stator, no unbalance exists
Since rotor is not in the centre, vibration exists
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 122 WI 203

Field (Stator) & Armature Problems
Field (Stator) problems

• Shown at 2 times Line Frequency
• Irrespective of Poles or phase
• Vibration at frequency of magnetic field (rpm)
2x FL
1x RPM
2x RPM
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 123 WI 203

Electrical formula
Air Gap= Space between Rotor and Stator

FL = Electrical line frequency (60 Hz = 3,600 CPM in America, 50 Hz = 3,000
CPM in EU)
NS =Synchronous speed = 2 x FL / P
Where:
P = Number of poles
FS = Slip Frequency = (NS) – (RPM)
Fp = Pole Pass Frequency = ( Number of Poles) x (Slip frequency)
RBPF = Rotor Bar Pass Frequency = (Number of bars) x (RPM)
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 124 WI 203

Armature (Rotor) Problems
High vibration at 2x FL
Sidebands at Pole Pass Frequency (FP)
Higher than normal amplitudes at 1x running speed
Pole Pass Frequency is present but very low and sometimes cut off due to
High Pass Filtering
2x FL
1x RPM
FP Sidebands
FP
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 125 WI 203

Armature (Rotor) Problems
1x; 2x & 3x rpm with FP sidebands clearly indicate rotor problems

2x FL sidebands around RBPF usually means loose rotor bars
1x RBPF often remains low in amplitude, 2x & 3x RBPF shower higher
amplitudes
RBPF
1x RPM
2x RPM 2xFL Sidebands

3x RPM 1x, 2x RPM
FP Sidebands
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 126 WI 203

Vibration in diesel engines
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 127 WI 203

Troubleshooting on diesel engines
• Uneven Firing
– 1/2X, 1X, 1.5X, etc.
• Coupling Faults
– 1X mostly at drive end
• Main Bearing Wear
– 1X throughout engine
• Torsional Vibration
– 0.5X or other multiple speed sensitive
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 128 WI 203

Generators
• Mechanical problems:
– Unbalance
– Bearings
– Misalignment
• Electrical problems:
– Electrical unbalance
– Vibration at electrical frequency + Harmonics
• Electrical unbalance stops when run off load
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 129 WI 203

Vibration Control
• Shock and vibration can damage equipment

• Need to isolate and dampen machine-generated vibration and shock
• Vibration and shock are distinct conditions and have differing effects on
mounting pads
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 130 WI 203

Choosing the Right Mount
• Seldom as simple as ordering an off-the-shelf product

• Added benefit of leveling
• Reduced downtime, increased productivity
• The mount must be in sync with the application
• Consider mounted resonance
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 131 WI 203

Quick review
• Complete textbook’s review questions

• Review answers with class
2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 132 WI 203


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5

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 1 WI 203

• To introduce the concepts of spectrum analysis and to provide a general

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 2 WI 203

• FFT spectra provide information

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 3 WI 203

• First, collect useful

Asset Information Page – Front and Back

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 4 WI 203

Identify all components of the machine that could cause

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 5 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 6 WI 203

Obtain all historical machinery data:

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 7 WI 203

Identify the machine’s running speed.

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 8 WI 203

Identify what type of measurement produced the FFT spectrum:

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 9 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 10 WI 203

Low frequency rotational events and harmonics High frequency events

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 11 WI 203

• Identify any harmonics of running speed (1X, 2X, 3X, etc.)

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 12 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 13 WI 203

• Known good measurement collected 1 Baseline spectrum (norm)

good running order 2X Bearing Gear mesh

• 1X running speed peak is significantly

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 14 WI 203

• A harmonic is a frequency that is an exact multiple of a non-sinusoidal

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 15 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 16 WI 203

• Non-harmonics are non-integer multiples of a vibration frequency

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 17 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 18 WI 203

• Sidebands are produced when one frequency modulates another or

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 19 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 20 WI 203

• A waterfall plot trends spectrum changes

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 21 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 22 WI 202 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 23 WI 203

Centrifugal force [N] = unbalance mass X radius X speed

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 24 WI 203

ØF1 + 180o = ØF1

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 25 WI 203

Couple Static + Couple

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 26 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 27 WI 203

• (Overall vibration) - high energy, radial vibration

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 28 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 29 WI 203

• This course’s Balancing module simply reviews balancing

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 31 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 32 WI 203

Force A = Force B = Balance

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 33 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 34 WI 203

Force A Force B = Unbalance

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 35 WI 203

The amount of unbalance remaining in a rotor after balancing or in its as-

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 36 WI 203

Residual unbalance = 62 x 6 = 372 g•in (gram • inches)

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 37 WI 203

2022-03-22 ©SKF Slide 38 WI 203