Block 2: Waves

Ch. 17: General Wave Properties

17.1 What is a wave?!

A wave is defined as the disturbance which carries energy from one region to another,
without the transfer of any material medium.
- We must have a source of a wave to produce the vibrations or oscillations of the particles
(or the electromagnetic waves) to transfer the energy from one point to another without the
transfer of any material between the two points.
17.2 Types of waves:
A) Waves can be classified into two types based on the necessity of having medium to travel
through it which are mechanical waves or electromagnetic waves
mechanical waves electromagnetic waves (e.m.w)
Definition They are those waves that require They are those wave that do NOT
materialistic medium to travel through require medium to travel through it,
it, they can NOT flow in space or they can flow in space or vacuum
vacuum
Examples Sound waves – water waves or ripples Visible light – X-rays – IR – Radio
– Slinky spring waves waves – UV – gamma rays
Notes:
- In mechanical waves the particles of the medium vibrate around their rest position but don’t
leave their position with the wave e.g. a leaf moving up & down with the passing ripples.
- We can see the light coming from the Sun because it kis e.m.w so it can reach us through
space, but we cannot hear the sound of the explosion tacking place in the sun because sound
is a mechanical wave so it cannot travel through vacuum or space.
B) Waves can be classified into two types based on the direction of vibration of particles into
transverse waves and longitudinal waves

i- Transverse waves:
Transverse wave is a wave in which direction of vibration is
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
- It is made of crests and troughs.
A crest is the maximum upward displacement (humps) while
trough is the maximum downward displacement (hollows).
Examples: water waves or ripples, waves on a string and all the electromagnetic waves
ii- Longitudinal waves:
They are the waves in which the direction of vibration of
particles is parallel to (along) the direction of travel of the
wave.
It consists of rarefactions and compressions.
A compression is the area in the wave where the particles of the
medium close together (areas of high pressure and density).
A rarefaction is the area in the wave where the particles of the
medium far apart (areas of low pressure and density).
Examples: Sound waves and waves on a slinky spring
Physics notes 70 Mr Abdallah Fikry
17.3 Terms & properties of waves
1- Amplitude:
“Amplitude is the maximum displacement from the
rest or mean position (undisturbed level), in either
directions”.
2- Wavelength (λ):
“It is the distance between corresponding points of
two consecutive waves.”
- SI unit of both amplitude and wavelength is metre (m) and both are scalars.
- These 2 points might be 2 successive crests or 2 successive troughs in a transverse wave or
centers of successive compressions or rarefaction in longitudinal wave. Generally, distance
between any 2 points in phase (2 identical points).
- Both amplitude and wavelength are shown in displacement vs. distance graph (1st graph)
3- Period:
Period (T) is defined as the time taken to produce one complete wave.
- SI unit is second (s)
Period is shown on displacement vs. time graph (2nd
graph)
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
- Period, 𝑇 =
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
Remember that one complete wave cycle is from one
peak to the next (crest to the next crest or trough to
the next trough)
4- Frequency:
“It is the number of complete waves or oscillations produced per unit time (1 second).”
- SI unit is hertz (Hz) where 1 Hz = 1 complete cycle per second
𝑛𝑜.𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
- Frequency, 𝑓 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
- The frequency of the wave is determined by the source as both have the same frequency.
1 1
Period is the reciprocal of the frequency i.e. 𝑇 = & 𝑓 = thus, (T x f = 1)
𝑓 𝑇
5- Speed:
“It is the distance travelled by the wave propagation per unit time.”
SI unit is metre per second (m s-1) and it is a scalar quantity
Sometimes the term (wave velocity) is used to express the distance travelled by a wave in
one second in a certain direction and its SI unit is (m/s)
6- Wavefront:
A wavefront is an imaginary line or surface that joined all adjacent
points which have the same phase of vibration on the wave.
- Any two points on a wave are said to be in phase when they have
completed identical parts of their periodic motion & at the same
positions e.g. line joining crests or trough on neighboring waves.
Distance between any 2 successive wave fronts = wavelength
Remember: cycle is a complete to and fro movement or oscillation
for vibrating body.
8- A ray: is an arrow or line drawn to represent the direction of the wave.
Physics notes 71 Mr Abdallah Fikry
17.4 The wave equation:
Assume that we have a wave travelling with a certain speed (v), so it covers a distance (d) in
a certain time interval (t), so the speed is given by;
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑑)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣 ) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
If we were to consider just one wave cycle, then the distance will be equal to the wavelength
and hence the time will be the period (T). therefore.
wavelength (λ)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣 ) =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑(𝑇)
As the period is the reciprocal of the frequency i.e. T =1/F
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣 ) = wavelength (λ) 𝑥 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) 𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = λ. f
𝑣 𝑣
And hence 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 (𝑓) = and wavelength (λ) =
λ f
- The speed of a wave depends on the medium where it changes when the
wave travel from a denser medium to less dense or vice versa but the frequency which is the
no. of cycles per second depends only on the source producing the waves not the medium
therefore only the wavelength will change with the speed as if the speed increases,
𝒘𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 (𝝀) increases and vice versa.
Example: when light travels from air to glass, its speed decreases and also does its
wavelength (λ) (shorter) but when light travels from glass to air, its speed increases and also
does its wavelength (λ) (becomes longer).

