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 Table of Contents
Title P
PARTS OF SPEECH 6
1- NOUNS and MASS NOUNS 7
2- PRONOUNS 9
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS 10
3- VERBS 11
4- ADJECTIVES 11
5- ADVERBS 12
6- CONJUNCTION 13
7- INTERJECTION 13
8- PREPOSITIONS 13
The Complete List of English Verb Tenses 14
Present Simple 14
BE + TO + VERB 15
Present Continuous 16
Present Perfect 17
Present Perfect Continuous 18
Past Simple 19
IT’S HIGH TIME rule 20
Past Continuous 22
Past Perfect 23
Past Perfect Continuous 24
Future Simple 25
Future Continuous 26
Future Perfect 27
Future Perfect Continuous 28
GERUNDS 29
Some verbs are followed by gerunds.
Gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence.
The gerund can be used after most prepositions.
GERUND with (when, and) , (while, as).
Verb + preposition + gerund
INFINITIVES 32
Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs.
Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs when they are followed by a
noun or pronoun.
The following verbs are followed by a WH question word and the infinitive.
Verbs that take a gerund or an infinitive 35

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Verbs that take a gerund or an infinitive with no difference in meaning 36
Question word + TO-infinitive 37
WHY DON’T and WHY NOT 38
Noun phrase + TO-infinitive 39
Nouns followed by the to-infinitive
IT + linking verb + noun phrase (+ FOR + somebody) + TO-infinitive
Noun phrase + TO-infinitive to express necessity or possibility
WHICH DO YOU PREFER? 40
Would rather (+ optional than) 41
ENOUGH
EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE 42
Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive 44
How to Use the Verb “Suggest” 45
MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES) 47
AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS 49
Used to / Be + used to / Get used to 50
Subject and verb agreement 51
ADJECTIVES 52
Using Adjectives
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
How to use Comparatives and Superlatives
Rules for Forming Regular Comparatives and Superlatives
Irregular Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
PARTICIPLES 55
Adjectives ending in ED and ING 56
ADVERBS - Different Types Of Adverbs 58
ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY// Words Used as Both Adjectives /Adverbs 60
PREPOSITIONS 61
English Prepositions List
Prepositions of Time
Commonly used Prepositions of Place and Direction
Other Prepositions of Place and Direction
How to use Prepositions For / Since / Ago / Already / Yet
How to use Prepositions So / Too / Either / Neither / Also / As Well (As)
How to use Prepositions Too, So, Such, Enough
How to use Prepositions In, Into
AT A GUSS 65
- Prepositions that used with STREET 67
- Leave for and Leave to 68
In the end or At the end 69
How to use PREPOSITIONS IN, INTO 69
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 At, on and in (place) 71
Main Difference – By vs. With 72
Arrive in, at or to? 73
The Number vs. A Number 74
Prepositions with tired: Over / On / At weekend 75
Close vs. Near 76
The Common Mistakes Concerned With Using a Wrong Prep 77
How to use FOR/ SINCE/ AGO/ALREADY /YET when referring to TIME 79
How to use SO / TOO / EITHER / NEITHER / ALSO / AS WELL (AS) to 80
connect sentences.
The Difference between ‘So’ , ‘Too’ & ‘Very’ 83
Many- Much- A lot of – Lots of- Plenty 86
CONDITIONALS: First Conditional; Second Conditional; Third Conditional 92
Zero Conditional
WISH / IF ONLY 94
AS IF / AS THOUGH 95
REPORTED SPEECH / INDIRECT SPEECH 97
PASSIVE VOICE 102
CAUSATIVES: Have; Get; Make; Let; Help 106
TAG QUESTIONS 107
EMBEDDING 108
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS TAG QUESTION 110
CLAUSES: Definition of Clause - Independent Clause - Dependent Clause; 111
Relative Clause - Noun Clause - Adjective Clause ; Subject Adjective Clause -
Object Adjective Clause ; Possessive Adjective Clause - Location Adjective
Clause; Adverb Clause
Relative Clause Reduction Rules 116
Types of Reduced Relative Clauses 119
PHRASES: Prepositional Phrase - Participial Phrase - Infinitive Phrase - 123
Gerund Phrase - Verb Phrase
In spite of = despite = notwithstanding / although=though=even though 125
How to study for ECL 126
What is the difference between the ECL and the American Language 127
Course Placement Tests (ALCPT)?
HOW TO GET A HIGHER SCORE ON A MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST 128
AMERICAN REDUCTION WORDS 131
Words that sound alike 139
IRREGULAR VERBS 144

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 PARTS OF SPEECH

1- NOUNS: a word that names a person, place, thing, or idea.

