Contents

Design considerations

1- Safety Considerations
1.2 Imagination and Ingenuity
Case study:

A worker lost a hand in a 400-ton punch press despite wearing safety cuffs that were cam-

actuated to pull the hands out of the danger zone before the ram came down. The cause was

a loosened setscrew that permitted the cam to rotate with respect to its supporting shaft,

thereby delaying hand retraction until after the ram came down. This case illustrates the old

adage that “A chain is no stronger than its weakest link.” Here, an otherwise very positive and

strong safety device was nullified because of the inexcusably weak link of the setscrew. A

very little imagination and ingenuity on the part of the engineer responsible for this design

would have brought this hazard to light before the unit was released for production.
1.3 Safety Techniques and Guidelines

1. Review the total life cycle of the product from initial production to final disposal, with
an eye toward uncovering significant hazards. Ask yourself what kinds of situations can
reasonably develop during the various stages of manufacturing, transporting, storing,
installing, using, servicing, and so on.
2. Make safety an integral feature of the basic design wherever possible, rather than
“adding on” safety devices after the basic design has been completed.
3. Use a “fail-safe” design where feasible. The philosophy here is that precaution is taken
to avoid failure, but if failure does occur, the design is such that the product is still
“safe”; that is, the failure will not be catastrophic.
4. Check government and industry standards (such as OSHA and ANSI) and the pertinent
technical literature to be sure that legal requirements are complied with, and that
advantage is taken of the relevant safety experience of others
5. Provide warnings of all significant hazards that remain after the design has been made
as safe as reasonably possible.
1.3 Documentation of a Product Design

1. Hazard and risk data—historical, field, and/or laboratory testing, causation

analyses.
2. Design safety formulation—fault-tree, failure modes, hazard analyses.
3. Warnings and instruction formulations—methodology for development and
selection.
4. Standards—the use of in-house, voluntary, and mandated design or
performance requirements.
5. Quality assurance program—methodology for procedure selection and
production records.
6. Product performance—reporting procedures, complaint file, follow-up data
acquisition and analysis, recall, retrofit, instruction, and warning modification.
7. Decision making—the “how,” “who,” and “why” of the process.
‫‪1.4 Nontechnical Aspects‬‬

‫‪Safety engineering inherently includes important nontechnical aspects that are‬‬

‫‪related to the individuals involved.‬‬
‫‪1. Capabilities and characteristics of individuals, both physiological and‬‬
‫‪psychological.‬‬
‫‪2. Communication.‬‬
‫يجب على المهندسين أن ينقلوا لآلخرين المبرر المنطقي ألحكام السالمة المضمنة في تصميماتهم وتشغيلها ‪،‬‬
‫وفي كثير من الحاالت يجب عليهم إشراك أنفسهم في "بيع" االستخدام المناسب ألحكام السالمة هذه‪.‬‬
‫‪3. Cooperation.‬‬
‫يجب تعاون المهندسين بشكل فعال مع أعضاء من التخصصات األخرى ‪ -‬الحكومة ‪ ،‬واإلدارة ‪ ،‬والمبيعات ‪،‬‬
‫والخدمات ‪ ،‬والقانون ‪ ،‬وما إلى ذلك ‪ -‬حتى تثبت الجهود المشتركة الموجهة للسالمة فعاليتها‪.‬‬
 2- Ecological Considerations

1. Consider all aspects of the basic design objective involved, to be sure that it
is sound. For example, questions are raised about the overall merits of some
major
dam constructions.
2. An important consideration is designing for recycling.
3. Select materials with ecological factors in mind.
4. Consider ecological factors when specifying processing. Important here are
pollution of all kinds, energy consumption, and efficiency of material usage.
5. Packaging is an important area for resource conservation and pollution
reduction. Reusable cartons, and the use of recycled materials for packaging,
are two areas receiving increasing attention.
3- Overall Design Considerations
4- Systems of Units
5- Methodology for Solving Machine Component Problems

- The first step in solving machine component problems is to define (or

understand) the problem.
- The next steps are to define (or synthesize) the structure, identify the
interactions with the surroundings, record your choices and decisions,
and draw the relevant diagrams.
- Attention then turns to analyzing the problem, making appropriate
assumptions by using pertinent physical laws, relationships, and rules
that parametrically relate the geometry and behavior of the
component or system.
- The last step is to check the reasonableness of the results and when
appropriate comment about the solution.
Assumptions:
1. The torque can be regarded as remaining constant through the
rotation.
2. The friction losses can be neglected.
Analysis:
1. The work done on the camshaft is equal to the work done by the
follower, if friction can be neglected.
2. Work in = Tɵ = T(0.1 rad)
3. Work out = FS = (1 N)(0.001 m)
The subject Machine Design is the creation of new and better
machines and improving the existing ones.