Investigating the properties of mechanical waves using Ripple tank:

- The ripple tank is used to generate water waves in laboratory.
It is useful in demonstrating wave properties such as reflection
and refraction. It consists of a shallow tray of water with a
transparent base, a light source directly above the tray and a
white screen beneath the tray to capture the image of the
shadows formed when water waves spread across the tank as
shown above. Straight waves can be set up by using a straight
dipper, while circular waves can be formed by using a spherical
dipper. Both dippers are vibrated up and down by a motor.
- The wavefronts of the ripples will be seen as bright & dark
patches on the screen below the tray. These patches
show the position of the crests and troughs of the waves.
The dark patches will correspond to the crests and bright
patches will be the troughs.
Q.:)Why does the dark patches correspond to the crests
and bright patches correspond to the troughs?
Ans.:) Light is absorbed/scattered as it passes through a
body of water. At a crest, the light has to travel a longer
distance through the water, which will cause more light to be absorbed or scattered. This will
cause crests to appear as dark patches. The opposite logic applies to the troughs. At a trough,
the light travels a shorter distance through the water, which causes less 0light to be absorbed
or scattered. This causes troughs to appear as bright patches.
Physics notes 72 Mr Abdallah Fikry
17.5 Wave Phenomena; reflection, refraction & diffraction:
1) Wave reflection:
“It is the bouncing of the waves when the hit a surface or a body”
A) reflection of plane waves:
To demonstrate reflection of straight water waves formed by a
plane dipper correctly, you must consider the following:
1- Angle of incidence (i) = angle of reflection (r)
- angle of incidence: the angle between the incident ray & the
normal
- angle of reflection: the angle between the reflected ray & the
normal.
- Normal is an imaginary line drawn at 90o to the reflecting
surface at the point where the incident ray falls.
2- Draw no. of wave fronts (group of parallel lines) that are
perpendicular to the incident ray and a no. of wave fronts (group
of parallel lines) that are perpendicular to the reflected ray
B) Reflection of circular waves (ripples):
The circular waves spread out evenly in all directions until the
hit a reflecting surface; here we can see that the reflected
waves are also circular and appear to becoming from a source
behind the surface at the same distance as the source.
Remember: the frequency depends only on the source, but
the speed and wavelength depend on the medium.
2) Refraction of plane waves:
It is the bending of waves (change in the direction) when they
pass the boundary surface between 2 mediums where
the speed & wavelength of the waves is different.”
Cases for refraction:
a) If the wave travels from a medium where the speed is
higher (less denes), to another where the speed is lower
(more denes), it bends toward the normal.
b) If the wave travels from a medium where the speed is
lower, to another where the speed is higher, it bends
away from the normal.
c) If the wave was incident normal to the surface, it shows no refraction or bending i.e. no
change in the direction but speed & wavelength change.
ex.: when the water waves travels from the deep water to the shallow water, their direction of
travel has changed. The part that is in the deep water advance steadily forward.

Physics notes 73 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Notes:
- During refraction of plane waves, neither the shape of the wave nor the frequency change
𝑣 𝑣
but the speed and the wavelength change simultaneously as, 1 = 2
λ1 λ2
- The wavefronts are closer in the shallow water because the distance between 2 wave fronts
= the wavelength which decreases when the speed decrease.
- Refraction happens for all waves, seeing a pen which is partially immersed in water broken
is due to refraction
- the deviation angle: is the angle between the incident ray & the refracted ray.

3) Diffraction of waves or ripples:

“It is spreading of waves when they pass through a gap or
around an obstacle or a corner.”
The wave spread behind the barrier in the form of curved
waves. If the size of the gap is equal or close to the
wavelength of the wave, so the diffraction is the greatest.
In case if the gaps were too wide, the plane wavefronts pass
with a little diffraction or bending at the edges.
If the gap was too narrow or too small, the waves do not pass at all.
Examples:
1- Diffraction of water waves in a harbor, as the waves
spread around the harbor mouth so boats bob up & down.
2- Diffraction of sound as they pass through doorways &
open windows so we can hear any sound outside the room.
3- Diffraction of light when it pass through very tiny gaps or
around fog particles forming Halo of light like that formed
around the Sun , street lamps or car headlights.
Notes:
1- The central part of the wave or ripples remains straight
after it has passed through the gap.
2- Neither the frequency nor the wavelength change during refraction but only the shape
changes from plane wave to circular waves.

Physics notes 74 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch.18: Sound

18.1 the nature of sound:

Sound is a mechanical and longitudinal wave which is associated with our sense of hearing.
Sound is a produced because of vibrating of objects or surfaces such as stings of the guitar,
a membrane of a drum or even the vocal cords in the larynx.

