Ensuring

Quality Standards through

Acceptance-Sampling

• In September 2008, it was discovered that China-based dairy farmers and distributors
had been adding melamine (a plastics manufacturing byproduct) to milk to falsely
inflate protein readings.
Why were they able to pass the tests? While the tests ensured that protein levels
Lot-by-Lot Acceptance-Sampling were sufficient, they did not ensure that all ingredients were unadulterated.

Procedures • To ensure top-quality milk going forward, the Chinese government took three bold
actions: issued a list of banned food additives, overhauled the industry to move it away
Chapter 7 from local farmers and toward mass production, and increased testing on banned
substances.
• It is important to note, however, that acceptance-sampling can only confirm quality
characteristics of those items that are tested. It cannot confirm overall quality.

7–1 7–2

Double-, Multiple-,
The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
Learning Objectives Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes
Sampling
1. Understand the role of acceptance-sampling in modern quality control systems
2. Understand the advantages and disadvantages of sampling
3. Understand the difference between attributes and variables sampling plans and the Military Standard
The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/

Discussion topics
major types of acceptance-sampling procedures 105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
4. Know how single-, double-, and sequential-sampling plans are used Z1.4, ISO 2859)
5. Understand the importance of random-sampling
6. Know how to determine the OC curve for a single-sampling plan for attributes
7. Understand the effects of the sampling plan parameters on sampling plan
Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling
performance Chain Sampling
8. Know how to design single-, double-, and sequential-sampling plans for attributes
Sampling Plans
9. Know how rectifying inspection is used
10. Understand the structure and use of MIL STD 105E and its civilian counterpart plans
11. Understand the structure and use of the Dodge–Romig system of sampling plans
12. Understand the structure and use of MIL STD 414 and its civilian counterpart plans
7–3 7–4

1
 Typical Application of Acceptance-
The Acceptance-Sampling Problem
Sampling
§ Acceptance-sampling is concerned with inspection and decision § A company receives a shipment of product from a supplier.
making regarding products, one of the oldest aspects of quality
assurance. § A sample is taken from the lot, and some quality characteristic of
the units in the sample is inspected.
§ In the 1930s and 1940s, acceptance-sampling was one of the
major components of the field of statistical quality control and § On the basis of the information in this sample, a decision is made
was used primarily for incoming or receiving inspection. regarding lot disposition; usually to accept or reject a lot.
Sometimes we refer to this decision as lot sentencing.
§ In more recent years, it has become typical to work with suppliers
to improve their process performance through the use of SPC and § Accepted lots are put into production; rejected lots may be
designed experiments and not to rely as much on acceptance- returned to the supplier or may be subjected to some other lot
sampling as a primary quality assurance tool. disposition action.
The purpose of acceptance sampling is to disposition or sentence lots

7–5 7–6

Acceptance Sampling Acceptance Sampling

Three aspects of sampling are important: Generally, there are three
approaches to lot sentencing:
1. It is the purpose of acceptance-sampling to sentence lots, not to
estimate the lot quality. 1. Accept with no inspection;

2. Acceptance-sampling plans do not provide any direct form of 2. 100% inspection and
quality control. It simply accepts and rejects lots.
§ Even if all lots are of the same quality, sampling will accept some lots and 3. Acceptance-sampling.
reject others, the accepted lots being no better than the rejected ones.
§ Process controls are used to control and systematically improve quality,
but acceptance sampling does not.

3. The most effective use of acceptance-sampling is not to “inspect

quality into the product,” but rather as an audit tool to ensure
that the output of a process conforms to requirements.
7–7 7–8

2
 Advantages of Sampling Disadvantages of Sampling
1. It is usually less expensive, because there is less inspection. 1. There are risks of accepting “bad” lots and rejecting “good” lots.

2. There is less handling of the product, and thus reduced damage.
3. It is applicable to destructive testing.
4. Fewer personnel are involved in inspection activities.
5. It often greatly reduces the amount of inspection error.
2. Less information is usually generated about the product or the
process that manufactured the product.
3. Acceptance-sampling requires planning and documentation of
the acceptance-sampling procedure, whereas 100% inspection
does not.

6. The rejection of entire lots as opposed to the simple return of

defectives often provides a stronger motivation to the supplier
for quality improvements.

7–9 7 – 10

Acceptance-sampling is most likely to be

Types of Sampling plans
useful in the following situations:
1. When testing is destructive. 5. When the supplier has an § There are a number of different ways to classify acceptance-
excellent quality history and some
2. When the cost of 100% inspection reduction in inspection from 100% sampling plans.
is extremely high. is desired but the supplier’s
process capability is sufficiently § One major classification is by variables and attributes.
3. When 100% inspection is not low as to make no inspection an § Variables, of course, are quality characteristics that are measured on a
technologically feasible or would unsatisfactory alternative.
require so much calendar time numerical scale.
that production scheduling would 6. When there are potentially § Attributes are quality characteristics that are expressed on a “go, no-go”
be seriously impacted. serious product liability risks and basis.
although the supplier’s process is
4. When there are many items to be satisfactory, a program for
inspected and the inspection error continuously monitoring the
rate is sufficiently high that 100% product is necessary.
inspection might cause a higher
percentage of defective units to
be passed than would occur with
the use of a sampling plan.

7 – 11 7 – 12

3
Types of Sampling Types of Sampling
§ Single Sampling § Multiple-Sampling
§ Select n items at random from the lot. If § More than two samples may be required in
there are c or fewer defectives in the sample, order to reach a decision regarding the
accept the lot, and if there are more than c disposition of the lot
defective items in the sample, reject the lot.

§ Double Sampling
§ Following an initial sample, a decision based
on the information in that sample is made
either to (1) accept the lot, (2) reject the lot, § Sequential-Sampling
or (3) take a second sample. § Units are selected from the lot one at a time,
§ If the second sample is taken, the and following inspection of each unit, a
information from both the first and second decision is made either to accept the lot, reject
sample is combined in order to reach a the lot, or select another unit
decision whether to accept or reject the lot

7 – 13 7 – 14

Lot Formation Random-Sampling

§ The random-sampling concept is extremely important in
acceptance sampling.

§ Unless random samples are used, bias will be introduced.

§ The technique often suggested for drawing a random sample is to

first assign a number to each item in the lot (serial or other code
numbers or a three-digit random number to represent the length,
width, and depth in a container could be used).

§ Then n random numbers are drawn, where the range of these

numbers is from 1 to the maximum number of units in the lot.

§ This sequence of random numbers determines which units in the

lot will constitute the sample.
7 – 15 7 – 16

4
Stratifying a lot Guidelines for using Acceptance-Sampling
§ Sometimes the inspector may § Acceptance-Sampling Plan
stratify the lot.
§ Statement of the sample size to be used and the associated acceptance or
§ This consists of dividing the lot into rejection criteria for sentencing individual lots.
strata or layers and then
subdividing each strata into cubes.
§ Sampling Scheme
§ Units are then selected from within § Set of procedures consisting of acceptance-sampling plans in which lot
each cube.
sizes, sample sizes, and acceptance or rejection criteria along with the
§ It does not necessarily ensure amount of 100% inspection and sampling are related.
random samples, at least it ensures
that units are selected from all § Sampling System
locations in the lot.
§ A unified collection of one or more acceptance-sampling schemes.
§ If judgment methods are used to
select the sample, the statistical
basis of the acceptance-sampling
procedure is lost.

