Unit 3:

Wireless
Network Architecture and
Operation

T Ninikrishna
Asst. Professor
ECE Dept. , CMRIT
 Learning Objectives

 Understand the cellular concept and explain the advantages of

frequency reuse.
 Know a typical cellular cluster and explain the meaning of
frequency reuse number.
 Discuss how the capacity of a cellular system may be expanded.
 Explain the difference between cell splitting and sectoring.
 Discuss the use of backhaul networks for cellular systems.
 Explain the concept of mobility management and discuss the
operations it supports.
 Discuss the concepts of power management and network
security.
 The Cellular Concept

Introduction:
 AT & T and Bell Labs offered first mobile telephone service.

 This system’s high powered BS Txs with elevated antennas

provided a larger coverage area and enough signal to
penetrate the urban canyons of the city.
 Typically 250 watt FM transmitter paged mobiles when there
was an incoming call for the mobile.
 The limitation of this system is limited users, no frequency
reuse, cell congestion, high power requirement.
 Improvement: The main objective of cellular concept is to
allocate more users in a limited allocated spectrum.
 The Cellular Concept

Introduction:
The basic system characteristics are
 Area divided into Cells, each served by base station with
lower power transmitter covers a few hundred meters in some
cities.
 Each cell gets portion of total number of channels,
neighboring cells assigned different groups of channels in
order to reduce the interference.
 Multiple lower-power base stations that service mobile users
within their coverage area and handoff users to neighboring
base stations as users move.
 The Cellular Concept

The cellular Advantage

 A large subscriber capacity and Efficient use of spectrum
resources
 Nationwide coverage & Adaptability to traffic density
 Telephone service to both vehicle and portable user terminals
including closed user groups with voice dispatch operations
with Toll quality
 Affordability, which could eventually make it a mass-market
service
 Power requirement for mobile is less due to smaller cell and
low power transmitter
 Longer battery life and smaller mobile station form factors.
 The Cellular Concept

Cellular Limitation:

Initial implement cost is large due to

 Deployment of large no. of low power stations
 Acquisition of lands for cell sites
 The associated hardware like RBS Txr-RXr , controller,
Antennas and towers
 NOTE: But the cellular concept allows a large enough increase
in capacity to make these operations economically feasible.
 The Cellular Concept

Implementation of basic cellular architecture:

 Instead of one base station covering an entire city, the city

was broken up into cells, or smaller coverage areas.
 Each of these smaller coverage areas had its own lower-power
base station.
 The radio channels must be allocated to these smaller cells in
such way as to minimize interference but at the same time
provide the necessary system performance to handle the
traffic load within the cells.
 The Cellular Concept

Implementation of basic cellular architecture:

Frequency Reuse:
 It is a design process of selecting and allocating channel

groups for all of the cellular base stations within a system.

 The key characteristic of a cellular network is the ability to
reuse frequencies to increase both coverage and capacity.
 Extensive frequency reuse allows for many users to be
supported at the same time.
 Total spectrum allocated to the service provider is broken up
into smaller bands.
 The Cellular Concept

Implementation of basic cellular architecture:

Frequency Reuse:
 A cell is assigned one of these bands.

 This means all communications (transmissions to and from

users) in this cell occur over these frequencies only.
 Neighboring cells are assigned a different frequency band.
 This ensures that nearby transmissions do not interfere with
each other.
 The same frequency band is reused in another cell that is far
away.
 This large distance limits the interference caused by this co-
frequency cell.
The Cellular Concept
 The Cellular Concept

Implementation of basic cellular architecture:

Cluster :
 It is a group of cell that makes use of all the available radio
spectrum.
 Cluster has N cells with unique and disjoint channel.
 Since adjacent cell cannot use the same frequency channels,
the total frequency allocation is divided up over the cluster
and then repeated for other clusters in the system.
 The number of cells in a cluster is known as the cluster size or
the frequency reuse factor (1/N)
 The Cellular Concept

Illustration of cellular system capacity:

An Example
 Consider service provider wants to provide cellular
communications to a particular geographic area. The provider is
licensed = 5MHz. Each system subscriber bandwidth (channel
B.W) = 10 KHz. If the service provider was to provide coverage
from only one transmitter site, the total theoretical number of
possible simultaneous users = Total B.W/ Channel B.W = 5 MHz/
10kHz / user = 500 users. If, however, the service provider
implements a cellular system with 35 transmitter sites, located to
minimize interference and provide total coverage of area,
determine the new system capacity?
 The Cellular Concept

Illustration of cellular system capacity:

Solution:
 Assume the cluster size N = 7

 The allocated B.W/cell= System B.W/ Number of cells in a

cluster =5*106/7=714kHz
 Bandwidth per cell = 714 kHz.
 No. of cluster 35/7= 5.
 Each cell has a capacity =714kHz/10kHz/user = 71 users
 Total system capacity =35 cells*71 users/cell = 2485 users.
 This is a system capacity increase of =5 times.
 The Cellular Concept

Illustration of cellular system capacity:

Conclusion:
 Cellular Hierarchy

• It is created in the cellular system based on the cell size, as shown

in the below table.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

A Cell is a small geographic area within which each

cellular base station is allocated a group of radio
channels to be used.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

 The Footprint: The actual radio coverage of a cell and is

determined from field measurements or propagation prediction
models.
 Although Real footprint is formless in nature, a regular cell shape
is needed for systematic system design.
 Why circle cannot be used to represent the coverage area of a
base station?
 because adjacent circles cannot be overlaid upon a map
without leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions.
 Thus, when considering geometric shapes which cover an entire
region without overlap and with equal area, there are three
sensible choices: a square; an equilateral triangle; and a hexagon.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Why Hexagonal model?

 A cell must be designed to serve the weakest mobiles within
the footprint, and these are typically located at the edge of
the cell.
 For a given distance between the center of a polygon and its
farthest perimeter points, the hexagon has the largest area of
the three.
 By using the hexagon geometry, the fewest number of cells
can cover a geographic region
 The hexagon closely approximates a circular radiation pattern
which would occur for an Omni-directional base station
antenna and free space propagation
CELL FUNDAMENTALS
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Reuse Number
 To gain the maximum reuse of the frequencies for a cellular
system, cells are arranged in clusters.
 To determine the minimum size cluster that can be used it is
necessary to calculate the interference levels generated by the
co-channel cells.
 The reuse distance has been determined that relates cluster
size N, cell radius R and the reuse distance D.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Reuse Number
 The frequency reuse distance can be calculated by:
D = R (3N) 1/2

Where R=cell radius and

N=reuse pattern.
 Values of N can only take on numbers calculated from the
following expression:
N = i2 + ij + j2, where i and j are integers.
CELL FUNDAMENTALS
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Relationship between:
cluster size (N) and reuse distance (D)

Example :
For mobile system cluster size of 7, determine the
frequency reuse distance if the cell radius is five
kilometers. Repeat the calculation for the cluster size of
4.
CELL FUNDAMENTALS
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Relationship between:
cluster size (N) and reuse distance (D)
 Using the expression N= i2 + ij + j2, one can show that
possible value for N is 7.
 As shown in fig 4-4, the hexagons (cells) are arranged with
one hexagon in the centre of a cluster and six other hexagons
surrounding the middle hexagon.
 Adjacent clusters repeat the previous pattern.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Relationship between:
cluster size (N) and reuse distance (D)
 The re-use distance is found from the following equation:

1. for N=7, wkt D = R (3N) 1/2 =5(3*7)1/2 = 5(21)1/2 =

5(4.5823) = 22.913km.
2. For N=4, D = 5(3*4)1/2 = 5(12)1/2 = 5(3.464) = 17.32km.

 Hence a smaller cluster size results in a smaller re-use

distance.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Cellular Interference Issues (S/I)

 More complex calculation can yield the S/I ratio for a

particular cluster size, N.
 S/I ratio gives an indication of the quality of the received
signal
 Using simple mathematical model for S/I ratio calculations
involving unidirectional cells yield the results tabulated in the
table below for several common values of N.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Table below shows Signal to interference (S/I) ratio for various

cluster sizes.
 CELL FUNDAMENTALS

Cellular Interference Issues (S/I)

 Smaller cluster sizes will yield a larger possible no. of
subscribers
 From the table, the trade-off is a lowered S/I ratio and the
corresponding decrease in the radio link quality.
 The AMPS system did not yield usable voice quality radio links
unless an S/I ratio exceeding 18dB was available.
 This value of S/I was only possible for a cluster of size 7 and
up. Therefore, the typical AMPS system was deployed with a
cluster size of N=7.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

 Cellular capacity is a number of users in a cell.