Sound is mechanical wave which needs a material medium to travel. Medium can be any
gas, liquid or solid. The vibrating sources set the particles of a medium in vibration in such a
way that sound travels outwards in the form of longitudinal waves.
18.2 Activity to show that sound wave is a mechanical wave:
1- Put an electric bell inside a glass jar connected to vacuum pump.
2- Turn on the bell so the sound is clearly heard.
3- Now turn on the vacuum pump to evacuate the jar from air.
Observation: the sound gets faint and fainter and finally stops
being heard when all the air particles are removed from the jar.
Conclusion: Sound is mechanical wave

Examples of vibrating sources:

• Musical instruments, like drums (percussion instrument), guitar (stringed instrument) &
tuba (wind instrument)
• Hitting a piece of iron with a hammer
• Loudspeakers (Consists of a cone which vibrates under the effects of alternating current
and magnetism pushing the air particles to vibrate forming compressions & rarefactions)
• Explosion resulting from explosives.

18.3 sound as a longitudinal wave:

Vibration in the tuning fork produces disturbances in
the surrounding air. When the prongs’ movement is
outwards, the prongs push the surrounding air
molecules away, creating a local compression.
This disturbance of air layers is then passed from
molecule to molecule by collisions, causing the local
compression to move outwardly.
When the prongs’ movement is inwards, a rarefaction is created. Pressure differences causes
the air molecules to rush back into the region again. This periodic to-and-fro movement of
the prongs will create alternating regions of compressions and rarefactions. The sound waves
span outwardly parallel to the direction of the wave propagation (longitudinal nature).

In air, compressions are regions where the air particles are close together (the pressure is
higher than surrounding air) and rarefactions are regions where the air particles are far
apart (the pressure is lower than the surrounding air).

The wavelength of longitudinal wave is the distance between 2 successive compressions or 2

successive rarefactions.

Physics notes 75 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Notes:
• The energy of the sound waves is propagated and carried by colliding particles of a
material medium. Hence, a (material) medium is required in order to transmit these
(energy) waves.
• The speed of energy propagation is dependent on how close these particles in are a
medium. Hence, speed of sound differs in air, liquids, and solids. Sound travels faster in
denser media. It travels faster in liquids than in gases and fastest in solids.
The speed of sound in air is around 330 m/s while in water around 1500 m/s but in steel it
lies within the range 5000-6000 m/s
• The compression in longitudinal wave corresponds to a crest in a transverse wave while
the rarefaction corresponds to a trough.

18.4 Loudness and Pitch

The human ear can distinguish two characteristics of sound. These are the loudness and
pitch, and each refers to a sensation in the consciousness of the listener.

Loudness:
- It is easy to distinguish among loud and soft sounds.
- It depends on the amplitude of the sound wave. As the louder the sound, the higher is the
amplitude and the energy transferred by the sound wave & vice versa.
- Sound is heard louder when the vibrating surface gets
bigger because it forces bigger mass of the air to vibrate.
This is the purpose of enclosing loudspeakers in wooden
boxes. Try it by putting your vibrating phone on a table.
- the note shown is converted in the upper part of the figure
to be louder by increasing the amplitude and quieter when
it decreased.

Pitch:
- The pitch of a sound refers to whether it is high (sharp),
like the sound of a violin, or low, like the sound of a bass
drum. The physical quantity that determines pitch is the frequency.
- The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch and vice versa.
- the note shown is converted in the lower part of the above figure to be high pitched by
increasing the frequency and low pitched when it decreased.
Pitch of a sound is like the color of a light as both depend on the frequency as when the
vibrating objects are small such as the vocal cords of a sparrow, it produces high pitched
sounds

Range of Audible Frequencies

The human ear responds to sounds with frequencies in the range from 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.
This is called the audible range of the human ear. Examples of vibrating sources that produce
sound in the audible range of frequencies are drums, guitar strings, tuning fork, human vocal
cords, and diaphragms of loudspeakers.
Frequencies that are less or more than that range are not heard by human

Physics notes 76 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Inaudible sound waves whose frequencies are less than 20 Hz are in the infrasonic range.
Sources of infrasonic waves include earthquakes, thunder, volcanoes, and waves produced
by vibrating heavy machinery. The hearing ranges of elephants and whales extend into the
infrasonic region.
Frequencies above 20,000 Hz are in the ultrasonic range. The audible range of dogs, cats,
moths, and mice extends into ultrasound frequencies. They can hear very high frequencies
that humans cannot.

Determining the Speed of Sound in Air

As mentioned earlier, The sound travels in all media liquid, solid or gas but it travels faster
in solids such as steel because the particles are close and hence vibrations can travel faster
also it travel faster in water than air for the same reason.
The average speed of sound is around 340 m/s in air, in water it is about 1500 m/s but in
steel it is around 5000 m/s
The speed of sound can be calculated with only two measurements which are the distance of
the sound source from the receiver & the time taken for sound wave to travel that distance as
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝐷)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣 ) =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡)
Method 1: two students can work to determine the speed of Sound as following:
- One student carries pistol and the other student stays at distance (d) from the 1st one and
carries stopwatch to determine the time taken.
- The 1st student fires the pistol and as soon as the 2nd student sees the smokes above the
pistol, he starts the stopwatch to determine the time.
- By using measuring tape we can measure the distance between the 2 points and substituting
in the above equation we can estimate the speed of sound.

Method 2: By using 2 microphones and an electronic timer.

- Connect two microphones to an electronic timer or oscilloscope as shown below.