7 – 17 7 – 18

Acceptance-Sampling procedures
Double-, Multiple-,
The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes
Sampling

Military Standard
The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/

Discussion topics
105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
Z1.4, ISO 2859)

Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling

Chain Sampling
Sampling Plans

7 – 19 7 – 20

5
 Single-Sampling plan The OC Curve
Key Variables in Sampling Plan Example § An important measure of the performance of an acceptance-
sampling plan is the operating-characteristic (OC) curve.
N = lot size N = 10000, n = 89, c = 2
§ This curve plots the probability of accepting the lot versus the lot
n = number inspected § If the number of observed fraction defective. It shows the probability that a lot submitted
defectives d is less than or with a certain fraction defective will be either accepted or
d = number of defectives equal to c = 2, the lot will be
observed rejected.
accepted
c = max #observed defects § If the number of observed
defectives d is greater than c
= 2, the lot will be rejected.

7 – 21 7 – 22

OC Curve Example OC Curve Example

§ The probability of observing exactly The OC curve shows the
d defectives is discriminatory power of the
sampling plan.
§ The probability of acceptance is
simply the probability that d is § For example, in the sampling
less than or equal to c, or plan n = 89, c = 2, if the lots are
2% defective, the probability of
acceptance is approximately
0.74.
§ This means that if 100 lots from
a process that manufactures 2%
defective product are submitted
to this sampling plan, we will
expect to accept 74 of the lots
and reject 26 of them.

7 – 23 7 – 24

6
 Effect of n & c on OC curves Effect of c on the OC curve
A sampling plan that discriminated perfectly The OC curve becomes more like the
between good and bad lots would have an idealized OC curve shape as the sample size
§ Generally, changing the
OC curve that looks like the figure below. increases. acceptance number does not
dramatically change the slope
of the OC curve.

§ As the acceptance number is

decreased, the OC curve is
shifted to the left.

§ Plans with smaller values of c

provide discrimination at
lower levels of lot fraction
defective than do plans with
larger values of c.

7 – 25 7 – 26

Specific points on the OC curve Acceptable Quality Level (AQL)

§ Frequently, the quality engineer’s interest focuses on certain § AQL - Poorest level of quality for the supplier’s process that the
points on the OC curve. consumer would consider to be acceptable as a process average.
§ AQL is a property of the supplier’s manufacturing process; it is not a
§ The supplier is usually interested in knowing property of the sampling plan.
§ what level of lot or process quality would yield a high probability of § The consumer will often design the sampling procedure so that the OC
acceptance or curve gives a high probability of acceptance at the AQL.
§ Conversely what level of lot or process quality will yield a low probability § AQL is not usually intended to be a specification on the product, nor is it a
of acceptance? target value for the supplier’s production process.

AQL is simply a standard against which to judge the lots.

7 – 27 7 – 28

7
 Lot Tolerance Percent Defective (LTPD) Type-A & Type-B OC curves
§ LTPD - Poorest level of quality that the consumer is willing to § Type-B OC curve
accept in an individual lot. Also called rejectable quality level § In the construction of the Type-B OC curve it is assumed that the samples
(RQL) and limiting quality level (LQL). come from a large lot or that we were sampling from a stream of lots
§ The lot tolerance percent defective is not a characteristic of the sampling selected at random from a process.
plan but is a level of lot quality specified by the consumer. § The binomial distribution is the exact probability distribution for
calculating the probability of lot acceptance.
§ It is possible to design acceptance-sampling plans that give specified
probabilities of acceptance at the LTPD point.
§ Type-A OC curve
§ Used to calculate probabilities of acceptance for an isolated lot of finite
size.
§ Suppose that the lot size is N, the sample size is n, and the acceptance
number is c. The exact sampling distribution of the number of defective
items in the sample is the hypergeometric distribution.

7 – 29 7 – 30

Comparison of Type-A & Type-B OC curves Other Aspects of OC curve behavior

§ The type-A OC curve will § Two approaches to designing sampling plans that are
always lie below the type-B encountered in practice have certain implications for the
OC curve. behavior of the OC curve.

§ However, this difference is § These approaches are

only significant when the lot § the use of sampling plans with zero acceptance numbers (c = 0) and
size is small relative to the § the use of sample sizes that are a fixed percentage of the lot size.
sample size.

§ Unless otherwise stated, all

discussion of OC curves in
this text is in terms of the
type-B OC curve.

7 – 31 7 – 32

8
 Other Aspects of OC curve behavior Example
§ Plans with zero acceptance § If AQL = 1%, this implies that we
would like to accept lots that are
numbers have OC curves that 1% defective or better.
have a very different shape than § If n = 89, c = 1 is used, the
the OC curves of sampling plans probability of lot acceptance at the
AQL is about 0.78.
for which. § If n = 89, c = 0 is used, the
probability of lot acceptance at the
§ Generally, sampling plans with AQL is about 0.41. Nearly 60% of
the lots of AQL quality will be
c= 0 have OC curves that are rejected if we use an acceptance
convex throughout their range. number of zero.

§ An alternative approach to using

§ As a result of this shape, the zero acceptance numbers is to use
probability of acceptance begins chain-sampling plans.
to drop very rapidly, even for
§ Under certain circumstances, chain
small values of the lot fraction sampling works considerably better
defective. than acceptance-sampling plans
with c = 0.
7 – 33 7 – 34

Designing a Single-Sampling plan with a

Other Aspects of OC curve behavior
specified OC Curve
§ The principal disadvantage of § A common approach to the design of an acceptance-sampling plan is to require
sampling plans in which the that the OC curve pass through two designated points.
sample size is a fixed percentage
of the lot size is that the § Suppose that we wish to construct a sampling plan such that the probability of
acceptance is 1-α for lots with fraction defective p1, and the probability of
different sample sizes offer acceptance is for lots with fraction defective p2 .
different levels of protection.
§ Assuming that binomial sampling (with type-B OC curves) is appropriate, we
§ Although sampling procedures see that the sample size n and acceptance number c are the solution to
such as this one were in wide
use before the statistical
principles of acceptance-
sampling were generally known,
their use has (unfortunately) not
entirely disappeared.
The two simultaneous equations in Equation (7.3) are nonlinear, and there is no
simple, direct solution.
7 – 35 7 – 36

9
 Using a Nomograph Using a Nomograph
To illustrate the use of the nomograph, suppose we wish to construct
• The nomograph in Figure a sampling plan for which p 1 = 0.01, α = 0.05, p 2 = 0.06, and β = 0.10.
7.10 can be used for solving Locating the intersection of the lines connecting (p 1 = 0.01, 1 - α =
these equations. 0.95) and (p 2 = 0.06, β = 0.10) on the nomograph indicates that the
• Two lines are drawn on
the nomograph, one plan n = 89, c = 2 is very close to passing through these two points on
connecting p1 and 1-α, and the OC curve. Obviously, since n and c must be integers, this
the other connecting p2 and procedure will actually produce several plans that have OC curves that
β. pass close to the desired points. For instance, if the first line is
• The intersection of these followed either to the c line just above the intersection point or to the
two lines gives the region of
the nomograph in which c line just below it, and the alternate sample sizes are read from the
the desired sampling plan is chart, this will produce two plans that pass almost exactly through the
located. p 1, 1 - α point but that may deviate somewhat from the p 2, β point. A
similar procedure could be followed with the p 2, β line. The result of
following both of these lines would be four plans that pass
approximately through the two points specified on the OC curve.
7 – 37 7 – 38

OC curve Rectifying Inspection

§ Although any two points on the OC curve could be used to define § Acceptance-sampling programs usually require corrective action
the sampling plan, it is customary in many industries to use the when lots are rejected.
AQL and LTPD points for this purpose.
§ Thus, a rectifying inspection program serves to “correct” lot
§ When the levels of lot quality specified are p 1=AQL and p 2=LTPD, quality.
the corresponding points on the OC curve are usually referred to
as the producer’s risk point and the consumer’s risk point,
respectively.