 The approaches to capacity expansion are either
architecturally or technologically enabled.
 They are
1. Cell splitting
2. Cell sectoring
3. Overlaid Cells
4. Channel allocation
5. Other capacity expansion schemes
 Lee’s Microcell Technology

 Smart Antenna Technology

 Migration to Digital Technology

 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

1. Cell splitting
 The process of subdividing a congested cell into smaller cells.

(each with its own base station and a corresponding reduction

in antenna height and transmitter power)

 Cell splitting preserves the geometry of the architecture and

therefore simply scales the geometry of the architecture

 The increased number of cells would increase the number of

clusters which in turn would increase the number of channels
reused and capacity.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cell splitting
 Assume that Cell A has become saturated and is unable to
support its traffic load.
 Using cell splitting, six new smaller cells with approximately
one-quarter the area of the larger cells are inserted into the
system around A in such a way as to be halfway between two
co channel cells.
 These smaller cells will use the same channels as the
corresponding pair of larger co-channel cells.
 In order that the overall system frequency reuse plan be
preserved, the transmit power of these cells must be reduced
by a factor of approximately 16 or 12dB.
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Cell splitting
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cell splitting
 As the splitting process moves toward completion the number
of channels in the small cells will increase until eventually all
the channels in the area are used by the lower-power group
of cells and the original Cells A has had its power reduced and
also joins the new smaller cluster.

 As traffic increases in other areas of the system this process

may be repeated over again, eventually the entire system will
be resealed with smaller cells in the high-traffic areas and
larger cells on the outskirts of the system or in areas of low
traffic or low population density.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cell splitting

Conclusion:
 Cell splitting effectively increases system capacity by reducing

the cell size and therefore reducing the frequency reuse

distance thus permitting the use of more channels.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cell splitting
Advantages:
 Increases the system capacity.

 Reduces the cell size, frequency reuse distance.

 Increases the number of channels.

Disadvantages:
 Co channel interference increases

 Difficult to acquire appropriately located cell sites

 Prolonged conversion process, different cell size exists in the

same area.
 No. of base station increases

 Trunking efficiency decreases and Handoff process increases

 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

2. Cell Sectoring

 Another technique to increase cellular system capacity

 Uses directional antennas to effectively split a cell into 3 or
sometimes 6 new cells.
 Seek methods to decrease the D /R ratio.
 Reuse Factor/ frequency reuse ratio :
Q= D/R = (3N) 1/2
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Fig:
Three directional
antennas with 120o
beamwidths to
illuminate the entire
area previously
services by
omnidirectional
antenna
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Co-channel interference (CCI)

 For the efficient use of available spectrum, it is necessary to reuse

frequency bandwidth over relatively small geographical areas.

 Increasing frequency reuse also increases interference, which

decreases system capacity and service quality.

 The cells where the same set of frequencies is used are call co-
channel cells.

 Co-channel interference is the cross talk between two different radio

transmitters using the same radio frequency as is the case with the
co-channel cells.

 The reasons of CCI can be because of either adverse weather

conditions or poor frequency planning or overcrowded radio
spectrum
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Co-channel interference (CCI)

 If D/R ratio is increased, then the effective distance between

the co-channel cells will increase and interference will
decrease.
 Small ‘Q’ means small value of cluster size ‘N’ and increase in
cellular capacity.
 But large ‘Q’ leads to decrease in system capacity but increase
in transmission quality
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cell Sectoring
 It provides interference reduction, hence S/I ratio increases.
 To address co-channel interference
 It does not require new cell sites and additional antennas and
triangular mounting only.
 Demerits: Increased network system architecture complexity
 Illustration of interference reduction due to cell sectoring as
explained with fig 3.6
 Sectoring of a cell results in a reduction in the amount of
interference that the sector experiences from its co channel
neighbors in adjacent
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Cell Sectoring
 Before sectoring, for a cluster size of 7, a cell receives and
gives interference to six other nearest co channel cells in
other clusters.
 Now, as shown by Figure for Cell AO, the number of
interfering cells has been reduced to two (A1 and A2).
 This results in a higher S/I ratio for that sector and its
companion sectors in other clusters.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Table below tabulates these new values for a three-sector scheme

for some common values of cluster size.
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

3. Overlaid Cells
 It was first introduced in the section on cell splitting.

 This method can be used to expand the capacity of cellular

systems in two ways.

