Unit5: Data Analysis and Report Writing

Stages of data analysis

• Editing , Coding, Classification, Tabulation, Validation , Analysis and Interpretation

Hypothesis - Null and alternative hypotheses

Process, errors in hypotheses.

Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests:

t-test, z-test, f-test, U-test, K-W Test (problems on all tests)

Statistical analysis - Bivariate and Multivariate Analysis- (only theory).

ANOVA-one-way and two-way classification (theory only)

Report writing and presentation of results:

- Importance of report writing, types of research report, report structure,
guidelines for effective documentation.
 DATA PROCESSING
• Data processing is a crucial stage in research.
• After collecting the data from the field the
researcher has to process & analyze them in
order to arrive at certain conclusions.
 …

• After collecting the data, the next task of the researcher is to analyze and
interpret the data.
• The purpose of analysis is to draw conclusions.

• There are two parts in processing the data:

(1) Data analysis
(2) Interpretation of data
• Analysis of the data involves organizing the data in a particular manner.
• Interpretation of data is a method for deriving conclusions from the data
analyzed.
• Analysis of data is not complete, unless it is interpreted.
The data preparation process
DATA EDITING

DATA CODING

DATA CLASSIFICATION

DATA TABULATION

EXPLORATORY DATA ANALYSIS

 Preparing Raw Data
Data collection is a significant part of market research. Even more significant is to filter
out the relevant data from the mass of data collected. Data continues to be in raw
form, unless they are processed and analyzed.
• Primary data collected by surveys and observations by field investigations are
hastily entered into questionnaires.
• Due to the pressure of interviewing, the researcher has to write down the
responses immediately.
• Many times this may not be systematic. The information so collected by field staff is
called raw data.
• The information collected may be illegible, incomplete and inaccurate to a
considerable extent.
The data lying in such a crude form are not ready for analysis. Keeping this in mind,
the researcher must take some measures to organize the data so that it can be
analyzed.
 EDITING
Editing is the first & foremost stage in the data processing. It means to
look for & remove any error, incompleteness & inconsistency in the data.
While editing the data the following must be scrutinized.
1.Whether the data is reliable & accurate.
2.Whether the schedules are complete & all questions have been
answered.
3.Whether all the schedules are uniform.
4.Whether the entries have been made in accordance with the
instructions.
5.Whether there are any inconsistencies in the answers.
 Editing Contd….

The first stage in the editing is completeness.

To begin with it should be verified whether answers have been
recorded for all the questions.
There are some significant omissions because
1. Refusal to answer
2. Forgetfulness to record the information
3. Not applicable
It is not sufficient that the information is complete but it’s
accuracy & truthfulness is more important
 Data editing
Field editing: usually done by the field investigators at the end of
every field day the investigator(s) who must review the filled
forms for any inconsistencies, non-response, illegible responses
or incomplete questionnaires.

Centralized in-house editing: usually done at the researcher’s

end.
 Backtracking
 Allocating missing values
 Discarding unsatisfactory responses
Treatment of Unsatisfactory Results
• Returning to the Field (Backtracking) – The questionnaires
with unsatisfactory responses may be returned to the field,
where the interviewers recontact the respondents.
• Assigning Missing Values – If returning the questionnaires
to the field is not feasible, the editor may assign missing
values to unsatisfactory responses.
• Discarding Unsatisfactory Respondents – In this
approach, the respondents with unsatisfactory responses
are simply discarded.
 Data coding