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 Mass Nouns
Mass nouns are uncountable by a number. Mass nouns are quantified by a word that
signifies amount. A mass noun is a noun without a plural form. A mass noun is one that
cannot be counted. For example:
Mass Noun> Attempt At Making It Plural

petrol four petrols

furniture four furnitures

gold four golds

Non-countable nouns are singular.

Most mass nouns come under one of these categories:

Category Example

gallantry, morality, information, aptitude, patience,

Concept
adolescence

Activity homework, singing, reading, fishing

Food bread, butter, cheese, fish, milk

Gas air, helium, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, smoke

Liquid beer, coffee, petrol, water, wine

Material and natural

cloth, concrete, lumber, wood, metal, cotton, lightness
qualities

Item Category clothing, furniture, luggage, money

Natural Phenomenon gravity, heat, humidity, rain, snow, sunshine, thunder

Particles flour, grit, salt, sugar

Names of languages English, Spanish, French, Latin, Sanskrit, Chinese

Most gerunds looking, listening, swimming, running, anticipating

Remember that a number can not be used to quantify a mass noun.

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Incorrect: four woods, one rice, three courages.

To measure or classify mass nouns, use "of" after a measurement: a foot of wood, a
pound of rice, an ounce of courage, a bar of chocolate, a piece of music, a bag of money

Tests for Mass Nouns:

 Mass nouns are quantified by an amount rather than a number.

 They have only one form (singular).
 They cannot have "a," "an," or "one" before them as modifiers.
 They can use "much" as a modifier.

Pluralizing Mass Nouns

There are two methods to pluralize a concept expressed by a mass noun:

Method 1: Precede it with a [countable noun] + "of". For example:

 four loaves of bread (Loaves is the countable noun.)
 four blocks of cheese (blocks is the countable noun.)

Method 2: Make the mass noun an adjective to a countable noun. For example:
 four bread loaves
 four cheese blocks

Generally, mass nouns cannot be pluralized. However, when talking about categories of
that noun, some can be pluralized. This happens most often with mass nouns in the food
and liquid categories. For example:
 France is well known for its cheeses.
(Categories of cheese)
 There are several fine wines from Chile.
(Categories of wine)

Examples:
That bread is stale. Don't try to eat it.
All of the furniture was damaged by the floodwaters

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2- PRONOUNS

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE REFLEXIVE

PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS PRONOUNS
I me my mine myself

You you (singular) your (singular) yours (singular) yourself

He him his his himself

She her her hers herself

It it its its itself

We us our ours ourselves

You you (Plural) your (Plural) yours (Plural) yourselves

They them their theirs themselves

NOTE: One additional reflexive pronoun that is not like the other pronouns
is oneself.

We use the following the following PRONOUNS to show:

1. If the NOUN is singular or plural.
2. If the NOUN is near or far.

Singular Plural
Near This These
Far That Those

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INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns refer to things or people without mentioning what or who they are.
For people we use: anybody or anyone / somebody or someone / nobody or no one
For things we use: anything or something / nothing or none.
For locations we use: anywhere or somewhere / nowhere.
SOMEONE / ANYONE / SOMEBODY / ANYBODY / NOBODY / NO ONE
Someone or Somebody are used in affirmative statements.
Examples: I saw (someone or somebody) in the lab.
My friend met (someone or somebody) at the restaurant.
Anyone or Anybody are used in negative statements.
Examples: I didn’t see (anyone or anybody) in the lab.
My friend didn’t meet (anyone or anybody) at the restaurant.
He doesn’t want (anyone or anybody) to help me.
Someone or Somebody can be used in affirmative questions.
Anyone or Anybody can be used in affirmative and negative questions.
Examples: Did you see (someone, anyone, somebody or anybody) in the lab?
Doesn’t he want (anyone or anybody) to help him?
Nobody and No one are used in affirmative statements only.
(nobody = not anybody) (No one = not anyone)
Examples: (Nobody or No one) is in the lab.
(Nobody or No one) met my friend at the restaurant.
(Nobody or No one) wants to help me.
SOMETHING / ANYTHING / NOTHING
Something or Nothing are used in affirmative statements.
Examples: I saw something in the lab.
My friend ate something bad at the restaurant.
There is nothing he can do.
Anything is used in negative statements.
Examples: I didn’t see anything in the lab.
My friend didn’t eat anything bad at the restaurant.
He doesn’t want to buy anything for me.
Something or Anything can be used in questions.
Examples: Did you see (something or anything) in the lab?
Did my friend eat (something or anything) bad at the restaurant?
Does he want to buy (something or anything) for me?