 Split-band analog systems.

 Reduced cluster size systems
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Overlaid cells in a split-band system:

 An operational wideband analog system could be upgraded to

increase its capacity by overlaying another analog system with
narrower bandwidth requirements over it.
 In such a split-band overlay system, channels are divided
between a larger macrocell (using AMPS or TACS) and the
overlaid microcell (using NAMPS or NTACS) that is contained
in its entirety within the macrocell.
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Overlaid cells in a split-band system:

 Channels are divided among a larger macrocell that coexists

with a smaller microcell contained entirely within the

macrocell „
 BS serves both macro- and microcells „
 R1, D1: macrocell; R2, D2: microcell.
 D2/R2>D1/R1 „
 SIR for microcells substantially greater than that for
macrocells -- and this situation may be exploited to
increase network capacity by using split-band analog
system, or reuse partitioning
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Overlaid cells in a split-

band system:

R1: the radius of macrocells „

R2: radius of microcells „
Macro- and micro-cells share
the same BS
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

Reuse partitioning
 „As R2 is smaller, a smaller reuse distance can be adopted

for microcells to maintain the same SIR. „

 Capacity increased „

 Additional complexity required for BS to handle handoff

from microcell to macrocell

 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Overlaid cells in a reduced cluster size system „
 It may be applied to GSM or NA-TDMA systems.
 As an example of this method, consider a system with a
cluster size of N=4.
 On the top of this system, a cluster of overlaid cells is applied
with a cluster size of 3
 If the channels for the overlaid cell cluster are taken from the
underlaid cluster, the system capacity increases since the area
needed for the overlaid system is only 75% of that needed for
the underlaid cells.
 This type of expansion allows operators to migrate their
systems using the same base station and mobile station
equipment.
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
4. Channel allocation
 Need for channel allocation to handle random/ dynamic traffic
with different scenarios of activities that might cause the
amount of traffic to change.
 Traffic in each cell is dynamic
 During the events like rock concerts and sporting events, the
amount of traffic offered to cellular systems can change
drastically for short periods on the scale of hours.
 Other events like golf tournaments or state fairs could change
traffic intensity for a week or longer.
 The business district of a metropolitan area may experience
changing levels of traffic over the course of workday.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Channel allocation
 The first scenario is so extraordinary that it is very difficult to
design anything in to the system to handle the extremely large
increase in traffic offered to the system.
 In many such cases, cellular providers will bring in portable
cellular sites (sometimes known as “cells on wheels” or COWs) to
handle the increased demand.
 A national cellular service provider may have dozens of COWs
that are deployed all over the country at any given time.
 COWs are also deployed during natural disasters to restore
disrupted communications.
 On the other hand, the traffic scenario within the business
district can be dealt with to some degree through channel
allocation techniques.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Channel allocation
Three main methods to achieve efficient channel allocation :
1. Fixed channel scheme: The procedures of this scheme are
 Examines system wide traffic patterns over time.
 Fine tune the system by allocationg additional channels where
needed.
 This means that instead of equally dividing up the channels
over the cells, some cells will receive larger channel allocations
than others.
 Use very complex algorithms to determine the final allocation of
channels, and these allocations are periodically updated as a
traffic usage database grows.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Channel allocation
2. Channel borrowing scheme:
 A high-traffic cell can borrow channels from low-traffic cells
and keep them as needed or until the offered traffic returns to
normal.
 While borrowing channel, it should not effect on performance
of the borrowed cell.
 After the traffic over the borrowed channel is complete, the
channel is returned to use in its original cell.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Channel allocation
3. Dynamic channel allocation (DCA):