- Produce short sound such as clapping your hand, when the sound reaches the 1st
microphone it produces small current (electric pulse) to start the stopwatch.
- When the sound reaches the 2nd microphone, it produces an electric pulse to stop the timer.
- The time can be taken from the electronic timer and by measuring the distance between the
2 microphones using a measuring tape we can calculate the speed of the sound using the
above equation.

Precautions taken to reduce measurement errors:

• Exchange the positions of the sound source and the measuring device and repeat the
experiment. It will reduce the effect of wind on the speed of sound in air.
• Repeat the experiment several times and take the average value of the time intervals
recorded to calculate the average speed of sound.
Physics notes 77 Mr Abdallah Fikry
Echo and echo Sounding:
Echo is the reflection of sound waves when they hit large & hard surfaces like buildings,
walls, and cliffs.
Echo is a distinct, reflected sound wave from large & hard
surfaces where the reflected sound can be heard separately
from the original sound if the sound source is closer to the
receiver while the reflecting hard surface is sufficiently far
(at least17 m far) from receiver.
- Principle of echo is used in echo sounder to find the
depth of a sea or the location of shoals of fish. Echoes can
be used to measure the speed of sound as following.
Note: Remember that the distance travelled by the sound is doubled for echo. The sound go
there and reflect back so the equation of the speed can be modified in case if echo as;
𝑡𝑤𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 (2𝑑) 2𝑑
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 (𝑣 ) = ;𝑣=
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑡) 𝑡

Method 3: Determining the speed of the sound using echo sounding.

- A student carries pistol at distance (d) from a large wall (more than 17m)
- Then he fires the pistol and simultaneously he starts the stopwatch to determine the time as
soon as he hears the echo.
- By using measuring tape, we can measure the distance between him and the wall and by
2𝑑
substituting in the above equation (𝑣 = ) we can find the speed of sound.
𝑡
Some animals such as bats & dolphins use echo to locate
obstacles in their path and same technique is used in ships
to find the depth of a sea or the location of shoals of fish.
For instance, if a sound wave takes seconds to travel to the
bottom of the sea and back, the total distance travelled is
2d, where d is the depth of the sea hence the depth will be
𝑉𝑥𝑡 1500𝑥4
given by: 𝑑 = = = 3000 𝑚 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 (𝑣 )𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
2 2
Notes:
- During Apollo 11, scientists put mirrors on the surface of the moon, and by directing laser
beams from the Earth and by calculating the time taken for laser in its journey we can find
𝑉𝑥𝑡
how far is the moon and also observe the movement of tectonic plates using; 𝑑 =
2
- If the reflected sound is not distinctly heard, because of multiple echoes which is called
reverberation effect.
- If the surface is rough, the incident sound waves are broken up and the original waveform
is lost, thus no reflected sounds are heard. To reduce the effects of echo, walls can be
roughened (with padding) or covered with curtains and floors covered with carpets.

Example: on one cloudy day lightning was seen high in the sky, 5 seconds later the thunder
was heard, find the height of the clouds if the speed of sound is 340 m/s.
Answer: Distance = Speed x time or d = V x t = 340 x 5 = 1700 m

Physics notes 78 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch. 19: Light

19.1 The nature of light

In terms of classical wave theory, light is an electromagnetic wave that can pass through free
space or through a material and it travels in straight lines.
19.2 Light sources:
Light sources that emit light are called luminous e.g. the Sun, Filament, and candles
Bodies that do not produce their own light but reflect the light falling on them to be
visiblelike the Moon or a mirror are called nonluminous
19.3 Types of lights:
Lights can be classified based on their frequency or wavelength into:
i) Monochromatic light: this is the light of one wavelength or 1 frequency or 1 colour e.g
laser beam.
ii) Polychromatic light which is the light of many wavelength or many frequency or mixture
of colours e.g. white light from the Sun.

19.4 Reflection of light

Reflection of light is the bouncing of light rays that strike the boundary between different
mediums or reflecting object.
Terms used:
A ray of light is light from a single point source (normally represented by a long and straight
arrow on diagrams.
- Incident ray is a ray of light striking a surface.
- Reflected ray is a ray of light reflected from a surface.
- Normal is an imaginary line perpendicular to a surface
where the reflection occurs.
- Angle of incidence (i) is the angle between the incident ray
and the normal.
- Angle of reflection (r) is the angle between reflected ray
and the normal.

Laws of reflection
First law:
The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection i.e i = r.
Second law:
The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal to the surface all lie in the same plane.

Types of reflection:
i- Regular Reflection: it refers to the reflection of rays
coming from a smooth plane surface e.g. a mirror where all
incident rays have parallel reflected rays
ii- Diffused (irregular) reflection: it Refers to the reflection
of rays coming from rough surfaces where the reflected rays
are not in the same direction, however, at each point on the
rough surface, the laws of reflections are obeyed.

Physics notes 79 Mr Abdallah Fikry

19.5 The Image in a plane mirror:
How could you draw the image formed by a plane mirror?
Steps:
Initially, we have an object in front of a plane mirror.
1- Firstly, we draw an image of the object on the other side of
the mirror as distance A (between the object & mirror) is equal
to distance B (between the image & mirror) and the image size
is the same size as the object size.