The process of identifying and denoting a numeral to the responses

given by the respondent is called coding
• Field

• Record

• File

• Data matrix
 Data coding
Sample record: Excel sheet for two-wheeler owners

Vehicle
Column 3 Km/day Family size
Unit occupation Column 4 Marital status Column 6
Column 1 Column 2 Column 5
1 4 1 20 1 3
2 3 2 25 2 1
3 5 1 25 1 4
4 2 1 15 2 2
5 4 2 20 2 4
6 5 2 35 2 6
7 1 1 40 1 3
8 5 2 20 2 4
Coding What a Person’s Face “Says”
• Technological advances now
allow researchers a chance to
collect and code data not based
upon what people say, but what
their face “says.”
• Sensory Logic’s Facial Action
Coding System (FACS).
• Reveals a respondent’s
engagement, their positive and
negative emotional states, and
the impact or appeal of what
they are responding to.
 Pre-Coding
closed-ended questions
• Dichotomous questions:
Do you eat ready-to-eat food? Yes=1; no=0 (X-1)
• Ranking questions
Q.NO. Variable name Coding instructions Variable name
1. Balika Badhu Number from 1-10 X 10a
2. Sathiya Number from 1-10 X 10b
3. Sasural Genda Phool Number from 1-10 X 10c
4. Bidai Number from 1-10 X 10d
5. Pathshala Number from 1-10 X 10e
6. Bandini Number from 1-10 X 10f
7. Laptaganj Number from 1-10 X 10g
8. Sajan Ghar Jaaana Hai Number from 1-10 X 10h
9. Tere Liye Number from 1-10 X 10i
10. Uttaran Number from 1-10 X 10j
 Sample code book extract
Symbol
Question used for
Variable Name Coding Instruction
No. variable
name
Yes = 1
1. Buy ready to eat food products X1
No = 0
Yes = 1
2. Use ready to eat food products X2
No = 0
Less than 20 yrs = 1,
21 to 26 years = 2,
22. Age 27 to 35 years = 3, X22
36 to 45 years = 4,
More than 45 years = 5
Male = 1
23. Gender X23
Female = 2
Single = 1
24. Marital status Married = 2 X24
Divorced/widow = 3
25. No. of children Exact no. to be written X25
One to two = 1,
26. Family size Three to five = 2, X26
Six & more = 3
Rs.20000 to Rs.34999 = 1,
Rs.35000 to Rs.50000 = 2,
27. Monthly household income X27
Rs.50001 to Rs.74999 = 3
Rs.75000 & above = 4
Less than graduation = 1
28. Education Graduation = 2 X28
Post graduation & above = 3
Student = 1
Businessman = 2
Professional = 3
29. Occupation X29
Service = 4
Housewife = 5
Others = 6
 Post-Coding
Open-ended questions
If you think Lean was a success so far, please specify three
most significant reasons that have contributed to its
success in your opinion?

Col.no. Variable name Coding instructions Variable name

63. Improvement at work place by eliminating waste. Yes = 1 X 63a

No = 0
64 To meet increasing demands of customers Yes = 1 X 63b
No = 0
65 To improve quality Yes = 1 X 63c
No = 0
66 To achieve corporate goal Yes = 1 X 63d
No = 0
67 It reduces cycle time of the manufacturing & production. Yes = 1 X 63e
No = 0
68 Reduced response time Yes = 1 X 63f
No = 0
69 Enhanced innovation and creativity Yes = 1 X 63g
No = 0
Classification and tabulation of data
• Classification by attributes: Mostly categorical (gender,
age, etc)

• Classification by class intervals: This could be exclusive

or inclusive ( 15-25 ,25-35,35-45 etc)

• Tabulation: Arrangement of data into an orderly

arrangement of rows and columns in order to subject it
to statistical analysis
 SLIDE 10-19

Statistical software packages

• MS EXCEL

• MINITAB

• System for Statistical Analysis(SAS)

• Statistical Software for Social Sciences(SPSS)

 SLIDE 10-14

Exploratory data analysis

Once the data has been cleaned and entered in tabular form, the researcher is doing
exploration on the basis of graphical and visual display of the data patters like Bar graph,
Pie charts, Line graph etc. and do the interpretation of table and charts prepared.
Also assess the further analysis for the hypothesis prepared based on objectives of the
study
Sample characteristics: age group of the sample
Age groups frequency percent

20-25 27 27.0
26-30 37 37.0
31-35 9 9.0
36-40 22 22.0
41-45 3 3.0
46 & above 2 2.0
Total 100 100.0
 SLIDE 10-15

Exploratory data analysis

pie charts
Age Group

20-25
26-30
31-35
36-40
41-45
46 & Above
 Exploratory data analysis
bar charts
Age Group