§ Thus, α would be called the producer’s risk and β would be called

the consumer’s risk.

7 – 39 7 – 40

10
 Handling Rejected Lots Average outgoing quality (AOQ)
§ Rejected lots may be handled in a number of ways. § AOQ is widely used for the evaluation of a rectifying sampling
plan.
§ The best approach is to return rejected lots to the supplier and
require it to perform the screening and rework activities. § The AOQ is the quality in the lot that results from the application
of rectifying inspection.
§ However, in many situations, because the components or raw
materials are required in order to meet production schedules, § It is the average value of lot quality that would be obtained over a
screening and rework take place at the consumer level. long sequence of lots from a process with fraction defective p.

7 – 41 7 – 42

AOQ AOQ curve

§ Average outgoing quality will vary as the
§ Assume that the lot size is N and that all discovered defectives fraction defective of the incoming lots
are replaced with good units. Then in lots of size N, we have varies. The curve that plots average
outgoing quality against incoming lot quality
§ n items in the sample that, after inspection, contain no defectives, because is called an AOQ curve.
all discovered defectives are replaced
§ When the incoming quality is very good,
§ N-n items that, if the lot is rejected, also contain no defectives the average outgoing quality is also very
§ N-n items that, if the lot is accepted, contain p(N-n) defectives good whereas when the incoming lot
quality is very bad, most of the lots are
§ Thus, lots in the outgoing stage of inspection have an expected rejected and screened.

number of defective units equal to P ap(N-n), which we may § This leads to a very good level of quality
in the outgoing lots.
express as an average fraction defective, called the average § The maximum ordinate on the AOQ
outgoing quality or curve represents the worst possible
• As lot size N becomes large relative average quality that would result from
the rectifying inspection program, and
to the sample size n, this point is called the average outgoing
AOQ = P ap quality limit (AOQL).

7 – 43 7 – 44

11
 Example Average Total Inspection (ATI)
§ the AOQL is seen to be § Another important measure relative to rectifying inspection is the
approximately 0.0155.
total amount of inspection required by the sampling program.
§ That is, no matter how bad the
fraction defective is in the § If the lots contain no defective items, no lots will be rejected, and
incoming lots, the outgoing lots the amount of inspection per lot will be the sample size n. If the
will never have a worse quality items are all defective, every lot will be submitted to 100%
level on the average than 1.55% inspection, and the amount of inspection per lot will be the lot
defective.
size N.
§ Let us emphasize that this AOQL
is an average level of quality, § If the lot quality is 0<p<1, the average amount of inspection per
across a large stream of lots. lot will vary between the sample size n and the lot size N. If the
lot is of quality p and the probability of lot acceptance is P a, then
§ It does not give assurance that
an isolated lot will have quality the average total inspection (ATI) per lot will be
no worse than 1.55% defective.
ATI = n + (1 – Pa)(N – n)
7 – 45 7 – 46

Example 7.3: Calculating ATI ATI Curve

§ To illustrate the use of Equation (7.6), consider Example 7.2 with § Specification of the AOQL is not
sufficient to determine a unique
N = 10,000, n = 89, c = 2, and p = 0.01. Then, since P a = 0.9397, we sampling plan.
have
§ Therefore, it is relatively
ATI = n + (1 - P a)(N – n) = 89 + (1 – 0.9397)(10,000 – 89) = 687 common practice to choose the
sampling plan that has a
§ Remember that this is an average number of units inspected over specified AOQL and, in addition,
many lots with fraction defective p = 0.01. yields a minimum ATI at a
particular level of lot quality.
§ The level of lot quality usually
chosen is the most likely level of
incoming lot quality, which is
generally called the process
average.

7 – 47 7 – 48

12
 Procedures for generating rectifying
inspection plans
Double-, Multiple-,
§ The procedure for generating these plans is relatively The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
straightforward and is illustrated in Duncan (1986). Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes
Sampling

§ Tables of sampling plans that minimize ATI for a given AOQL and a
specified process average p have been developed by Dodge and Military Standard
Romig. The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/

Discussion topics
105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
Z1.4, ISO 2859)
§ It is also possible to design a rectifying inspection program that
gives a specified level of protection at the LTPD point and that
minimizes the average total inspection for a specified process Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling
average p. The Dodge–Romig sampling inspection tables also Chain Sampling
Sampling Plans
provide these LTPD plans.

7 – 49 7 – 50

Double-Sampling plans Double-Sampling plan

§ A double-sampling plan is a procedure in which, under certain circumstances,
a second sample is required before the lot can be sentenced. Advantages Disadvantages
§ Double-Sampling Plan Parameters § The principal advantage of a § Unless curtailment is used on the
n 1 = sample size on the first sample double-sampling plan with respect second sample, under some
c1 = acceptance number of the first sample to single-sampling is that it may circumstances double-sampling may
n 2 = sample size on second sample reduce the total amount of required require more total inspection than
c2 = acceptance number for both samples inspection. would be required in a single-
sampling plan that offers the same
§ Furthermore, in some situations, a protection.
double-sampling plan has the
psychological advantage of giving a § It is administratively more complex,
lot a second chance. which may increase the opportunity
for the occurrence of inspection
errors.

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13
 Example 7.4: Illustration of a Double- Example 7.4: Illustration of a Double-
Sampling Plan Sampling Plan
§ Suppose n 1 = 50, c1 = 1, n 2 = 100, and c2 = 3. Thus, a random
sample of n 1 = 50 items is selected from the lot, and the number
of defectives in the sample, d 1, is observed.

§ If d 1 ≤ c1 = 1, the lot is accepted on the first sample. If d 1 > c2 = 3,

the lot is rejected on the first sample.

§ If c1 < d 1 ≤ c2, a second random sample of size n 2 = 100 is drawn

from the lot, and the number of defectives in this second sample,
d 2, is observed.

§ Now the combined number of observed defectives from both the

first and second sample, d 1 + d 2, is used to determine the lot
sentence. If d 1 + d 2 ≤ c2 = 3, the lot is accepted. However, if d 1 + d 2
> c2 = 3, the lot is rejected. The operation of this double-sampling
plan is illustrated graphically in Figure 7.14.
7 – 53 7 – 54

Example 7.5: Computation of an OC

Double-Sampling OC curve
curve for a Double-Sampling Plan
§ A double-sampling plan has a § We now illustrate the computation of the OC curve for the plan n 1
primary OC curve that gives the
probability of acceptance as a = 50, c1 = 1, n 2 = 100, c2 = 3. If P a denotes the probability of
function of lot or process acceptance on the combined samples, and and denote the
quality. probability of acceptance on the first and second samples,
respectively, then
§ It also has supplementary OC
curves that show the probability
of lot acceptance and rejection
on the first sample. § P aI is just the probability that we will observe d 1 ≤ c1 = 1
§ The OC curve for the probability defectives out of a random sample of n 1 = 50 items. Thus
of rejection on the first sample
is simply the OC curve for the
single-sampling plan n = n1 and c
= c2.