2- Then, we draw light rays from the image to the eye

The image is virtual. Broken or dashed lines from the image
to mirror indicate virtual rays but solid or continuous lines
from the mirror to eye indicate the reflected rays.
Virtual image: Light rays do not actually meet at the image
position. Because of that, a virtual image cannot be projected
on a screen.
3- Lastly, we join the light rays from the mirror to the object
Lines joining the object to the positions of the reflected rays
on the mirror represent the incident rays where the angle of
incidence = the angle of reflection.

Note that: A light ray that fall perpendicular, reflects on itself as i = r =zero.

Properties of image formed in plane mirror:

- Same size as object - Laterally inverted (Left - right inverted)
- Virtual - Upright
- As far behind the mirror as the object is in front
19.6 Types of images: Real and virtual images:
A) A virtual image is that cannot be formed or projected onto a screen.
VIRTUAL images are formed where light rays only appear to come from (virtual rays)
which are represented by dashed lines and it is always upright.
Example: The image formed by a plane mirror - The image formed by a magnifying glass.
B) Real images are those that can be formed or received onto a screen.
REAL images are formed where light rays actually pass or cross after reflection by a
spherical mirrors or refraction by a lens and it is always upside-down.
Example: image formed by convex lens and A projector image
Physics notes 80 Mr Abdallah Fikry
19.7 Refraction of Light
If we dip one end of a pencil or some other object into water at an
angle to the surface, the submerged part looks bent. Its image is
displaced because the light coming from the underwater portion of
the object changes direction at it leaves the water. This bending of
light as it passed from one transparent medium into another is
called refraction.
Refraction of light
“It is the change in direction (bending of light rays) when it passes from one optically
transparent medium to another due to the difference in the speed of light.
Terms used in refraction:
- Incident ray is a ray of light striking the boundary surface.
- Refracted ray is the bent ray due to passing from one optical
medium to another.
- Normal is an imaginary line perpendicular to the interface
of media where the refraction occurs.
- Angle of incidence (i) is the angle between incident ray and
the normal.
- Angle of refraction (r) is the angle between refracted ray
and the normal.
Explanation:
When light travels from air (less dense) where its speed is the highest into glass (optically
denser medium) where the speed is less, light slows as soon as it crosses the boundary
surface (and vice versa). If the light ray was incident at angle to the normal, majority of the
light changes the direction (bend toward the normal) once it passes the boundary surface but
there is a small portion of light is reflected from the boundary surface.

Cases of refraction.
- If light travels from less dense such as air medium to optically denser medium such as glass
or water, it bends towards normal (i > r) as the light slows down
- If light travels from denser medium such as diamond to less dense medium e.g. air, it bends
away from normal (i < r) as the light speeds up.
- If the light ray enters another medium perpendicularly to the boundary, there is no
refraction of the ray even when there is change in speed of light.

Physics notes 81 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Laws of Refraction
First law of refraction states that the incident ray, the refracted ray and the normal to the
interface all lie in the same plane.
Second law of refraction which is known as Snell’s law; states
that for two given media,
ni Sin i = nr Sin r
where (n) is called the refractive index of the medium, (i) is the
angle of incidence and (r) is the angle of refraction
If it was incident from air so ni = 1 and hence Refractive index
(n) of a medium is given by:
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒊
𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒓
Notes:
- The greater the value of the refractive index (n) of a medium, the greater is the “bending”
effect of light when it passes from air into that medium.
- A material with a larger value of (n) is an optically denser medium where the light travels
slower, but the actual density (mass density) may be smaller or highr.
- We can rearrange the equation to calculate the value of (i) or (r) as:
i = Sin-1(n.Sin r) & r = Sin-1(Sin i/n)
you can type (sin-1) on the calculator by pressing SHIFT + Sin

The refractive index(n):

Refractive index (n) of a medium is the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum or air (𝒗𝒂𝒊𝒓 or
c) to the speed of light in that medium (v). Hence, n can be calculated using:
𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟
𝑛=
𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚
Notes about the refractive index:
1- The refractive index from air to any other medium e.g. glass is
always greater than 1 (in the table) as the speed of light in air or
vacuum is higher than any other medium i.e c = vair = 3x108 m/s but if
the term used was the refractive from that medium to air, it will be the
reciprocal of the normal refractive index i.e. less than 1.
2- it has no unit as it is ratio between similar quantities of the same unit
3- As the speed changes when it travels between different media, its frequency remains
constant while its wavelength changes, so (n) can be expressed in terms of the wavelength as

𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑓. 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝜆𝑎𝑖𝑟

𝑛= = =
𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑓. 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

This shows that the higher the refractive index of a medium, the slower will be the speed of
light through it and the shorter is its wavelength and vice versa. This means that a medium’s
optical density increases as its refractive index increases.
Example: if the refractive index of glass = 1.5, find the speed of light in glass?
𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑟 3𝑥108
Answer: 𝑛 = 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑣𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 = = = 2𝑥108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑣𝑔𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑛 1.5

Physics notes 82 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch. 20 Consequence of refraction of light:

20.1 Refraction of light in water:

A fish swimming in water or a coin placed under water

appears closer or even A pool of water looks shallower
than it really is due to refraction of light in water.