40

30
Frequency

20

10

0
20-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 & Above

Age Group
 Exploratory data analysis
histograms
Histogram

6
Frequency

Mean =18.3553
Std. Dev. =6.55777
0
N =15
10.00 15.00 20.00 25.00 30.00 35.00 40.00
purchase in gms
UNIVARIATE AND BIVARIATE ANALYSIS OF DATA
 Meaning of Univariate, Bivariate & Multivariate Analysis of Data
• Univariate Analysis – In univariate analysis, one variable is analysed at a time.
• Bivariate Analysis – In bivariate analysis two variables are analysed together
and examined for any possible association between them.
• Multivariate Analysis – In multivariate analysis, the concern is to analyse
more than two variables at a time.
The type of statistical techniques used for analysing univariate and bivariate
data depends upon the level of measurements of the questions pertaining to
those variables.
Further, the data analysis could be of two types, namely,
1. Descriptive And
2. Inferential.
 Descriptive vs Inferential Analysis
Descriptive analysis - Descriptive analysis deals with summary measures relating to the
sample data. The common ways of summarizing data are by calculating average, range,
standard deviation, frequency and percentage distribution. The first thing to do when
data analysis is taken up is to describe the sample.
Examples of Descriptive Analysis:
• What is the average income of the sample?
• What is the average age of the sample?
• What is the standard deviation of ages in the sample?
• What is the standard deviation of incomes in the sample?
• What percentage of sample respondents are married?
• What is the median age of the sample respondents?
• Is there any association between the frequency of purchase of product and income
level of the consumers?
 Descriptive vs Inferential Analysis
• Is the level of job satisfaction related with the age of the employees?
• Which TV channel is viewed by the majority of viewers in the age group 20–30
years?
• Types of Descriptive Analysis – The table below presents the type of descriptive
analysis that is applicable under each form of measurement.
 Descriptive vs Inferential Analysis
Inferential Analysis – Under inferential statistics, inferences are drawn on population
parameters based on sample results. The researcher tries to generalize the results to the
population based on sample results.
Examples of Inferential Analysis:
• Is the average age of the population significantly different from 35?
• Is the average income of population significantly greater than 25,000 per month?
• Is the job satisfaction of unskilled workers significantly related with their pay packet?
• Do the users and non-users of a brand vary significantly with respect to age?
• Is the growth in the sales of the company statistically significant?
• Does the advertisement expenditure influence sale significantly?
• Are consumption expenditure and disposable income of households significantly correlated?
 What is a Hypothesis?
• A hypothesis is an assumption or a statement that may or may not be
true.
• The hypothesis is tested on the basis of information obtained from a sample.
• A hypothesis is a tentative proposition relating to certain
phenomenon, which the researcher wants to verify when required.
Example: what the mean assessed value of an apartment in a multistoried building
is, one may be interested in knowing whether or not the assessed value equals
some particular value, say Rs 80 lakh.
• Some other examples could be :
• whether a new drug is more effective than the existing drug based on the
sample data, and
• whether the proportion of smokers in a class is different from 0.30.
Sources of Hypothesis
• Theoretical or conceptual frameworks
• Academic literature
• Real life experience
• Previous research
• Similarity
• Case studies
• observation
Theory: Theory on the subject can act as a source of hypothesis. We
start of from a general premise and then formulate hypothesis.

Example: Providing employment opportunity is an indicator of social

responsibility of a government enterprise. From the above several
hypothesis, it can be deduced that:-
• Public enterprise has greater social concern than other enterprises.
• Peoples perception of government enterprise is social concern.
• Govt. enterprise help in improving the life of less privileged people.
Observation:
Peoples’ behaviour is observed. In this method we use observed behaviour
to infer the attitudes. This an indirect method of attitude measurement.
and other related issues.

Example: A shopper in a supermarket direct observation is used to get

insights into research behaviour may be disguised, to watch the customer
in the stores. The following may be observed.
a) How the customer approaches the – Product category
b) How long he/she spends in front of display.
C) Whether the customer had difficulty in locating the product.
Collect all these data and formulate a hypothesis regarding the behaviour of
the customer towards the product.
Past experience:
Here researcher goes by past experience to formulate the hypothesis
Eg: A dealer may state that fastest moving kids apparel is frock. This
may be verified.
Case studies:
Case studies published can be used as a source for hypothesis. Normally
this is done before the launch of a product to find customer taste and
preferences
Similarity: This could be with respect to similarity in activities of human
beings.
Example: Dress, food habits or any other activities found in human
living in different parts of the globe.
GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR
HYPOTHESIS TESTING
The following steps are involved in hypothesis testing :
1.Formulate the null hypothesis H0 and alternative hypothesis H1
2.Select an appropriate statistical technique and the corresponding test statistic.
3.Choose the level of significance α .
4.Determine the sample size and collect the data. Calculate the value of test statistic.
5.Determine the critical values associated with the test statistic that divide the rejection and
non rejection regions.
6.Determine whether the test statistic has fallen into the rejection or the non rejection region.
7.Make the statistical decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis.
8.Express the statistical decision in terms of the marketing research problem.
Step 1 Formulate H0 and H1

Step 2 Select an appropriate test

Step 3 Choose the level of significance α

Step 4 Collect data and calculate the test statistic

Determine the critical

Step 5 Value of the test
Statistic, TSCR

Determine if TSCR falls

Step 6 Into rejection or
Non-rejection region.