7 – 55 7 – 56

14
 Example 7.5: Computation of an OC Example 7.5: Computation of an OC
curve for a Double-Sampling Plan curve for a Double-Sampling Plan
§ If p = 0.05 is the fraction defective in the incoming lot, then

§ To obtain the probability of acceptance on the second sample, we

must list the number of ways the second sample can be obtained.
A second sample is drawn only if there are two or three
defectives on the first sample—that is, if c1 < d1 ≤ c2.
§ Thus, the probability of acceptance on the second sample is

7 – 57 7 – 58

Example 7.5: Computation of an OC

The Average Sample Number curve
curve for a Double-Sampling Plan
§ In single-sampling, the size of the sample inspected from the lot
§ The probability of acceptance of a lot that has fraction defective p
is always constant, whereas in double-sampling, the size of the
= 0.05 is therefore
sample selected depends on whether or not the second sample is
necessary.

§ Other points on the OC curve are calculated similarly. Remember § A general formula for the average sample number in double-
that these binomial probabilities can be calculated using Minitab sampling, if we assume complete inspection of the second
on Excel. sample, is ASN = n1P1 + (n1 + n2)(1 – P1) = n1 + n2(1 – P1)

§ where P 1 is the probability of making a lot-dispositioning decision

on the first sample. This is P1=P{lot is accepted on the first
sample} + P {lot is rejected on the first sample}

§ If the above equation is evaluated for various values of lot

fraction defective p, the plot of ASN versus p is called an average
sample number curve.
7 – 59 7 – 60

15
 ASN curve formula for a double-sampling plan
Curtailment
with curtailment on the second sample
§ In practice, inspection of the second sample is usually terminated
and the lot rejected as soon as the number of observed defective
items in the combined sample exceeds the second acceptance
number c2.

§ This is referred to as curtailment of the second sample.

§ The use of curtailed inspection lowers the average sample § P(n1, j) - probability of observing exactly j defectives in a sample of
number required in double-sampling. size n 1,

§ If curtailed inspection is used in single-sampling or on the first § PL (n2, c2-j) - probability of observing c2 - j or fewer defectives in a
sample of double-sampling, the estimate of lot or process fallout sample of size n 2 , and
obtained from these data is biased.
§ PM(n2+1, c2-j+2) - probability of observing c2-j+2 defectives in a
sample of size n 2 + 1.
7 – 61 7 – 62

ASN curve for a double-sampling plan with

curtailment on the second sample
§ the ASN curve for double-sampling without
curtailment on the second sample is not lower
than the sample size used in single-sampling Unless care is exercised to ensure that lot or process quality
throughout the entire range of lot fraction
defective. is in the range where double-sampling is most effective,
§ If lots are of very good quality, they will usually then the economic advantages of double-sampling relative
be accepted on the first sample, whereas if lots to single-sampling may be lost.
are of very bad quality, they will usually be
rejected on the first sample.

§ This gives an ASN for double-sampling that is If curtailment is used on the second sample, the average
smaller than the sample size used in single-
sampling for lots that are either very good or
sample number curve for double-sampling always lies
very bad. below the sample size used in single-sampling.
§ However, if lots are of intermediate quality, the
second sample will be required in a large
number of cases before a lot disposition
decision can be made.

§ In this range of lot quality, the ASN

performance of double-sampling is worse than
single-sampling.
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16
 Designing Double-Sampling plans with
Rectifying Inspection
specified P1 , 1-α , P2 and β.
§ It is often necessary to be able to design a double-sampling plan § When rectifying inspection is performed with double-sampling,
that has a specified OC curve. the AOQ curve is given by

§ Let (p 1, 1-α ) and (p 2,β) be the two points of interest on the OC

curve.

§ If, in addition, we impose another relationship on the parameters

of the sampling plan, then a simple procedure can be used to § assuming that all defective items discovered, either in sampling
obtain such plans. or 100% inspection, are replaced with good ones. The average
total inspection curve is given by
§ The most common constraint is to require that n 2 is a multiple of
n 1.
§ Remember P a = P I a + P II a that is the probability of final lot
acceptance and that the acceptance probabilities depend on the
level of lot or process quality p.
7 – 65 7 – 66

Multiple Sampling Plans Multiple-Sampling plans

§ This plan will operate as follows: If, at the § The construction of OC curves § The principal advantage of
completion of any stage of sampling, the for multiple-sampling is a multiple-sampling plans is that
number of defective items is less than or straightforward extension of the the samples required at each
equal to the acceptance number, the lot is approach used in double- stage are usually smaller than
accepted. sampling. those in single or double-
sampling; thus, some economic
§ If, during any stage, the number of § Similarly, it is also possible to efficiency is connected with the
defective items equals or exceeds the compute the average sample use of the procedure.
rejection number, the lot is rejected; number curve of multiple-
otherwise the next sample is taken. sampling plans. § However, multiple-sampling is
much more complex to
§ The multiple-sampling procedure continues § One may also design a multiple- administer.
until the fifth sample is taken, at which time sampling plan for specified
a lot disposition decision must be made. values of p1, 1 , p2, and .

§ The first sample is usually inspected 100%, § For an extensive discussion of

although subsequent samples are usually these techniques, see Duncan
subject to curtailment. (1986).

7 – 67 7 – 68

17
 Sequential Sampling plans Item-by-Item Sequential-Sampling
§ In sequential-sampling, we take a sequence of samples from the § If the sample size inspected at each stage is one, the procedure is
lot and allow the number of samples to be determined entirely usually called item-by-item sequential-sampling.
by the results of the sampling process.
§ Item-by-item sequential-sampling is based on the sequential
§ In practice, sequential sampling can theoretically continue probability ratio test (SPRT), developed by Wald (1947).
indefinitely, until the lot is inspected 100%.

§ In practice, sequential-sampling plans are usually truncated after

the number inspected is equal to three times the number that
would have been inspected using a corresponding single-
sampling plan.

§ If the sample size selected at each stage is greater than one, the
process is usually called group sequential-sampling.

7 – 69 7 – 70

Item-by-Item Sequential-Sampling Item-by-Item Sequential-Sampling

§ The cumulative observed number of § The equations for the two limit lines for specified values of p 1,1-
defectives is plotted on the chart.
α , p 2, and β are
§ For each point, the abscissa is the
total number of items selected up to
that time, and the ordinate is the
total number of observed defectives.
where
§ If the plotted points stay within the
boundaries of the acceptance and
rejection lines, another sample must
be drawn.
§ As soon as a point falls on or above
the upper line, the lot is rejected.
§ When a sample point falls on or
below the lower line, the lot is
accepted.

7 – 71 7 – 72

18
 Item-by-Item Sequential-Sampling Example
§ Instead of using a graph to determine the lot disposition, the For n=45,
sequential-sampling plan can be displayed in a table.
§ X A = -1.22 + 0.028n = -1.22
§ The entries in the table are found by substituting values of n into + 0.028(45) = 0.04 (accept)
the equations for the acceptance and rejection lines and
calculating acceptance and rejection numbers. § X R = 1.57 + 0.028n = 1.57 +
0.028(45) = 2.83 (reject)
§ Acceptance and rejection numbers must be integers, so the
acceptance number is the next integer less than or equal to X A, § the acceptance number is
0 and the rejection
and the rejection number is the next integer greater than or
number is 3.
equal to X R.
§ Note that the lot cannot be
accepted until at least 44
units have been tested.
7 – 73 7 – 74

Example 7.6 Developing a Sequential The OC Curve and ASN Curve for
Sampling Plan Sequential Sampling
§ The OC curve for sequential-sampling can be easily obtained. Two
§ Suppose we wish to find a sequential-sampling plan for which p 1
points on the curve are (p 1,1-α ) and (p 2,β). A third point, near the
= 0.01, α = 0.05, p 2 = 0.06, and β = 0.10. Thus,
middle of the curve, is p=s and P a = h 2/(h 1 + h 2).