This is because when light travels from under water to

the air, it bends away from the normal at the water
surface. When light enters the eye, the eye sees through
the extension of the light ray reaching it so the object that is placed under water appears to be
located above its real position i.e. the apparent depth is less than the real depth. Thus, the
refractive index of water can be calculated as:
𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
𝑛𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 =
𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

A pen looks broken when it is partially immeresed in water for the same reason.

On the other hand, when light travels from air to water, it bends toward the normal so the
fish sees the fisherman further than he really is which also give the fish wide vision range.

20.2 Refraction of light in glass block:

When light enters a glass or Perspex block, it undergoes

refraction twice, one time when enters the glass from air
where it bends toward the normal and another when it leaves
the glass to the air where it bends away from the normal.
As a result, the rectangular glass prism will produce lateral
displacement or deviation from the original direction but
still the emergent ray parallel to the incident ray.

20.3 Total Internal Reflection

Total internal reflection refers to the complete reflection of the light (100% of light) within
an optically denser medium at the boundary surface with an optically less dense medium
back into the denser medium.
Explanation: When a light ray passes from a
denser medium to a less dense medium e.g. from
glass to air, most of the light is refracted away
from the normal and small portion is reflected.
As the angle of incidence in the denser medium
increases the angle of refraction also increases
until at a certain angle called the critical angle
(C), the angle of refraction is almost 90o, if the angle of incidence this further increased all
the light is reflected from the boundary & no light is refracted so the light is said to undergo
total internet reflection which happens in the denser medium mode
Physics notes 83 Mr Abdallah Fikry
Conditions required for having Total internal reflection:
• Light ray must travel from an optically denser medium to a less dense medium.
• The angle of incidence must be greater than a certain angle, called the critical angle.
20.3 The critical angle (c):
“It is the angle of incidence in the optically denser medium at which the angle of
refraction is 90o at the less dense medium or the refracted ray passes along the interface”
When the angle of incidence is less than the critical angle, the ray passes out into the less
dense medium. But when it exceeds the critical angle, the ray is reflected into the denser
medium.
20.4 Calculating the critical angle (c):
Referring to Snell’s Law as; ni Sin i = nr Sin r
Where the light ray is passing to air so;
nr = 1 and r = 90o but Sin 90 =1 therefore; i = c
1
Thus, nmedium Sin C = 1 So; 𝑛𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶
1 1
Sice, 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶 = So; 𝐶 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛
From the above equation, we can conclude that the
higher the refractive index the smaller is the critical angle and vice versa.
For example:
Diamond has a refractive index, n = 2.4 and its critical angle is 24o
While glass has a refractive index, n = 1.5 and its critical angle is 42o
Simply the refractive index of a medium can be calculated using any of these rules:
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒊 𝑣 𝜆 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 1
𝒏𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎 = = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 𝑎𝑖𝑟 = =
𝑺𝒊𝒏 𝒓 𝑣𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝜆𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝐶

20.5 Application of total internal reflection

1- Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are very fine, optically pure glass fiber through which light undergoes total
internal reflection multiple times to transmit light from one end to the other.
• Optical fibers usually have central core made of more dense glass around which the
polished surfaces coated with a material of suitable refractive index (cladding) so that
there is no loss of light through the sides of the fiber.
• When light enters the central core, it strikes the sides always at angles exceed the critical
angle, so it travels to the other end by repeated totally internal reflections within the fiber.
• They are used in bundles to transmit light to or receive light from inaccessible places,
Optical fibers can be used to;
a) transmit information using visible light or infra-red
radiation. The light cannot escape from the fiber, it is
continually reflected internally by the fiber. Optical fibers
can be used to transmit information using visible light or
infra-red radiation. Optical fibers are increasingly being
used to replace metal telecommunication cables; the
digital TV & telephone signal being encoded as pulses of
laser light rather than as fluctuating electric current.
They can carry more data and are more reliable.
Physics notes 84 Mr Abdallah Fikry
b) Bundles of optical fibers are also used in endoscopes to see inside of the living body also
it can be used by doctors to perform minor operations
The medical endoscope contains two bundles of fibers. One set of fibers transmits light into
a body cavity and the other is used to return an image for observation.
Engineers also can inspect inaccessible parts of machines using endoscopes.
c) Decoration lights or to carry the sunlight from the outside to the
inside of dark room.
2- The sparkly bright looking of the diamond is because the light
enters on of the cut faces and total internal reflect multiple times
due to the low critical angle of diamond.
3- Prismatic periscope:
Glass and Perspex both have critical angles of about 42º, if the
light coming from the source falls on the 1st prism perpendicular
to the upright side, so it enters the prism without bending but
when the light strikes the glass-air interface (inclined side) at an
incidence angle of 45º which is greater than the critical angle
therefore, total internal reflection occurs, and the light ray is
deviated by 90º in each prism.
4- Mirage and rainbow are natural examples of total internal
reflection however rainbow is an example of dispersion of light
as well.