Step 7 Reject or do not reject H0

Step 8 Draw a marketing research conclusion.

Step 1: Formulate the Hypothesis
The first step is to formulate the null and alternative hypothesis.
Null hypothesis : “A statement in which no difference or effect is expected.”
In marketing research, the null hypothesis is formulated in such a way that its rejection leads to
the acceptance of the desired conclusion.
This hypothesis states that there is no difference between the parameter and the statistic that is
being compared.
Example:
H0: There is no relationship between marks obtained in the examination and the success of the
same student in the corporate world.

Alternative hypothesis : “ A statement that some difference or effect is expected.” accepting the
alternative hypothesis will lead to changes in opinions or actions.
Ha: There is a relationship between marks obtained in the examination and the
success of the same student in the corporate world.

• The null hypothesis is always the hypothesis that is tested.

• Rejecting the null hypothesis is known as alternative hypothesis.

• If we accept H0, then we are rejecting Ha and if we reject H0, then we are
accepting Ha.

Ex: Population mean is equal to the Hypothesized mean

• H0 : m = m0 =100
Three possible alternative hypotheses as
follows
• Alternative hypothesis To be read as follows
• H0 :   0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is
not equal to 100 i.e., it may be more or less than 100)
• H :  > 0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is
0

greater than 100)

• H0 :  < 0 (The alternative hypothesis is that the population mean is
less than 100)
One-tailed and two-tailed tests:
• A test is called one-sided (or one-tailed) only if the null hypothesis gets
rejected when a value of the test statistic falls in one specified tail of the
distribution. (left – tail and Right –tailed)

• Further, the test is called two-sided (or two-tailed) if null hypothesis gets
rejected when a value of the test statistic falls in either one or the other of
the two tails of its sampling distribution.
Ex: The proportion of Internet users who use the internet for shopping is greater than
or less than 0.40 . This is one-tailed test where the directionally.
H0 : π = 0.40
H1 : π < 0.40
H1 : π > 0.40
on the other hand, suppose the researcher wanted to determine whether the
proportion of Internet users who shop via the internet is different from 40 percent.
Then a two-tailed test would be required, and the hypotheses would be expressed
as :
H0 : π = 0.40
H1 : π ≠ 0.40
In commercial marketing research, the one-tailed test is used more often than a
two-tailed test. Typically, there is some preferred direction for the conclusion for
which evidence is sought.
For ex: the higher the profits, sales, and product quality, the better.
The one-tailed test is more powerful than the two-tailed test.
Step 2: select an Appropriate Test
To test null hypothesis, it is necessary to select an appropriate statistical
technique. The researcher should take into consideration how the test
statistic is computed and the sampling distribution that the sample
statistic (ex: mean) follows.
test statistic : “ a measure of how close the sample has come to the null
hypothesis. It often follows a well-known distribution, such as the
normal(z), t, or chi-square distribution.” i.e. t test, z test, chi square
test etc..
Step 3 : choose level of significance, α
The level of significance: This is a very important concept in the context of hypothesis
testing.
• It is always some percentage (usually 5%) which should be chosen with great care,
thought and reason.
• The 5 per cent level of significance means that researcher is willing to take as much as a 5
per cent risk of rejecting the null hypothesis when it (H0) happens to be true

• Also, α may be consider for 10% or 1%.

(10% = political survey, 5% = Social science survey, 1%= Highly sensitive
survey like medical cases)

Whenever we draw inferences about a population, there is a risk that an incorrect

conclusion will be reached. Two types of errors can occur, Type I Error & Type II Error
• Type I error: “Hypothesis is rejected when it is true”
• Type II error: “ Hypothesis is accepted when it is false”
Type I Error : “Also known as alpha error, it occurs when the sample results
lead to the rejection of the null hypothesis when it is in fact true.”
If the hypothesis H0 is rejected when it is actually true, the researcher is
committing what is called a type I error. The probability of committing a
type I error is denoted by alpha (α). This is termed as the level of
significance.
ex: Type I error would occur if we concluded, based on the sample data,
that the proportion of customers prefering the new service plan was
greater than 0.40, when in fact it was less than or equal to 0.40.
The probability of Type I Error (α ) is also called the level of significance.
Type II Error : “Also known as Beta error; it occurs when the sample results lead to the
non rejection of a null hypothesis that is in fact false.”
If the null hypothesis H0 when false is accepted, the researcher is committing an error
called Type II error. The probability of committing a type II error is denoted by beta
(β).
ex: Type II Error would occur if we concluded, based sample data, that the proportion
of customers preferring the new service plan was less than or equal to 0.40 when, in
fact, it was greater than 0.40.