 All the available channel are placed in channel pool

 Each channel assigned a new call based on Signal to
interference statistics
 Each Channel can be used by each cell until necessary SIR is
met.
 This is an extremely complex system that uses many network
resources to accomplish its operation.
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

5. Other capacity expansion schemes

 1. Lee’s Microcell technology

 2. Smart Antenna Technology
 3. Migration to newer technology
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

1. Lee’s Microcell technology

 Downside to sectoring concept: need for an increased no. of

handoffs and the resulting increased load on network
switching elements.
 This method uses zones instead of sectors
 It uses 3 antennas that provide coverage by “looking” into the
microcell
 All 3 antennas are connected to the same BS by high-speed
microwave or fiber links
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

1. Lee’s Microcell technology

 The antenna with the best reception of the mobile is used

for both the uplink and downlink

 As the mobile travels with in the microcell the same channel

can be used and there is no need for handoff operations,
hence it reduce number of hand offs
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES

2. Smart Antenna Technology

 It was proposed for 3G techniques
 A BS could direct a narrow beam of radio wave at a
particular mobile station
 Reuse the same channel over another narrow beam (smart
antenna use phased array technology, i.e, Adaptive steered
antenna are used).
 This technology is referred to as SDMA (Space Division
Multiple Access)
 Many systems have space diversity to select the best signal
out of two or more signals.
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Smart Antenna array
 Antenna array with a digital signal processing capability to
transmit and receive in an adaptive and spatially sensitive
manner.
 Aim: To maximize the antenna gain in desired direction
To minimize the gain in direction of interferers
 Continuous tracking can be achieved by including DoA
algorithm
 SDMA: More than one user can be allocated to the same
physical communications channel simultaneously in the
same cell.
 Each user signal is multiplied by a complex weight therby
adjusting mag and phase of the signal and beam is formed
CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
 CAPACITY EXPANSION TECHNIQUES
Migration to digital technology

 1G need S/I=18dB for example AMPS and 2G need

S/I=12dB example GSM,NA-TDMA
 Newer technology is based on digital modulation technique
,e.g. 3G services
 2G systems use TDMA and CDMA to achieve greater
capacity
 Cellular Backhaul Networks

 Backhaul – “Getting data to the network backbone or

transmitting from a remote site or network to a central or
main site.
 The backhaul of 1G cellular system
 The MSC and BS were typically connected together using
T1/E1/J1 lines.
 The connection between MSC & BS carried PCM-encoded
voice signals at 64kbps.
 T1/J1 can handle 24 voice band calls and an E1 can handle
30 voice calls.
 Cellular Backhaul Networks

For 2G cellular system

 Voice signals are transcoded at rate 8kbps or 16 kbps at BSC
and sent over T1/E1/J1 facilities at either allowing as many as
192 voice channels.
 Fiber optic cables between MSC and PSTN, traffic was
typically aggregated and, if wanted, usually sent over larger
T3 facilities that could provide for high traffic.
For 2.5G, 2.5+G
 Cellular operator use own private wideband networks to
backhaul both voice and data between MSC and BS and from
BSs to the BSCs and finally to the MSCs in an effort to reduce
costs.
 Cellular Backhaul Networks

CDMA Cellular system data network connections

 CDMA systems maintained the connection between the MSC

and the BSC for voice traffic.

 Inter working function and packet data service node

(IWF/PDSN) network element that connects directly to the
external packet network and BSC.
Cellular Backhaul Networks
 Cellular Backhaul Networks

GSM cellular system data network connection

 GSM introduced packet-switched data services GPRS.
 Here addition to the traditional GSM network components, a
GPRS public land mobile network (PLMN) has been added
that interface to PDN
 Through this GPRS PLMN, the GSM subscriber is to access
Web sites through public server or corporate intranets
through private enterprise server.
 Voice services are supplied through the traditional GSM
PLMN.
Cellular Backhaul Networks
 Mobility management

 Most important characteristics of wireless communication

system is the ability to provide mobility to the user.
 It explains how the network knows where the subscriber is (
Location Management) and how it keeps track of and is in
contact with the mobile station as the user moves from one
cell to another (Hand Off Management)
 Mobility management = Location management + Hand off
management
 Location management

 It is the process of keeping track of the present or last

known location of the MS and delivery of both voice and
data to it as it moves around.