§ The average sample number taken under sequential-sampling is

§ Therefore the limit lines are

X A = -1.22 + 0.028n (accept) and X R = 1.57 + 0.028n (reject)

7 – 75 7 – 76

19
 Rectifying Inspection for Sequential-
Sampling
Double-, Multiple-,
§ The average outgoing quality (AOQ) for sequential-sampling is The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
given approximately by Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes
Sampling

Military Standard
§ The average total inspection is also easily obtained. Note that the The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/

Discussion topics
105E (ANSI/ASQC
amount of sampling is A/C when a lot is accepted and N when it is Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
Z1.4, ISO 2859)
rejected. Therefore, the average total inspection is

Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling

Chain Sampling
Sampling Plans

7 – 77 7 – 78

Description of the Standard Description of the Standard

§ Standard sampling procedures for inspection by attributes were § The standard provides for three types of sampling: single-sampling,
developed during World War II. double-sampling, and multiple-sampling.
§ MIL STD 105E is the most widely used acceptance-sampling system for § For each type of sampling plan, a provision is made for either normal
attributes in the world today. inspection, tightened inspection, or reduced inspection.
§ The original version of the standard, MIL STD 105A, was issued in 1950. § The primary focal point of MIL STD 105E is the acceptable quality level
Since then, there have been four revisions; the latest version, MIL STD (AQL). The standard is indexed with respect to a series of AQLs.
105E, was issued in 1989.
§ When the standard is used for percent defective plans, the AQLs range
§ MIL STD 105E is a collection of sampling schemes; therefore, it is an from 0.10% to 10%. For defects per units plans, there are an additional
acceptance sampling system. ten AQLs running up to 1,000 defects per 100 units.
§ There is a derivative civilian standard, ANSI/ASQC Z1.4, which is quite § It should be noted that for the smaller AQL levels, the same sampling
similar to the military standard. plan can be used to control either a fraction defective or a number of
defects per unit.
§ The standard was also adopted by the International Organization for
Standardization as ISO 2859. § The AQLs are arranged in a progression, each AQL being approximately
1.585 times the preceding one.
7 – 79 7 – 80

20
 Inspection Levels Description of the Standard
§ The sample size used in MIL STD 105E is determined by the lot § For a specified AQL and inspection level and a given lot size, MIL
size and by the choice of inspection level. STD 105E provides a normal sampling plan that is to be used as
long as the supplier is producing the product at AQL quality or
§ Three general levels of inspection are provided. better.
§ Level II is designated as normal.
§ Level I requires about half the amount of inspection that Level II does and § It also provides a procedure for switching to tightened and
may be used when less discrimination is needed. reduced inspection whenever there is an indication that the
§ Level III requires about twice as much inspection as Level II and should be supplier’s quality has changed.
used when more discrimination is needed.

§ There are also four special inspection levels, S-1, S-2, S-3, and S-4.
The special inspection levels use very small samples and should
be employed only when the small sample sizes are necessary and
when greater sampling risks can or must be tolerated.

7 – 81 7 – 82

Switching rules Switching Rules

7 – 83 7 – 84

21
 Sample size code letters for MIL STD
Procedure
105E
A step-by-step procedure for using MIL STD 105E is as follows:

1. Choose the AQL.

2. Choose the inspection level.

3. Determine the lot size.

4. Find the appropriate sample size code letter from Table 7.4.

5. Determine the appropriate type of sampling plan to use (single,

double, multiple).

6. Enter the appropriate table to find the type of plan to be used.

7. Determine the corresponding normal and reduced inspection

plans to be used when required.
7 – 85 7 – 86

7 – 87 7 – 88

22
 Example 7.7 Use of MIL STD 105C
Suppose that a product is submitted in lots of size N = 2,000. The
acceptable quality level is 0.65%. We will use the standard to
generate normal, tightened, and reduced single-sampling plans for
this situation. For lots of size 2,000 under general inspection level II,
Table 7.4 indicates that the appropriate sample size code letter is K.
Therefore, from Table 7.5, for single-sampling plans under normal
inspection, the normal inspection plan is n = 125, c = 2. Table 7.6
indicates that the corresponding tightened inspection plan is n =
125, c = 1. Note that in switching from normal to tightened
inspection, the sample size remains the same, but the acceptance
number is reduced by 1. This general strategy is used throughout
MIL STD 105E for a transition to tightened inspection. If the normal
inspection acceptance number is 1, 2, or 3, the acceptance number
for the corresponding tightened inspection plan is reduced by 1.
7 – 89 7 – 90

Example 7.7 Use of MIL STD 105C Discussion

If the normal inspection acceptance number is 5, 7, 10, or 14, the § MIL STD 105E presents the OC
reduction in acceptance number for tightened inspection is 2. For a curves for single-sampling plans.
These are all type-B OC curves.
normal acceptance number of 21, the reduction is 3. Table 7.7
indicates that under reduced inspection, the sample size for this § The OC curves for the matching
example would be n = 50, the acceptance number would be c = 1, double- and multiple-sampling
plans are roughly comparable with
and the rejection number would be r = 3. Thus, if two defectives those for the corresponding single-
were encountered, the lot would be accepted, but the next lot sampling plans.
would be inspected under normal inspection. § The OC curves presented in the
standard are for the initiial-
In examining the tables, note that if a vertical arrow is encountered, sampling plan only.
the first sampling plan above or below the arrow should be used.
§ They are not the OC curves for the
When this occurs, the sample size code letter and the sample size overall inspection program,
change. For example, if a single-sampling plan is indexed by an AQL including shifts to and from
of 1.5% and a sample size code letter of F, the code letter changes to tightened or reduced inspection.
G and the sample size changes from 20 to 32.
7 – 91 7 – 92

23
 Comparison between the civilian and
MIL STD 105E Summary
military standard
A civilian standard, ANSI/ASQC Z1.4 or ISO 2859, is the counterpart of MIL STD
1. MIL STD 105E is AQL-oriented. 105E. It was adopted in 1981 & differs from MIL STD 105E in the following 5 ways:
1. The terminology “nonconformity,” “nonconformance,” and “percent
2. The sample sizes selected for use in MIL STD 105E are 2, 3, 5, 8,
nonconforming” is used.
13, 20, 32, 50, 80, 125, 200, 315, 500, 800, 1250, and 2000. Thus,
2. The switching rules were changed slightly to provide an option for reduced
not all sample sizes are possible.
inspection without the use of limit numbers.
3. The sample sizes in MIL STD 105E are related to the lot sizes. 3. Several tables that show measures of scheme performance (including the
switching rules) were introduced. Some of these performance measures
4. The switching rules from normal to tightened inspection and include AOQL, limiting quality for which Pa 0.10 and Pa 0.05, ASN, and
operating-characteristic curves.
from tightened to normal inspection are also subject to some
4. A section was added describing proper use of individual sampling plans when
criticism.
extracted from the system.
5. A flagrant and common abuse of MIL STD 105E is failure to use 5. A figure illustrating the switching rules was added.
the switching rules at all. These revisions modernize the terminology and emphasize the system concept
of the civilian standard. All tables, numbers, and procedures used in MIL STD
105E are retained in ANSI/ASQC Z1.4 and ISO 2859.
7 – 93 7 – 94

The Dodge–Romig Sampling Plans

Double-, Multiple-,
The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
§ H. F. Dodge and H. G. Romig developed a set of sampling
Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes inspection tables for lot-by-lot inspection of product by attributes
Sampling
using two types of sampling plans:
§ plans for lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD) protection and
Military Standard § plans that provide a specified average outgoing quality limit (AOQL).
The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/
Discussion topics

105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
Z1.4, ISO 2859) § For each of these approaches to sampling plan design, there are
tables for single- and double-sampling.

Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling § Sampling plans that emphasize LTPD protection, such as the
Chain Sampling Dodge–Romig plans, are often preferred to AQL-oriented
Sampling Plans
sampling plans, such as those in MIL STD 105E, particularly for
critical components and parts.

7 – 95 7 – 96

24
 AOQL plans
§ The Dodge–Romig AOQL plans § The Dodge–Romig (1959) tables give AOQL sampling plans for
are designed so that the average
total inspection for a given AOQL values of 0.1%, 0.25%, 0.5%, 0.75%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%,
AOQL and a specified process 3%, 4%, 5%, 7%, and 10%.
average p will be minimized.
§ Similarly, the LTPD plans are § For each of these AOQL values, six classes of values for the
designed so that the average process average are specified.
total inspection is a minimum.
§ An example of the Dodge–Romig sampling plans is shown in Table
§ This makes the Dodge–Romig
plans very useful for in-plant 7.8.
inspection of semifinished
product.
§ The Dodge–Romig plans apply
only to programs that submit
rejected lots to 100%
inspection.
7 – 97 7 – 98

AOQL plans AOQL plan Example

§ Suppose that we are inspecting § Table 7.8 also indicates that the
LSI memory elements for a LTPD for this sampling plan is
personal computer and that the 10.3%.
elements are shipped in lots of
size N=5,000. § This is the point on the OC curve
for which Pa=0.10.
§ The supplier’s process average
fallout is 1% nonconforming. § Therefore, the sampling plan
n=65, c=3 gives an AOQL of 3%
§ We wish to find a single- nonconforming and provides
sampling plan with an AOQL assurance that 90% of incoming
3%. lots that are as bad as 10.3%
defective will be rejected.
§ From Table 7.8, we find that the
plan is n=65 & c = 3

7 – 99 7 – 100

25
 Example contd. LTPD plans
§ Assuming that incoming quality is equal to the process average § The Dodge–Romig LTPD tables are designed so that the
and that the probability of lot acceptance at this level of quality is probability of lot acceptance at the LTPD is 0.1.
P a =0.9957, we find that the average total inspection for this plan
is § Tables are provided for LTPD values of 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%,
7%, and 10%.

§ Table 7.9 for an LTPD of 1% is representative of these Dodge–

§ Thus, we will inspect approximately 86 units, on the average, in Romig tables.
order to sentence a lot.

7 – 101 7 – 102

LTPD plans Example

§ Suppose that LSI memory elements for a personal computer are
shipped from the supplier in lots of size N=5000.

§ The supplier’s process average fallout is 0.25% nonconforming,

and we wish to use a single-sampling plan with an LTPD of 1%.

§ From inspection of Table 7.9, the sampling plan that should be

used is n=770, c=4

§ If we assume that rejected lots are screened 100% and that

defective items are replaced with good ones, the AOQL for this
plan is approximately 0.28%.

7 – 103 7 – 104

26
 General Description of the Standard
Double-, Multiple-,
The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
§ MIL STD 414 is a lot-by-lot acceptance-sampling plan for
Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes variables. The standard was introduced in 1957.
Sampling

§ The focal point of this standard is the acceptable quality level

Military Standard (AQL), which ranges from 0.04% to 15%.
The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/
Discussion topics

105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9) § There are five general levels of inspection, and level IV is
Z1.4, ISO 2859)
designated as “normal.”

§ As with the attributes standard, MIL STD 105E, sample size code
Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling letters are used, but the same code letter does not imply the
Chain Sampling
Sampling Plans
same sample size in both standards.

§ All the sampling plans and procedures in the standard assume

that the quality characteristic of interest is normally distributed.
7 – 105 7 – 106

Organization of MIL STD 414 Procedure 1

§ Take a random sample of n items from the lot and compute the
statistic

§ Note that ZLSL in the above equation simply expresses the distance
between the sample average and the lower specification limit in
standard deviation units.

§ The larger the value of ZLSL , the farther the sample average is
from the lower specification limit, and consequently, the smaller
is the lot fraction defective p.

§ If there is a critical value of p of interest that should not be

exceeded with stated probability, we can translate this value of p
into a critical distance— say, k—for ZLSL .
7 – 107 7 – 108

27
 Procedure 1 (contd.) Procedure 2
§ Thus, if ZLSL ≥ k, we would accept the lot because the sample data § Take a random sample of n items from the lot and compute ZLSL
imply that the lot mean is sufficiently far above the LSL to ensure using the equation below.
that the lot fraction nonconforming is satisfactory.

§ However, if ZLSL < k, the mean is too close to the LSL, and the lot
should be rejected. § Use ZLSL to estimate the fraction defective of the lot or process as
the area under the standard normal curve below ZLSL .

§ (Actually, using QLSL = ZLSL√(n/(n-1)) as a standard normal

variable is slightly better, because it gives a better estimate of p.)
Let p̂ be the estimate of p so obtained. If the estimate exceeds a
specified maximum value M, reject the lot; otherwise, accept it.

7 – 109 7 – 110

MIL STD 414 (ANSI/ASQC Z1.9) MIL STD 414 (ANSI/ASQC Z1.9)
§ Specification Limits § MIL STD 414 is divided into four sections.
§ In the case of single-specification limits, either Procedure 1 or Procedure 2
may be used. § Section A is a general description of the sampling plans, including
§ If there are double-specification limits, then Procedure 2 must be used. definitions, sample size code letters, and OC curves for the
various sampling plans.
§ Lot Variability
§ If the process or lot variability is known and stable, the variability known § Section B of the standard gives variables sampling plans based on
plans are the most economically efficient. the sample standard deviation for the case in which the process
§ When lot or process variability is unknown, either the standard deviation or or lot variability is unknown.
the range of the sample may be used in operating the sampling plan.
§ Section C presents variables sampling plans based on the sample
§ The range method requires a larger sample size, and we do not range method.
generally recommend its use.
§ Section D gives variables sampling plans for the case where the
process standard deviation is known.
7 – 111 7 – 112

28
 Example 7.8 Using MIL STD 414 Example 7.8 Using MIL STD 414
Consider a soft-drink bottler who is purchasing bottles from a Solution
supplier. The lower specification limit on bursting strength is 225 psi.
Suppose that the AQL at this specification limit is 1%. Suppose that From Table 7.10, if we use inspection level IV, the sample size code
bottles are shipped in lots of size 100,000. Find a variables sampling letter is O. From Table 7.11 we find that sample size code letter O
plan that uses Procedure 1 from MIL STD 414. Assume that the lot implies a sample size of n 100.
standard deviation is unknown. For an acceptable quality level of 1%, on normal inspection, the
value of k is 2.00. If tightened inspection is employed, the
appropriate value of k is 2.14.

Note that normal and tightened inspection use the same tables. The
AQL values for normal inspection are indexed at the top of the table,
and the AQL values for tightened inspection are indexed from the
bottom of the table.