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3- VERBS
Verbs are one of the major grammatical groups, and all sentences must contain one.
Verbs refer to an action (do, break, walk, etc.) or a state (be, like, own). The verb tense
shows the time of the action or state (present, past or future).
Verbs generally express action or a state of being. There are several classifications for
verbs- action verbs,/linking verbs, main verbs/auxiliary verbs, transitive/intransitive and
phrasal verbs.

a. Action verbs show action. He runs. He plays. They study.

b. Linking Verbs link the subject to an adjective. Ricky Martin is beautiful.
The linking verb is links the adjective beautiful with the subject Ricky Martin.
i. Main verbs can stand alone.
ii. Helping (Auxiliary) verbs serve as support to the main verb.
The most common auxiliary verbs are:
Have, has, had ; Do, does, did ; Be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been
Should, could, will, would, might, can, may, must, shall, ought (to)

4. Adjectives - a word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun

o Adjectives usually come before the noun or pronoun they modify (purple dress).
o HINT: Can you put "very" in front of it?
o HINT: Answers the questions: What kind? Which one? How many? How much?
1. The articles the, a and an are always adjectives. These come before nouns in a
sentence.
2. Adjectives the tell WHAT KIND
Size, shape, color
Ex: colorful pictures, violent storm, the red pen
3. Adjectives that tell HO W MANY
Ex: several statues, three pens, few pages, many people
4. Adjectives that tell WHICH ONE
Ex: a dog, an ape, the cat, this book, that hat, these men, those toys.
o Demonstrative adjectives - when the words this, that, these, and those are used
to modify nouns, they are considered demonstrative adjectives instead of
pronouns.

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 5. Adjectives that COMPARE
o These adjectives end in -er, -ier, -est, or -iest.
Ex: larger hat, angrier than you, biggest car, tiniest pen
Other Examples: better grade, best movie, more candy, most ribbons, little
patience, less energy, least water

5. Adverbs a word that modifies or describes a verb, adjective, or another adverb

o Most adverbs end in -ly. Ex: smoothly, silently, really
o HINT: Answers the questions: When? Where? How? How often? How
much? To what extent?
Ex: How: played carefully, quickly ran,
When: then she sat, shopped tonight, before speaking, we will go later
Where: stood there, walked forward, talked here How often: read frequently,
walked occasionally What degree: completely convinced, extremely agitated
Adverbs that tell HOW
1. The dolphin floated gracefully in the water.
2. The painter climbed the ladder quickly.
3. Jorge finished the race strong.

Adverbs that tell WHEN

1. Please begin immediately!
2. Tara will go first.
3. Sometimes I eat ice-cream for dinner

Adverbs that tell WHERE

1. Turn left at the stop sign.
2. Hang your jacket there.
3. The bedrooms are upstairs

Adverbs that tell HOW MUCH, HOW LITTLE, HOW OFTEN, and to WHAT
DEGREE
Adverbs that answer questions about adjectives and other adverbs Some Adverbs of
Degree
almost entirely nearly so
frequently extremely occasionally too
awfully completely always very
The adverb of degree comes BEFORE the adverb or adjective.

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6. Conjunctions are the scotch tape of the grammatical world. They join
together words and phrases. There are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating
conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.

1. Coordinating Conjunctions : For , And , But , Or ,So

2. Correlative Conjunctions: neither…nor; whether…or; either…or; not only…but also

7. Interjections
Interjections are words used to express emotional states. They can usually be found in
narrative writing, interviews, and in spoken English. They can stand alone. For example:

Oh!, wow!, Ouch! Oops! Hey!

8. Prepositions
Prepositions are words that, like conjunctions, connect a noun or pronoun to another
word in a sentence. Some common prepositions:

About Before Down Into Through

Above Behind During Like To
Across Below Except Of Toward
After Beneath For Off Under
Among Beside From On Up
Around Between In Over With
At By Instead of Since Without

A prepositional phrase is a group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a
noun or pronoun. They can act as adjectives or as adverbs.