Its main objectives are:

 1. Provide continuous radio link

 2. Know the location of the device

 3. Direct the packet in a network

 4. Determine MS status in network

 5. Check availability of the MS

 Location management

 Basic functions performed by Location management:

1. Location updating
2. Sending paging messages
3. Transmission of location information between
network elements
 Location management
Location Updating : It is performed by MS
 After initial power up / system registration, the MS and BS will
exchange their identification information.
 MS is attached to a BS and is located initially and Periodically
checked for accuracy and accidental detach from system.
 MS sends update message every time it changes point of
access(AP) in a network and exchange information for
handoff.
 Location update request msg: if MS receives ID of BS from a
different LA.
 If a connection fails, system pages group of surrounding
stations to track a MS
 When MS is turned on - new registration info.
 Location management
Location Updating
 Balance required between number of update messages and
number of cells to be paged
 Greater degree of certainty in locating the MS -- if frequent
paging
Two types of updating schemes
 1. Static: cellular network’s geographic layout determines
updating requirements.
 2. Dynamic : user’s mobility and cellular system layout
determines updating algorithms
Location management
 Location management
Location Updating - Static method
 In this approach, a group of cells is assigned a location area
identification value (LAI).
 Each BS in the LA broadcasts its ID number in a periodic fashion
over a control channel.
 The MSs that are attached to the base station within the LA are
required to listen to the control channel for the LA ID.
 If the LA ID changes, the MS will have to send a location update
message to the new BS.
 The BS will forward the updated information to the VLR database
location in the fixed position of the wireless network.
 Location management
Location Updating
 Now, if there is an incoming message for an MS, a paging
message will be sent to all the cells in the LA where the MS is
listed as being present.
 The MS, unless it has moved in to another LA, will respond
to the paging message.

 Drawback: PING-PONG Effect: This effect can occur if the

mobile is moving in a path that takes it back and forth
between the borders of 2 LA s. -- can affect hand off
process.
 Location management
Paging messages
 Incoming call or message to MS initiates paging of the mobile
Different paging schemes are
 a) Broadcasting message: send a message either to cell or to
a group of cells that is meant to bring a response from single
particular mobile.
 This response will start the process by which communication
between the PSTN or the PDN will be established with the
mobile.
 The paging of the mobile is more efficient if the exact cell the
mobile registered in is known.
 However, as pointed out, this information is not always available,
hence we use next strategies.
 Location management
Paging messages

b) Blanket paging:
 This type of page will be broadcast to all cells in a particular
location area.
 If successful the mobile will respond after the first paging
cycle and delay kept to a minimum.
 Otherwise, a scheme of sequential paging is used.
 Location management
Paging messages
c) Sequential paging:
 Cell where mobile was last registered is paged first

 If not successful, next group of surrounding cells is paged,

else another large ring of surrounding cells is paged

 This is continued till page is successful or paging cycle time

expires and MS is declared unreachable by the system.

 Handoff initiated when power from current RBS drops.

 Reduces ping-pong effect.

 Handover to and fro between a cell pair frequently.

 Fine tuning algorithm to improve system performance.

 Location management
3. Transmission of the location information between
network elements