Power of test :“ The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is in fact false
and should be rejected.”
The expression 1 – β is called power of test.
The risk of both α and beta can be controlled by increasing the sample size. For a
given level of α, increasing the sample size will decrease Beta, thereby increasing the
power of test.
Step 4 : collect data and calculate Test statistic
After taking into account the desired alpha and beta errors and other
qualitative considerations, then the required data are collected and the
value of the test statistic computed.
EX : 30 users were surveyed and 17 indicated that they used the Internet
for shopping. Thus the value of the sample proportion is p = 17/30 =
0.567. So test statistic z can be calculated, we get result 1.88
Step 5: Determine the Probability (critical value)

Using the standard normal tables, the probability of obtaining a z

value can be calculated.

ex: The shaded area between -∞ and 1.88 is 0.9699. note that in
determining the critical value of the test statistic, the area to the
right of the critical value is either α for one-tailed test or α/2 for
two-tailed test.
Step 6 and 7: compare the probability (critical value) and make
the decision :
The two ways of testing the null hypothesis are equivalent but
mathematically opposite in the direction of comparison.

(i) Probability of Test statistic calculated < significance level(α),

then accept H0
(ii) Test statistic calculated > test statistic of critical value, then
reject H0.
Step 8: Research conclusion
The conclusion reached by hypothesis testing must be expressed in terms
of marketing research problem.
ex: we conclude that, there is evidence that the proportion of Internet
users who shop via the Internet is significantly greater than 0.40. hence,
the recommendation to the department store would be to introduce the
new Internet shopping services.
 A Classification of Univariate Techniques
Fig. 14.6
Univariate Techniques

Metric Data Non-numeric Data

One Sample Two or More One Sample Two or More

Samples Samples
* t test * Frequency
* Z test * Chi-Square
* K-S
* Runs
* Binomial
Independent Related
Independent Related
* Two- Group test * Paired
* Z test t test * Chi-Square * Sign
* One-Way * Mann-Whitney * Wilcoxon
ANOVA * Median * McNemar
* K-S * Chi-Square
© 2007 Prentice Hall * K-W ANOVA 14-54
Parametric and Non Parametric test
Parametric test
1. These tests were based on the assumption that the
population from where the sample is drawn is normally
distributed.
2. Parametric tests are more powerful. The data in this
test is derived from interval and ratio measurement.
3. The test on the parameters like, mean, standard
deviation and proportion are called parametric tests.
4. Observations must be independent i.e., selection of any
one item should not affect the chances of selecting any
others be included in the sample.
Ex: t-test, Z-test, F test.
 Non-parametric test
There are situations where the populations under study are not normally
distributed. The data collected from these population is extremely skewed. In such
situations, an option could be used increase the sample size.
The central limit theorem assumes that the distribution sample estimates
approximately has a normal distribution for large samples ; whatever the shape of
the population distribution. The other option is to use a Non-parametric test.

Non-parametric tests are used to test the hypothesis with nominal and ordinal
data.
(1) These are distribution-free tests as, we do not make assumptions about the
shape of population distribution from where the samples are drawn.
(2) The hypothesis of non-parametric test is concerned with
something other than the value of a population parameter.
• These tests could also be used for the small sample size where the
normality assumption does not hold true.