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 The Complete List of English Verb Tenses

Present Simple
Use the present simple tense in English...

For general facts:

• This shirt costs ten dollars.
• We speak English.
For actions that happen regularly:
• I take guitar lessons on Wednesday nights.
• Sarah sometimes eats lunch in her office.

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 be + to + verb ("are to get")

The construction “be + to + verb” is a formal construction that is used either a) to give
an instruction or command, or b) to tell what is going to happen in the future, c)
official arrangements.

In the following three sentences, the “be + to + verb” construction signals that these
are commands. This construction makes the sentences sound serious and formal.

 You are to do your homework without watching any TV.

 The students are not to travel by subway without a friend
 We are to get a wage raise in May.
 The Prime Minister is to visit India next month.

In the following sentences, the “be + to + verb” construction tells us that these
sentences are about planned or scheduled events.

 The plane is to take off at 9pm.

 The new kitchen cabinets are to arrive before December 20th.
 Their house is to be sold right away.

Again, these sentences sound formal. If we change the verb construction to “be +
going + to + verb,” they retain the same meaning but sound less formal.

 The plane is going to take off at 9am.

 Their house is to going to be sold right away.

Be + to-infinitive can also be used in the past:

Mr. Jones was to speak at the meeting. (it was arranged and he did)

But was/were + to + perfect infinitive means that the arranged event did not
actually happen:

Mr. Jones was to have spoken at the meeting, but he had to cancel because of his illness.

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 Present Continuous
Use the present continuous tense in English.
With something which happens again
and again:
- It's always raining in London.
- They are always arguing.
Note that we normally use always
with this use.
With words such as “always” or
“constantly” expresses the idea that
For a continuous action in progress at the moment: something irritating or shocking often
happens.
• I'm currently studying biology at university. - She is always coming to class late.
• We're watching TV at the moment. - He is constantly talking. I wish he
would shut up.
For future plans/arrangements:
• My sister is driving me to the airport on Saturday.
• Tim and Joanna are joining us for dinner next week.
Mary’s studying in the library. (now) >>>> She’s studying at Benny’s house this evening. (future)
We’re driving to Manchester. (now) >>>>> We’re driving to Glasgow next week. (future)
They’re swimming in the pool. (now) >>>>> They’re swimming across the bay tomorrow. (future)

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 Present Perfect
Use the present perfect tense in English...

With actions that happened in the past at an unspecified time:

• I've met several celebrities.
• He's been to Australia several times.
• We've already taken the test.

With actions that began in the past and continue to the present:
• I've lived in this house for five years.
• Harry has worked at the same company since 1992.
Note: Usually the verbs "lived" and "worked." The present perfect continuous can also be
used - see the next section.
With actions that have never happened:
• She's never bought a car.
• My parents have never eaten sushi.

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 We use the present perfect after the construction, "This is the first
time ..." or "It is the second time ... " etc. We cannot use the past
simple in this situation. Examples
 This is the first time I've been to Australia.
 It is the third time he's eaten pizza.
 It is the 15th time they have beaten Everton.

Present Perfect Continuous

Use the present perfect continuous tense in English.

With actions that began in the past and continue to the present:
• I've been thinking a lot about the situation recently.
• Laura's been studying since 7 AM.
• We've been waiting for you to arrive for over an hour.

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 Past Simple
Use the past simple tense in English.

For something that happened

For events that started and finished in the past: again and again in the past:
- When I was a boy I walked a
mile to school every day.
• I worked as a research assistant from 2001 - 2003.
• He called me ten minutes ago. - They always enjoyed visiting
• We went to the Bahamas last summer. their friends.

Happend Once Happened Repeatedly

She arrived late last week. She always arrived late.

Note: Many common verbs are irregular in the simple past. Check out these tips
for learning irregular verbs in English!

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 (it’s) high time
INFORMAL (it is) past the time when something should have happened:
IT'S (HIGH) TIME + PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
It's (high) time + past subjunctive expresses that something should be done and that it is
already a bit late:
- It's time you went to bed. You'll have to get up early tomorrow.
- It's high time I bought a new pair of jeans.
- It’s high time you got that car repaired.
- It’s about time you got that car repaired.
When we say that the right time has arrived for somebody to do something and we are
still in time, we can use the following patterns:
It's time (for you) to go to bed.
It's time to say goodbye.
It's time for breakfast.