 For location updating to work correctly in a wireless

network, there must exist several databases where MS
information can be stored and accessed by the network as
needed.
 When MS is turned on by a subscriber’s home network
area, the home VLR will temporarily store the user
information.
 Location management
3. Transmission of the location information between
network elements
 Within a particular network there are usually several MSCs used
to support network’s operation.
 Depending upon the particular network topology, each MSC may
contain HLR and VLR data base function are alternately single
HLRs (configured as a MSC/HLR/VLR) might service a group of
MSC/VLRs
 For a small system another possibility is that a gateway MSC
(GMSC) might house the HLR function for a group of integrated
MSC/VLRs.
 A gateway MSC is an MSC that interface the mobile network with
other network such as PSTN.
Location management
 Location management
3. Transmission of the location information between
network elements
 Let us examine several possible scenarios that could occur
during the operation of a wireless network.
 First possibility: the user turns on a mobile within his or
her home area.
 The mobile registers with the VLR for the home area.
 The co-located or system HLR confirms that the subscribers
has network privileges.
 Communication between remote HLR and MSC/VLR occurs
using particular signalling protocol over an SS7 network.
 Location management
3. Transmission of the location information between network
elements
 The second case would occur when the user is away from his or
her home location.
 Now mobile registers with VLR of another MSC or a ‘’foreign’’
network.
 In these situations, the MSC/VLR must send a message to the
subscribers HLR to verify authentication information about the
mobile.
 The HLR will respond to the request by transmitting the
information back to the requesting MSC/VLR over SS7 signalling
network
 For a GSM cellular system and most other modern systems, the
SS7 system is used to communicate these massages using MTP
and SCCP signalling.
 Handoff management
 Handoff: If a subscriber moves from one cell to another, the
cellular system must have the ability to reconfigure the connection
to the mobile from the current base station to the new BS in the
new cell. This connection hand over process is called hand-off.

 (i) Handoff control: The algorithm used to determine when to

make a handoff can be located in a network element or in a
mobile terminal.

Two major types:

 1. Network controlled handoff or NCHO

 2. Mobile-controlled handoff or MCHO

 3. Mobile assisted handoff or MAHO
 Handoff management

(ii) Parameters measured/used in the handoff

algorithms:

 RSS (received signal strength), System path loss, carrier-

and Signal-to- interference ratios, BER (bit error rate) and
so on.
 Problem with RSS: RSS can undergo extreme fluctuations
due to signal fading effects that are completely random in
nature.
 Traditional handoff algorithms would initiate handoffs when
the power received from the current RBS dropped below
that received by another nearby RBS
 Handoff management
 Additional fine tuning of algorithm has incorporated threshold
levels and hysteresis to prevent erroneous handoffs and to
mitigate ping-pong effect.
 When the mobile is between the base stations, the effect is to
cause the mobile to wildly switch links with either base stations.
 The base stations bounces the link with the mobile back and
forth. Hence the phenomenon is called ping- ponging. Besides
ping - ponging this simple approach allows too many handoffs.
 A better method is to use the averaged signal levels relative to a
threshold and hysteresis margin for handoff decision.

 Furthermore, the condition should be imposed that the

target base station’s signal level should be greater than that
of the current base station.
Handoff management
 Handoff management
Traditional handoff algorithms are as follows
 - Handoff based on Relative Signal Strength (RSS) in which the
strongest base station (BS) is selected at all time.
 - Handoff based on Relative Signal Strength with threshold (RSS-
T) in which a user handover is executed only if the current signal
is sufficiently weak (less than a threshold) and the other is the
stronger of the two.
 - Handoff based on Relative Signal Strength with hysteresis (RSS-
H) in which a user handover is done if the new BS is sufficiently
stronger by hysteresis margin (n) than the current one. This
method prevents repeated handoffs (Ping-Pong effect).
 Handoff management

Traditional handoff algorithms are as follows

 - Handoff based on relative Signal Strength with hysteresis and
threshold of serving base station (RSS-HTser) in which the user
handover to a new BS occurs only if the current signal level
drops below a threshold and the target BS is stronger than the
current one by a given hysteresis margin.
 Handoff management

 Cellular service provider engineers are continually fine

tuning system handoff algorithms to improve system
performance.

Measures of system performance might include

 Call blocking and call dropping probability.

 Required time to complete a handoff,

 System handoff rate.

Handoff management
 Handoff management
(iv). Typical cellular handoff operation
 Handoff management requires the transmission of messages
between various network elements to facilitate the handoff
process.
Steps involved in the operation:
 1. Signal power levels being received by the current and handoff
candidate radio BSs and the MSs are first relayed to the RBS and
then to the BSC.
 2. When these levels meet the criteria for a handoff, the process
is initiated.
 3. A handoff message is sent to the mobile from the current RBS
that requests the MS register with a new RBS that is also
identified in the message.
 Handoff management
Steps involved in the operation:
 4. When the mobile performs this task, the MSC\VLR is updated
to reflect the new mobile point of attachment and any other
changed system parameters.
 5. If the MSC\VLR most recently registered with is not the same
as the last, then the new VLR must send an interrogation
message to the home HLR to obtain the subscriber profile and
authentication information.
 6. The HLR responds over the SS7 network with the
authentication information.
 7. If the mobile is authenticated, then the RBS sends a message
to the mobile assigning a new pair of traffic channels to the MS
and the RBS for the continuation of a voice conversation.
 Handoff management
Steps involved in the operation:
 8. The HLR database is updated so that it knows where the
mobile is and the new VLR database adds the new mobile to its
list of subscriber terminals that are being serviced by the
particular MSC/VLR.