20.6 lenses
Lenses are divided into two types, according to their shape.
1- Converging lenses are fatter in the middle than at the edges.
2- Diverging lenses are thinner in the middle than at the edges.
Any optical lens that is thicker in the middle than at the edges
will make parallel light rays converge to a point, and is
called converging or convex lens.
How does the lens work?
A lens produces its focusing effect because light travels more slowly in the lens than in the
surrounding air, so that refraction of a light beam occurs where the beam enters the lens and
where it emerges from the lens into the air.
20.7 Main terms for lens:
Optical center is the center of the lens on its principal axis.
Rays passing through the optical centre are not deviated.
Principal axis is the line passing symmetrically through the
optical centre of the lens.
From the above image, light rays parallel to the principal
axis of a thin converging lens will be focused on to the focus.
Focal point, F is the point to which all rays that are incident
parallel to the principal axis converge (meet) after refraction
by the lens on the principal axis.
Focal length, f is the distance between the optical center and the principal focus.

Physics notes 85 Mr Abdallah Fikry

20.8 Ray Diagrams for converging Lens:

The image formed by a convex lens can be drawn

using two of the following rays:
1- A parallel light ray to the principal axis always
bend passing through the focus.
2- A light ray passes through the focus (focal ray)
refracts parallel to the principal axis.
3- A light ray passing through the optical centre
(central ray), passes undeviated.

Trick to drawing ray diagrams for converging lens:

• There is one ray of light passing through the center of the lens. Always.
• As the convex lens has 2 foci, the other ray of light ALWAYS passes through the focal
point of the lens. Either the first focal point or the second focal point.
• Sometimes a thin lens is represented by 2 straight line ended with 2 arrowheads at which
all refraction takes place
Tips:
• 2 rays emerging from the top of the object are enough to determine the position of the
image (top of the image) when they intersect after refraction.
• The base of both the object & the image is on the principal axis.
• Use solid lines for real light rays and put arrowheads to indicate direction
• Use dashed lines for extended light rays (virtual light rays) and do not add arrowhead
• Use solid lines for real images and dotted lines for virtual images
The properties of the image created by a convex lens depends on the distance of the object.
The ray diagrams & the properties of the image created by a convex lens are shown in the
table

Physics notes 86 Mr Abdallah Fikry

Note that:
• An image that is real is always inverted.
• An image that is virtual is always upright.
Linear Magnification: is defined as the ratio of the image height to the object height
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑣)
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑓𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑚) = =
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (𝑢)
It is seen that if the image is further than the object from the lens, so the image is magnified
but if the object is further than the image from the lens, so the image is smaller while if the
distance of the object = distance of the image so both image & object are of the same size.
Magnifying lens:
For a magnifying glass to work, the object is placed
between the focal point and the lens such that the
image produced is magnified, upright virtual and
further from the lens than the object.

The diagram shows that the image formed in the same

side of the object and this is what you observe when
you use the magnifying lens to magnify an object.

Mr.: Abdallah Fikry

IGCSE & AL Physics Teacher
0561772364
Abdallah.fikry@gmail.com

Physics notes 87 Mr Abdallah Fikry

 Ch.21: Dispersion & Spectrum

21.1 Dispersion:

It is the splitting of the white light into its component colours or wavelengths (spectrum).

The white light is a continuous spectrum that is made of 7 colours which are red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet (ROY-G-BIV)
The wavelength of the white light ranges between 400 to 700 nm where the red has the
longest wavelength or smallest frequency and the wavelength decreases such that:
Red > orange > yellow > green > blue > indigo > violet

When they travel in air, they all travel with the same speed = 3x108 m/s and mix together to
form white light but when they enter the glass each component travel with different velocity
as the longer the wavelength the higher the speed as the
frequency of each colour remains the same inside the
glass. This causes white light to split in its constituent
colours (spectrum e.g. rainbow) when it passes through
a prism.
If polychromatic light such as white light passes
through triangular prism, it emerges as spectrum of
colours where the red is on top & violet is the bottom
of the visible spectrum.
Because the red light has the longest wavelength, so it
travels faster than any light in the glass emerging first and refracts the least (least angle or
deviation).
But the violet light has the shortest wavelength, so it travels much slower than any light in
the glass emerging lastly and refracts the most (maximum angle or deviation) thus each
colour is refracted by different amount.

Note that:
- Monochromatic light does not undergo dispersion as it is only one colour.
- Dispersion starts once the light enters the prism not when it leaves.

21.2 The electromagnetic Spectrum

- William Herischel put thermometers on different area of the spectrum and found the
highest temperature just below the red which is known as infrared radiations which is
invisible and carries thermal radiations that are emitted from any hot object. Infrared has
longer wavelength & smaller frequency & located just before the red.
- John Ritter repeated the same experiment but using photographic plates and he noticed that
the film gets darker when we go down from red to violet but it is even much darker after the
violet which is called ultraviolet radiations which is also invisible to our eyes.
- William Rontegen discovered X-r ays and Henri Bquerriel discovered gamma radiations.
- J.K Maxwell put an explanation for electromagnetic radiation and predicted other areas of
the spectrum or more electromagnetic waves such as radio waves.
Physics notes 88 Mr Abdallah Fikry
 21.3 Properties of electromagnetic waves:
1- Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves.
2-Electromagnetic waves can travel through vacuum and do not need a medium to travel.
But they can travel through solids, liquids, and gases.
3- All electromagnetic waves have the same speed in vacuum of 3 x 108 m/s (commonly
referred to as the ‘speed of light’). But the speed slows down in other material media.
4- They can be reflected, refracted & diffracted.
5- They are not affected by electric or magnetic fields
The figure below shows the main components of the electromagnetic spectrum (including the
visible spectrum) where they are arranged ascendingly in terms of wavelength (or
descending order in terms of frequency) as follow:
Gamma-rays, x-rays, ultra-violet, visible light, infra-red, microwaves and radio-waves.