7 – 113 7 – 114

Use of the Tables

7 – 115 7 – 116

29
 Use of the Tables Use of the Tables
§ MIL STD 414 contains a provision for a shift to tightened or § Fraction Defective
reduced inspection when this is warranted. § Estimation of the fraction defective is required in using Procedure 2 of MIL STD
414.
§ The process average is used as the basis for determining when § It is also required in implementing the switching rules between normal,
such a shift is made. tightened, and reduced inspection.
§ In the standard, three tables are provided for estimating the fraction defective.
§ Usually, the process average is computed using information from
the preceding ten lots. § Standard Deviation
§ When starting to use MIL STD 414, one can choose between the known
§ Full details of the switching procedures are described in the standard deviation and unknown standard deviation procedures.
standard and in a technical memorandum on MIL STD 414, § It is a good idea to maintain either an R or s chart on the results of each lot so
published by the United States Department of the Navy, Bureau that some information on the state of statistical control of the scatter in the
manufacturing process can be collected.
of Ordnance.
§ When a known s plan is used, it is also necessary to maintain a control chart on
either R or s as a continuous check on the assumption of stable and known
process variability.
7 – 117 7 – 118

Use of the Tables Discussion

§ Mixed variables/attributes acceptance-sampling plans § In 1980, the American National Standards Institute and the American Society
for Quality Control released an updated civilian version of MIL STD 414
§ MIL STD 414 contains a special procedure for application of mixed known as ANSI/ASQC Z1.9. MIL STD 414 was originally structured to give
variables/attributes acceptance-sampling plans.
protection essentially equivalent to that provided by MIL STD 105A (1950).
§ If the lot does not meet the acceptability criterion of the variables plan, an
attributes single sampling plan, using tightened inspection and the same § When MIL STD 105D was adopted in 1963, this new standard contained
AQL, is obtained from MIL STD 105E. substantially revised tables and procedures that led to differences in
§ A lot can be accepted by either of the plans in sequence but must be protection between it and MIL STD 414.
rejected by both the variables and attributes plan.
§ Consequently, it is not possible to move directly from an attributes sampling
plan in the current MIL STD 105E to a corresponding variables plan in MIL
STD 414 if the assurance of continued protection is desired for certain lot
sizes and AQLs.

§ The civilian counterpart of MIL STD 414, ANSI/ASQC Z1.9, restores this
original match. That is, ANSI/ASQC Z1.9 is directly compatible with MIL STD
105E (and its equivalent civilian counterpart ANSI/ASQC Z1.4).
7 – 119 7 – 120

30
 Discussion Changes made to the Standard
§ In addition, to modernizing terminology, the word nonconformity
§ This equivalence was obtained by incorporating the following
was substituted for defect, nonconformance was substituted for
revisions in ANSI/ASQC Z1.9:
defective, and percent nonconforming was substituted for percent
1. Lot size ranges were adjusted to correspond to MIL STD 105D. defective.

2. The code letters assigned to the various lot size ranges were § The operating-characteristic curves were recomputed and
arranged to make protection equal to that of MIL STD 105E. replotted, and a number of editorial changes were made to the
descriptive material of the standard to match MIL STD 105E as
3. AQLs of 0.04, 0.065, and 15 were deleted. closely as possible.

4. The original inspection levels I, II, III, IV, and V were relabeled S3, § Finally, an appendix was included showing the match between
S4, I, II, III, respectively. ANSI/ASQC Z1.9, MIL STD 105E, and the corresponding civilian
version ANSI Z1.4.
5. The original switching rules were replaced by those of MIL STD
105E, with slight revisions. § This appendix also provided selected percentage points from the
OC curves of these standards and their differences.
7 – 121 7 – 122

Discussion
§ As of this writing, the Department of Defense has not officially Double-, Multiple-,
The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
adopted ANSI/ASQC Z1.9 and continues to use MIL STD 414. and Sequential-
Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes
Sampling
§ The principal advantage of the ANSI/ASQC Z1.9 standard is that it
is possible to start inspection by using an attributes sampling
scheme from MIL STD 105E or ANSI/ASQC Z1.4, collect sufficient Military Standard
The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/

Discussion topics
105E (ANSI/ASQC
information to use variables inspection, and then switch to the Z1.4, ISO 2859)
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
variables scheme, while maintaining the same AQL-code letter
combination.

§ As in MIL STD 414, ANSI/ASQC Z1.9 assumes that the quality Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling
Chain Sampling
characteristic is normally distributed. Sampling Plans

§ If the assumption of normality is badly violated, either a special

variables sampling procedure must be developed or we must
return to attributes inspection.
7 – 123 7 – 124

31
 Chain Sampling Chain Sampling
§ For situations in which testing is destructive or very expensive, § Chain sampling plans make use of the cumulative results of
sampling plans with small sample sizes are usually selected. several preceding lots. The general procedure is as follows:
§ These small sample size plans often have acceptance numbers of 0. 1. For each lot, select the sample of size n and observe the number of
defectives.
§ Plans with zero acceptance numbers are often undesirable, however, in 2. If the sample has zero defectives, accept the lot; if the sample has two or
that their OC curves are convex throughout. more defectives, reject the lot; and if the sample has one defective,
accept the lot provided there have been no defectives in the previous i
§ Figures 7.6 and 7.8 present OC curves of sampling plans that have lots.
acceptance numbers of 0 and acceptance numbers that are greater
than 0. § Thus, for a chain sampling plan given by n = 5, i = 3, a lot would be
accepted if there were no defectives in the sample of five, or if
§ Dodge (1955) suggested an alternate procedure, known as chain there were one defective in the sample of five and no defectives
sampling, that might be a substitute for ordinary single-sampling had been observed in the samples from the previous three lots.
plans with zero acceptance numbers in certain circumstances.
§ This type of plan is known as a ChSP-1 plan.
7 – 125 7 – 126

Chain Sampling Chain Sampling

§ The effect of chain sampling is § The points on the OC curve of a ChSP-1 plan are given by the
to alter the shape of the OC equation
curve near the origin so that it
has a more desirable shape.
§ Figure 7.21 shows OC curves for § where P(0, n) and P(1, n) are the probabilities of obtaining zero
ChSP-1 plans with n = 5, c = 0, and one defectives, respectively, out of a random sample of size
and i = 1, 2, 3, and 5. n. To illustrate the computations, consider the ChSP-1 plan with n
= 5, c = 0, and i = 3. For p = 0.10, we have
§ The curve for i = 1 is dotted, and
it is not a preferred choice.
§ In practice, values of i usually
vary between 3 and 5, since the
OC curves of such plans
approximate the single-sampling
plan OC curve.
7 – 127 7 – 128

32
 Conditions for Chain Sampling
The proper use of chain sampling requires that the following The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
Double-, Multiple-,
conditions be met: and Sequential-
Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes
Sampling
1. The lot should be one of a series in a continuing stream of lots,
from a process in which there is repetitive production under the
same conditions, and in which the lots of products are offered for
Military Standard
acceptance in substantially the order of production. The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/

Discussion topics
105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9)
2. Lots should usually be expected to be of essentially the same Z1.4, ISO 2859)
quality.
3. The sampling agency should have no reason to believe that the
current lot is of poorer quality than those immediately preceding. Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling
Chain Sampling
4. There should be a good record of quality performance on the part Sampling Plans
of the supplier.
5. The sampling agency must have confidence that the supplier will
not take advantage of its good record and occasionally send a bad
lot when such a lot would have the best chance of acceptance.
7 – 129 7 – 130

Continuous-Sampling Continuous-Sampling
§ All the sampling plans discussed previously are lot-by-lot plans. § First Procedure
§ The first procedure allows the accumulation of production at given points
§ However, many manufacturing operations, particularly complex in the assembly process.
assembly processes, do not result in the natural formation of lots. § This has the disadvantage of creating in-process inventory at various points,
which requires additional space, may constitute a safety hazard, and is a
§ When production is continuous, two approaches may be used to generally inefficient approach to managing an assembly line.
form lots.
§ Second Procedure
§ The first procedure allows the accumulation of production at § The disadvantage of this approach is that if a lot is ultimately rejected and
given points in the assembly process. 100% inspection of the lot is subsequently required, it may be necessary to
recall products from manufacturing operations that are further
§ The second procedure arbitrarily marks off a given segment of downstream.
production as a “lot.” § This may require disassembly or at least partial destruction of semifinished
items.