 9. As a last act, the HLR sends a message to the old MSC/VLR to

purge the mobile from its list of actively attached subscriber
terminals.

 10. Additionally, any data packets that were intended for delivery
to the MS from the old MSC/VLR that may have been placed in a
temporary network storage area should be either deleted or
redirected to the new MS access point.
 Radio resources and Power management

 1. Power management
 Power management includes Interference management, Energy
management and Connectivity management.
 We know that in cellular systems the use of many closely spaced
low-power RBSs allows for frequency reuse and hence increased
system capacity. At the same time, interference also increases.
 Interference can be reduced by use of power control algorithms
for the adjustment of the MS output power and RBS output
power allow for nearly constant received signal strength at both
the MS and RBS receivers.
 Radio resources and Power management

 1. Power management

This use of power control provides several system advantages

 1. the amount of co channel interference (CCI) is reduced.

 2. risk of signal coupler saturation is reduced at RBS

 3. power consumption of MS is reduced

 The last advantage has additional ramifications in the

reduction of battery requirements, which translates to
longer time between charging and lighter and smaller
mobile terminals.
 Radio resources and Power management

Power control algorithm:

Design objectives are :
 Achieve SIR tolerance with good quality communications

 Must constantly adjust to change in RSS caused by fading

or mobility of MS
Usual Power control algorithm has 2 phases:
Phase I: MS registers with BSS, Determine minimum output
power to avoid possibility of a call drop
Phase II: Additional measurements to reduce power, Output
power of RBS is adjusted, Use complex algorithms achieve
maximum SIR for all radio links.
 Radio resources and Power management

Power saving schemes

Motive: to conserve MS battery power during txn
/reception/standby mode
1. Discontinuous transmission (DTX)
 Mobile may be programmed to transmit only during speech
activity
 RBS sets discontinuous transmission (DTX) bit to either permit or

disallow this mode and includes extra over head msg to mobile
during initial registration of mobile.
 Use of straight speech detection methods- cause of unnatural
resulting sound
 To compensate: low-power background or comfort noise is
generated by mobile receiver during gaps of silence .
 Process is also repeated at MS, TRC, BSC
 Radio resources and Power management

2. Sleep mode
 Another technique to save MS battery power is to put MS into
sleep mode during periods of no activity
 For this, RF circuitry is powered off while waiting btwn msgs

 Mobile will periodical awaken and read ctrl channel msgs from the
system so as to not miss a paging msg

3. Energy efficient designs

 Use of most power-efficient semiconductor technologies

 Additional power savings: Power efficient modulation and coding

schemes
 Protocol design -Software/hardware design

 Advanced DSP technology – software radios, reconfigurable

wireless radio systems
 Wireless network security

Security Issues In Cellular Networks

 1. Authentication, Integrity, Confidentiality, Access Control,
Operating Systems
 2. Web Services, Location Detection, Viruses And Malware,
Downloaded Contents
 3. Device Security

Network security: Techniques

 Encryption :Scrambling using key, Use secret key
algorithms.
 Radio resources and Power management

2. Radio Resources Management (RRM)

 It is the system level control of co-channel interference and other

radio transmission characteristics in wireless communication systems

Two types of RRM
 1. Static RRM: Involves manual as well as computer aided fixed cell
planning or radio Network planning.
 2. Dynamic RRM: Adaptively adjust the radio network parameters to

the traffic load, user Positions, Quality of service requirements, etc.

 Provide functional improvements for RF operation

 Implement system power control to reduce interference

 Maximize capacity from above concept

 Best available radio channel selection

 Use wireless radio resource management scheme to enable handoff

operations