- The spectrum of the radiation emitted by a hot body is continuous, so that in practice
radiation exists at all frequencies.
21.4 The nature of the electromagnetic waves is shown in the table below

Electromagnetic Sources characteristics detectors

radiation
Gamma-rays emitted by the highest-energy e.m.w and able to Geiger-Muller
radioactive penetrate matter easily as they have the tube
substances shortest wavelengths and highest
frequencies.
X-rays produced by X- They are also high-energy e.m.w and x-rays
ray tubes. able to penetrate matter (but no metals or scanners &
bones) easily becuase they have the short photographic
wavelengths and high frequencies. films
Ultra-violet It may be UV is the next highest energy. The Skin,
(UV) radiation produced by very atmosphere filters most of the UV photographic
hot bodies, such radiation from the sun. UV radiation also films & some
as the sun & UV causes sun-burned skins. chemicals
lamps
The visible light Sun and other is the only electromagnetic radiation that Eyes, LDR &
white-hot is visible to our eyes. It occupies a photographic
(luminous) bodies surprisingly small portion in the e.m films
emit white light spectrum.
Physics notes 89 Mr Abdallah Fikry
Electromagnetic Sources characteristics detectors
radiation
Infra-red may be produced by any IR radiation is readily absorbed Blackened
radiation (IR) hot bodies as white light by matter and raises their thermometer
temperature. & electronic
sensors,
Microwave is generated by special They are reflected by metals Microwave
radiation electronic devices known and partly absorbed by non- receivers
as klystron valves metals.
(transmitter) & ovens.
Radio waves oscillations in special have the longest wavelengths, Radio and TV
electronic circuits e.g. varying from a few centimeters aerials
radio or TV transmitters to thousands of meters
21.5 Application of electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic Applications or uses

radiation
Radio waves They are used to carry messages and simple television pictures at
very large distances (UHF) and broadcasting Radio stations.
microwaves - They are used in satellite signals to carry telephone calls and
television channels as digital signals from ground station to
satellites and vice versa.
- They are used for communications (mobile phones) as they pass
through the atmosphere with less diffraction than radio-waves.
- They are used in Microwaves to heat up or cock the food.
- Used in RADAR device to check the speed of cars & watch the
air space.
infra-red waves used in wireless remote-control units for air-conditioners,
television etc.
- night vision cameras (in the IR range) and some heaters
- they carry the heat from the Sun
visible light - Vision or seeing and photography
- it is used in optical fibers, in medical uses & telecommunications
ultra-violet (UV) - Usage of ultra-violet in sunbeds (tanning beds)
- fluorescent tubes
- It is used beneficially in the sterilization of water, by killing off
harmful living organisms e.g. bacteria present in the water
X-rays - X-ray photographs are used for medical diagnosis as soft X-rays
penetrate flesh more readily than they do bone, which makes X-ray
‘shadow’ photographs possible.
- In industry, X-ray photographs are used to check for flaws in
welded metal joints.
- They are used in the security gates in airports and hotels to check
the luggage
Physics notes 90 Mr Abdallah Fikry
Gamma rays - In radiotherapy as they are used to treat malignant tumors
- Gamma rays are used in sterilizing medical equipment and food.
- They can also act as surgical knifes in surgery.
Extra notes:
- Infra-red radiation is emitted or absorbed by every object. We feel warm under the sun as
we absorb more IR radiation than we emit (gain internal energy). We feel cool in an air-
conditioned room as we emit more IR radiation than we absorb (lose internal energy).
- The remote unit emits coded IR that is detected by the appliances.
- UV radiation is energetic enough to ionize atoms and so can cause harm to living tissue.
Under excessive exposure, it will cause sunburn and skin cancers.
- Paper money is coated with invisible chemicals that only become reflective (visible) when
UV radiation is incident on the paper. The main aim is to distinguish the real money from its
counterfeits easily.
- Florescent tubes contain mercury vapour and their inner surfaces are coated with florescent
powders. Fluorescent materials absorb “invisible” ultraviolet radiation emitted by excited
mercury atoms and re-radiate as “visible” light.

21.6 Hazards of the electromagnetic radiations:

- Excessive exposure to microwaves due to excessive use of mobile phones can cause
internal heating of the bodies and tissues & may harm the brain.
- Exposure to X-rays & gamma rays are dangerous for pregnant women as it can induce
undesirable traits plus it can cause cancer.
- Hard UV light can cause skin cancer.
Therefore, exposure to these radiations must be minimized & x-rays equipment must be
enclosed in metal casing to absorb x-rays and during X-radiography the users must keep the
safety doors closed while using the equipment.

Mr.: Abdallah Fikry

IGCSE & AL Physics Teacher
0561772364
Abdallah.fikry@gmail.com

Physics notes 91 Mr Abdallah Fikry