A new or better machine is one which is more economical in the

overall cost of production and operation.
 Classifications of Machine Design

1) Adaptive design: In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaptation
of existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can
be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training. The designer only makes
minor alternation or modification in the existing designs of the product.

2) Development design: This type of design needs considerable scientific training

and design ability in order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by
adopting a new material or different method of manufacture. In this case, though the
designer starts from the existing design, but the final product may differ quite
markedly from the original product.

3) New design: This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and
creative thinking. Only those designers who have personal qualities of a sufficiently
high order can take up the work of a new design.
 The designs may be classified depending on the design methods as follows:
Rational design. This type of design depends upon mathematical formulae of
principle of mechanics.
Empirical design. This type of design depends upon empirical formulae based on the
practice and past experience.
Industrial design. This type of design depends upon the production aspects to
manufacture any machine component in the industry.
Optimum design. It is the best design for the given objective function under the
specified constraints. It may be achieved by minimizing the undesirable effects.
System design. It is the design of any complex mechanical system like a motor car.
Element design. It is the design of any element of the mechanical system like piston,
crankshaft, connecting rod, etc.
Computer aided design. This type of design depends upon the use of computer
systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis and optimization of a design.
 Machine Design Procedures

1. Recognition of need. First of all, make a complete statement of the problem,

indicating the need, aim or purpose for which the machine is to be designed.
2. Synthesis (Mechanisms). Select the possible mechanism or group of mechanisms
which will give the desired motion.
3. Analysis of forces. Find the forces acting on each member of the machine and the
energy transmitted by each member.
4. Material selection. Select the material best suited for each member of the
machine.
5. Design of elements (Size and Stresses). Find the size of each member of the
machine by considering the force acting on the member and the permissible stresses
for the material used. It should
be kept in mind that each member should not deflect or deform than the permissible
limit.
6. Modification. Modify the size of the member to agree with the past experience
and judgment to facilitate manufacture. The modification may also be necessary by
consideration of manufacturing to reduce overall cost.
7. Detailed drawing. Draw the detailed drawing of each component and the
assembly of the machine with complete specification for the manufacturing
processes suggested.
8. Production. The component, as per the drawing, is manufactured in the
workshop.
Design of Machine Elements

Specification of Function
(i) Bearing: To support the rotating shaft and confine its motion.
(ii) Key: To transmit the torque between the shaft and the adjoining
machine part like gear, pulley or sprocket
(iii) Spring: To store and release the energy.
(iv) Screw Fastening: To hold two or more machine parts together.
(v) Power Screw: To produce uniform and slow motion and to
transmit the force.
Determination of Forces

(i) The external force due to energy, power or torque transmitted by the
machine part, often called ‘useful’ load
(ii) Static force due to deadweight of the machine part
(iii) Force due to frictional resistance
(iv) Inertia force due to change in linear or angular velocity
(v) Centrifugal force due to change in direction of velocity
(vi) Force due to thermal gradient or variation in temperature
(vii) Force set up during manufacturing the part resulting in residual stresses
(viii) Force due to particular shape of the part such as stress concentration
due to abrupt change in cross-section
 Design of Machine Elements

Selection of Material Failure Criterion

 availability,
 failure by elastic deflection;
 Cost
 failure by general yielding; and
 mechanical properties
 failure by fracture.
 manufacturing considerations

Determination of Dimensions
Tension Rod.

d= 8.92 or 10 mm
Transmission Shaft.

d= 35.79 or 40 mm
Design of Machine Elements

Design Modifications

Working Drawing

Concurrent Engineering

Sequential Design Process Simultaneous Design Process.

 Factor of Safety Criterion

Allowable stress

For ductile materials For brittle materials

where Syt and Sut are the yield and the ultimate tensile strength, respectively.
Stress–Strain Relationship
Tensile Stress and compressive Strain Shear Stress and Shear Strain
 Stress–Strain Relationship
Stresses Due To Bending Moment Stresses Due To Torsional Moment

rectangular

circular

solid circular shaft

hollow circular cross-section

 Stress–Strain Relationship

Eccentric Axial Loading