• There are certain situations particularly in marketing research, where

the assumptions of parametric tests are not valid. In such cases, non-
parametric tests are used.
• Example of non-parametric tests are
(a) Chi-Square test
(b) Mann-Whitney U test
(c) Sign test
(d) kruskal – wallis test
(e) Wilcoxon matched – pair rank test
 PARAMETRIC TEST
1. Normality Assumption is
required
2. Use the metric data
3. Can be applied for both small and
large sample
4. One sample using z or t test
5. Two independent sample using t
or z test
6. Two paired sample using t test
7. Randomness – no test in
parametric is available
8. Several independent samples
using F test in ANOVA
NON-PARAMETRIC TEST
1. Normality assumption is not
required
2. Use nonmetric (ordinal/nominal)
data
3. Can be applied for small samples
4. One sample using Sign test
5. Two independent samples using
Man-whitney U test
6. Two paired samples using the sign
test and Wilcoxon matched pair rank
test
7. Randomness – using runs test
8. Several independent sample test
using Kruskal- walis test
 Multivariate analysis
• Multivariate analysis examines more than two variables
and their relationships simultaneously.

The multivariate techniques are:

• FACTOR ANALYSIS
• CLUSTER ANALYSIS
• MULTIPLE REGRESSION
• DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
• CONJOINT ANALYSIS
• MULTI DIMENSIONAL SCALING
FACTOR ANALYSIS
• In this technique researcher is interested to check the interdependence among a set of
observed or manifest variables to find out something more fundamental or latent
which creates commonality.
• It is very useful method of reducing data complexity by reducing the number of
variables being studied. It helps to reduce a vast number of variables (for ex: all the
questions tapping several variables of interest in a questionnaire) to a meaningful,
interpretable, and manageable set of factors.

Ex: (1) Respondents have rated the actress Priyanka Chopra as a Model for the following
14 variables on a five point likert scale.
• The variables are attractive, classy, beautiful, elegant, sexy, dependable, honest,
reliable, trust worth, sincere, expert, experience, knowledge, qualified.
• Based on respondents rating, factor analysis helps to identify the new factors (group of
nearby opinions) which helps to identify the model on new factors name like,
professional, attractive, skills.
CLUSTER ANALYSIS
• Cluster analysis is a multivariate procedure ideally suited to segmentation applications in
market research. This is because a cluster, by definition, is a group of similar objects.
And segmentation involves identifying groups of target customers who are similar in
buying habits, demographic characteristics, or psychographic.
• ex: if our sample consists of a mix of respondents with different brand preferences for a
product, cluster analysis will cluster individuals by their preferences for each of the
different brands.
MULTIPLE REGRESSION
• we study the relationship between one dependent variable
and more than one independent variables.
• This technique is appropriate when the researcher has a single, metric criterion
variable, which is supposed to be a function of other independent variables.
• The objective in using this technique is to predict the variability the dependent
variable based on its covariance with all the independent variables.
• Like, Y = B1 X1 + B2X2 + ……. + BKXK provides a good estimate of an individual’s Y
score based on his multiple independent X scores (here Y is dependent variable and
X1, X2, … are independent variables).

Ex: Sales depends on advertisements. Here sales is dependent variable and

advertisements as independent variable.
Further if company wants to study the impact on sales other than advertisement like
other independent variables sales person knowledge, product performance, pricing of
product, packaging of product, product availability etc
CONJOINT ANALYSIS
• Conjoint analysis helps to identify the best combination of levels of attributes
of a product offered in the market. Usually this method most applicable in
developing a new product features.
• If company wants to know which best combination of features preferred by
consumers so that product must get accepted once it launched.
• Conjoint analysis is the best method to study the best combination of levels of
product features.
Ex:
• A company wants to know the customers interest on, exact combination of levels
of attributes of new Juice product they want to introduce. Conjoint analysis
enables a direct comparison between say, the utility of a price level of ₹ 10
versus ₹ 15 versus ₹ 20, the package design with levels bottle or tetra pack, or
size of package with levels of 100ml, 150ml or 500ml.
• Once we know utility level for every attribute (and at every level), we can
combine these to find the best combination of attributes that gives him the
highest utility, the second best combination that gives the second highest utility,
and so on.
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS
• Discriminant analysis is technique to discriminate between two or more mutually
exclusive and exhaustive groups on the basis of some explanatory (independent)
variables.
• Discriminant analysis helps the researchers who are interested to understand how
consumers differ with respect to demographic and psychographic characteristics
Ex: A researcher want to study how the dependent variable Occupation can be
classified to different groups (like blue collar, white collar, clerk, top management
executives) based on the independent variables nature like demographic variables
such as age, income, education and experience.
• Banks use discriminant analysis to discriminate between the customers who
default and who repay the loan in time, based on their age, income, assets,
number of dependents, and previous outstanding loan etc.
• Used by the credit rating agencies to rate individuals, to classify them into good
lending risks or bad lending risks.
MULTI DIMENSIONAL SCALING
• The most common and useful marketing application of multidimensional scaling is in
product positioning or brand positioning.
• Positioning is essentially concerned with mapping a consumer’s mind and placing all the
competing brands of a product category in appropriate slots or positions on it.
• One obvious way to do that is to ask customers what they think of competing brands on
say, six attributes with a rating scale of 5 to 10 points. This would result in ratings for all
brands on all attributes, which could be taken two attributes at a time, and plotted on a
graph.
What is ANOVA?
• The test of hypothesis concerning the equality of two population means makes
use of both the Z and t tests.
• However, if there are more than two populations, the test for the equality of
means could be carried out by considering two populations at a time. This
would be a very cumbersome procedure.
• One easy way out could be to use the analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique.
The technique helps in performing this test in one go and, therefore, is
considered to be important technique of analysis for the researcher.