7 – 131 7 – 132

33
 Continuous-Sampling CSP-1
§ Continuous-sampling plans consist of alternating sequences of § Continuous-sampling plans
sampling inspection and screening (100% inspection). were first proposed by Harold
F. Dodge (1943).
§ The plans usually begin with 100% inspection, and when a stated
number of units is found to be free of defects (the number of § Dodge’s initial plan is called
units i is usually called the clearance number), sampling CSP-1.
inspection is instituted.
§ ACSP-1 plan has an overall
§ Sampling inspection continues until a specified number of AOQL.
defective units is found, at which time 100% inspection is
§ The value of the AOQL
resumed.
depends on the values of the
§ Continuous-sampling plans are rectifying inspection plans, in that clearance number i and the
the quality of the product is improved by the partial screening. sampling fraction f.

7 – 133 7 – 134

CSP-1
§ Table 7.12 presents various values of i and f for CSP-1 that will
lead to a stipulated AOQL.

§ Note in the table that an AOQL of 0.79% could be obtained using

a sampling plan with i = 59 and f = 1/3, or with i = 113 and f = 1/7.

§ The choice of i and f is usually based on practical considerations

in the manufacturing process.

§ As a general rule, however, it is not a good idea to choose values

of f smaller than 1/200 because the protection against bad
quality in a continuous run of production then becomes very
poor.

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34
 CSP-1 CSP-1
§ The average number of units inspected in a 100% screening § The average fraction of total manufactured units inspected in the
sequence following the occurrence of a defect is equal to long run is

where q = 1 - p, and p is the fraction defective produced when the § The average fraction of manufactured units passed under the
process is operating in control. sampling procedure is

§ The average number of units passed under the sampling

inspection procedure before a defective unit is found is
§ When P a is plotted as a function of p, we obtain an operating
characteristic curve for a continuous-sampling plan.

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OC Curves for CSP-1 Other Continuous-Sampling Plans

§ Graphs of operating-
characteristic curves for
several values of f and i for
CSP-1 plans are shown in
Figure 7.23. of K sample units of each other.
§ Note that for moderate-to-
small values of f, i has much
more effect on the shape of
the curve than f.
7 – 139
§ Dodge and Torrey (1951) proposed CSP-2 and CSP-3.
§ CSP-2
§ 100% inspection will not be reinstated when production is under sampling
inspection until two defective sample units have been found within a space
§ Choose K equal to the clearance number i.
§ CSP-2 plans are indexed by specific AOQLs that may be obtained by
different combinations of i and f.
§ CSP-3
§ Designed to give additional protection against spotty production.
§ Requires that after a defective unit has been found in sampling inspection,
the immediately following four units should be inspected. If any of these
four units is defective, 100% inspection is immediately reinstituted. If no
defectives are found, the plan continues as under CSP-2.
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35
 MIL STD 1235C MIL STD 105E
§ Another common objection to continuous-sampling plans is the § MIL STD 105E, which does focus on the AQL, is designed for
abrupt transition between sampling inspection and 100% manufacturing situations in which lotting is a natural aspect of
inspection. Lieberman and Solomon (1955) have designed production, and provides a set of decision rules for sentencing
multilevel continuous sampling plans to overcome this objection. lots so that certain AQL protection is obtained.
§ Much of the work on continuous-sampling plans has been
incorporated into MIL STD 1235C.
§ The standard provides for five different types of continuous-
sampling plans. Tables to assist the analyst in designing sampling
plans are presented in the standard.
§ CSP-1 and CSP-2 are a part of MIL STD 1235C.
§ In addition, there are two other single-level continuous-sampling
procedures, CSP-F and CSP-V.
§ The fifth plan in the standard is CSP-T, a multilevel continuous-sampling plan.
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Skip-Lot Sampling Plans

Double-, Multiple-,
The Acceptance- Single-Sampling
and Sequential-
§ This section describes the development and evaluation of a
Sampling Problem Plans for Attributes system of lot-by-lot inspection plans in which a provision is made
Sampling
for inspecting only some fraction of the submitted lots.

Military Standard § These plans are known as skip-lot sampling plans.

The Dodge–Romig MIL STD 414 (ANSI/
Discussion topics

105E (ANSI/ASQC
Sampling Plans ASQC Z1.9) § Dodge (1956) initially presented skip-lot sampling plans as an
Z1.4, ISO 2859)
extension of CSP-type continuous-sampling plans.

§ The version of skip-lot sampling initially proposed by Dodge

Continuous- Skip-Lot Sampling required a single determination or analysis to ascertain the lot’s
Chain Sampling
Sampling Plans
acceptability or unacceptability.

§ These plans are called SkSP-1.

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36
 Skip-Lot Sampling Plans Skip-Lot Sampling Plans
§ Skip lot sampling plans designated SkSP-2 follow the next logical § The parameters f and i are the parameters of the skip-lot
step; that is, each lot to be sentenced is sampled according to a sampling plan SkSP-2, where, i is a positive integer, and f lies in
particular attribute lot inspection plan. Perry (1973) gives a good the interval 0<f<1.
discussion of these plans.
§ Let P denote the probability of acceptance of a lot from the
§ A skip-lot sampling plan of type SkSP-2 uses a specified lot reference-sampling plan. Then, P a( f, i) is the probability of
inspection plan called the “reference-sampling plan,” together acceptance for the skip-lot sampling plan SkSP-2, where
with the following rules:
1. Begin with normal inspection, using the reference plan. At this stage of
operation, every lot is inspected.
§ It can be shown that for f 2<f1, a given value of the clearance
2. When i consecutive lots are accepted on normal inspection, switch to
skipping inspection. In skipping inspection, a fraction f of the lots is number i, and a specified reference-sampling plan,
inspected.
3. When a lot is rejected on skipping inspection, return to normal inspection.

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Skip-Lot Sampling Plans Skip-Lot Sampling Plans

§ Furthermore, for i<j, a fixed value of f, and a given reference- § A very important property of a skip-lot sampling plan is the
sampling plan, average amount of inspection required.

§ The average sample number of a skip-lot sampling plan is

§ where F is the average fraction of submitted lots that are

sampled and ASN(R) is the average sample number of the
reference-sampling plan. It can be shown that

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37
 Example Skip-Lot Sampling Plans
§ Consider a reference- § We note that for small values of incoming lot fraction defective,
sampling plan of n = 20 and c the reductions in average sample number are very substantial for
= 1. Since the average sample the skip-lot sampling plans evaluated.
number for a single-sampling
plan is ASN = n, we have § If the incoming lot quality is very good, consistently close to zero
ASN(SkSP) = n(F) fraction nonconforming, say, then a small value of f, perhaps 1/4
or 1/5 , could be used. If incoming quality is slightly worse, then
§ Figure 7.26 presents the ASN an appropriate value of f might be 1/2.
curve for the reference-
sampling plan n = 20, c = 1 § Skip-lot sampling plans are an effective acceptance-sampling
and the skip-lot sampling procedure and may be useful as a system of reduced inspection.
plans shown in the figure.
§ They seem to work best when the supplier’s processes are in a
state of statistical control and when the process capability is
adequate to ensure virtually defect-free production.
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End - Chapter 7

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38