For eg.
• The sales of chairs could differ because of the various styles and sizes of stores
selling them.
• The average telephone bill of the households could be different because they
belong to different income groups and so on.
One way & Two way ANOVA
• In ANOVA, the dependent variable in question is metric (interval or
ratio scale), whereas the independent variables are categorical
(nominal scale).
• If there is one independent variable (one factor) divided into
various categories, we have one-way or one-factor analysis of
variance.
• In the two-way or two-factor analysis of variance, two factors each
divided into the various categories are involved.
PROBLEMS
• t-test,
• z-test,
• f-test,
• U-test,
• K-W Test
REPORT WRITING AND PRESENTATIONS OF
RESULTS
 A Business Report Title (and Nothing Else)—Tips to Get Started

• Business researchers must

communicate their efforts to
appropriate stakeholders.
• Tips:
• Understand the who the key readers
are.
• Understand why they want the
results.
• Understand what your stakeholders
expect and how much they already
understand.
 Significance of effective documentation
• Provides a framework for the work that can be conducted in the
same or related areas
• Is a one-way communication of the researcher’s study and
analysis
• A knowledge base on the topic under study
• Provides the necessary guidance for taking appropriate actions.
• Authenticates the quality of the work carried out and
• Establishes the strength of the findings obtained.
 What is a Business Research Report?
• Research Report
• An oral presentation or written statement of research
results, strategic recommendations, and/or other
conclusions to a specific audience.
• Directed to the client or management who initiated the
research.
• Usually supported by a formal presentation delivered in
person or via the Internet.
 Types of research reports
The form and structure of research report might change according to
purpose.
1. Brief reports
- working papers/basic reports
- survey reports

2. Detailed reports

3. Technical reports

4. Business reports
 Preliminary Section
▪ Title Page
▪ Letter of Authorization
▪ Executive Summary
▪ Acknowledgements
▪ Table of Contents

Background Section
▪ Problem Statement
▪ Study Introduction & Background
▪ Scope & Objectives of the Study
▪ Review of Literature

Methodology Section

Report ▪
▪
▪
▪
Research Design
Sampling Design
Data Collection
Data Analysis

structure
Findings Section
▪ Results
▪ Interpretation of Results

Conclusions Section
▪ Conclusion & Recommendations
▪ Limitations of the Study

Appendices
Glossary of terms

Bibliography
 Preliminary section
• Title page

• Letter of transmittal

• Letter of authorization

• Table of contents

• Executive summary

• Acknowledgements
• The title of the report
• The title should give a brief but complete indication of the
purpose of the research project.
• Addresses and titles of the preparer and recipient may also be
included.
• Letter of Transmittal
• Releases or delivers the report to the recipient in relatively formal
and very formal reports.
• Letter of Authorization
• Approves the project, details who has responsibility for it, and
describes resources available to support it.
• Table of Contents
• Should list the divisions and subdivisions of the report with page
references.
• Is based on the final outline of the report, but it should include only
the first-level subdivisions.
• Executive Summary
• Briefly explains why the research project was conducted, what aspects
of the problem were considered, what the outcome was, and what
should be done.
• Acknowledgement
• Acknowledging the people who supported in completion of project
 EXHIBIT 25.5

Example of
Transmittal
Letter

25–80
©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Background section

• Problem definition
• Study background
• Review of literature
• Study scope & objectives
 Methodology section
• Research methodology section—describes the structure
and technical procedures of the project. It may be
supplemented with an appendix or glossary of technical
terms.
• Research design
• Sample design
• Data collection and fieldwork
• Analysis

25–82
 Final section

• Interpretation of results

• Conclusions & recommendations

• Limitations of the study

• Results section— presents the findings of the project. It
includes tables, charts, and an organized narrative.
• Conclusions and recommendations section—provides
opinions based on the results and suggestions for action.
• The conclusions and recommendations should be presented in this
section in more detail than in the summary, and the text should
include justification as needed.

• Limitations
 End notes

• Appendices

• Bibliography

• Footnotes

• Glossary of terms
• Appendix
• Contains material that is too technical or too detailed to
go in the body—includes materials of interest only to
some readers or subsidiary materials not directly related
to the objectives.
• Bibliography
• Details of sources like, Research papers, textbooks,
articles, online sources to be mentioned which used for
the study.
Basic Business Research Report Outline
1. Abstract 7. Conclusions
2. Introduction 8. References
3. Background 9. Appendices
a. Literature Review
b. Hypotheses
4. Research Methods
5. Results
6. Discussion
a. Implications
b. Limitations
c. Future Research
 Effective report writing

1. Clear report mandate

2. Clearly defined methodology

3. Clear presentation of findings

4. Representativeness of study findings

Using Graphic Aids Effectively
• Graphic Aids
• Pictures or diagrams used to clarify complex points or emphasize a
message.
• Should always be interpreted in the text.
• Tables
• Most useful for presenting numerical information, especially when
several pieces of information have been gathered about each item
discussed.
• Table number
• Title
• Stubheads and bannerheads
• Footnotes and source notes
 EXHIBIT 25.6 Parts of a Table

25–90
©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 Guidelines for presenting tabular data

• Table title
• Table identification
number
• Data arrays
• Measurement units
• Space, lines and rulings
• Assumptions details and
comments
• Data sources
• Special mention
Using Graphic Aids Effectively
• Charts
• Translate numerical information into visual form so that
relationships may be easily grasped.
• Chart elements
• Figure number
• Title
• Explanatory legends
• Source and footnotes
• Charts are subject to distortion.
 EXHIBIT 25.10 Alternating Scales

©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Using Graphic Aids Effectively (cont’d)
• Pie Charts
• Show the composition of some total quantity at a
particular time.
• Each angle, or “slice,” is proportional to its percentage of
the whole.
Pie chart
• Line Graphs
• Show the relationship of one variable to another.
• The dependent variable generally is shown on the vertical
axis, and the independent variable on the horizontal axis.
• Simple line graph
• Multiple-line graph
• Stratum chart
 EXHIBIT 25.14 Simple Line Graph

25–97
©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Line & curve graph
 EXHIBIT 25.16 Stratum Chart

25–99
©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Using Charts Effectively (cont’d)
• Bar Charts
• Show changes in the value of a dependent variable
(plotted on the vertical axis) at discrete intervals of
the independent variable (on the horizontal axis).
• Types:
• Subdivided-bar chart
• Multiple-bar chart

25–100
 EXHIBIT 25.17 Simple Bar Chart

©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
Bar chart
 EXHIBIT 25.18 Subdivided Bar Chart

25–103
©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 EXHIBIT 25.19 Multiple-Bar Chart

25–104
©2013 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part.
 The Oral Presentation
• Oral Presentation
• A spoken summary of the major findings, conclusions, and
recommendations, given to clients or line managers to provide
them with the opportunity to clarify any ambiguous issues by
asking questions.
• Keys to effective presentation:
• Preparation (rehearsal)
• Adapting to the audience
• Not lecturing or reading to the audience
• Use graphic aids effectively
• Speaking effectively and convincingly
 Oral presentations
• Study background
• Study findings
• Study implications
• Handouts
• Slides
• Flipcharts & chalkboards
• Video & audio tapes
The 10/20/30 Rule of PowerPoint
• 10 - the number of optimal
slides for a presentation.
• 20 – the number of minutes to
actually present the results.
• 30 – at a minimum, use 30-point
font.
Reports on the Internet or Intranet
• An easy way to share data is to make executive summaries and
reports available on a company intranet.
• Can use the Internet to:
• Design questionnaires
• Administer surveys
• Analyze data
• Share the results
• Many companies offer fully Web-based research management
systems.

25–108
The Research Follow-Up
• Research Follow-up
• Recontacting decision makers and/or clients after they
have had a chance to read over a research report in order
to determine whether additional information or
clarification is necessary.

25–109
END OF CHAPTER