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 Past Continuous
Use the past continuous tense in English.

For events that were in progress in the past (often when another one-time
event happened):

• Sorry I didn't pick up the phone -1 was taking a shower when you called.
• He was sleeping on the couch when I got home.
• I saw Tina and Sam at the park earlier today while they were arguing.

 For something that was happening again and again:

 I was practicing every day, three times a day.
 They were always quarrelling.

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Past Perfect
Use the past perfect tense in English.

For past events that happened BEFORE other past events:

• You had studied English before you moved to New York.

• After she had moved out, I found her notes.
• Before I knew it, she had run out the door.
• By the time he phoned her, she had found someone new.

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 Past Perfect Continuous
Use the past perfect continuous tense in English.

For past actions that continued up to another point in the past:

• Before I lost my job, I had been working on some important projects.
("working" was a continuous action until the point I lost my job)
• They had been hoping Pat would make a full recovery after the accident, but he
died. ("hoping" was a continuous action until Pat died)
• She'd already been studying English by herself for several years by the time she
started taking classes.
("studying" English by herself was a continuous action until the time wh en she
started classes)

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Future Simple
There are two ways to form the future simple tense in English.
Use the "going to" form of the future simple tense.

For plans, arrangements, and predictions:

• After I graduate from college, I'm going to study for a Masters degree.
• We're going to move to a different city next year.
• I think the current president is going to be reelected.

Use the "will" form of the future simple tense.

For promises, offers, predictions, and decisions made in the moment of speaking:
• Promise: I’ll call you later.
• Offer: We'll give you a ride home.
• Prediction: I have a feeling that this new singer will become very popular.
• Decision made in the moment: I’ll have the spaghetti and a side order of salad.

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 Future Continuous
Use the future continuous tense in English. Future with will (a promise)

- I’ll finish this tomorrow.

Future continuous
( a plan or expectation)

- I’ll be finishing this tomorrow.

For actions that will be in progress at a specific time in the future or to talk about
what we assume is happening at the moment (It MUST have time marker):
 Don't call me at 6, because I'll be driving home from work.
 He'll be watching the football game tonight at 8.
Future continuous for actions happening over a period of time in the future
The future continuous is used to describe actions which will continue over a period of
time in the future.
 Sorry, I can't go on the trip. I will be working the whole weekend.
 While you're studying, I'll be practicing yoga.

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Future Perfect
Use the future perfect tense in English.

For actions that will be completed before a future time:

 I will have written a book before I'm 40.
 We will have traveled to 12 different countries by 2020.
Future perfect for actions completed before a point in the future
The future perfect tense is used to express that an action will be completed before a point
in time in the future (any time up to that point).
 By next week, they'll have finished painting the rooms.
 By the time we get home, the film will have started.
Future perfect with FOR
The preposition for is used with the future perfect tense to express that something will
start before a point in time in the future (or has already started) and that it will still be true
at that point:
 This time next week, I'll have lived in my new apartment for three days.
 In October, my parents will have been married for 50 years.

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 Future Perfect Continuous
Use the future perfect continuous tense in English. Nonaction Verbs Do Not
Use the Future Perfect
Cont. like: to be, to seem, or
to know, these verbs take the
future perfect tense
Wrong - On Thursday, I will
have been knowing you for a
week.

Correct - On Thursday,
I will have known you for a
week.

For actions that will continue up to a future time:

• By 7 PM, I will have been working on this project for eigh t hours straigh t.
• By this time next year, they will have been living in Japan for two decades.
Future perfect continuous for continuous events in the future
The future perfect continuous tense is used to express events that will start before a point
in time in the future (or have already started) and will still be in progress at that point:
 By tomorrow, it will have been raining for four days.
Note: BY and BY THE TIME are commonly used with the future perfect continuous

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GERUNDS
Gerunds are verb forms used as nouns.
I enjoy books. (The object of a verb is usually a noun or pronoun.)
I enjoy reading. (The object of a verb can also be a gerund, A gerund is the
ING form of the verb which is used as a noun.)
Some verbs are followed by gerunds.
advise I always advise studying outside class.
appreciate He didn’t appreciate listening to Ali’s problems.
avoid He could not avoid being in the accident.
consider You should consider taking another course.
think about You should think about taking another course.
delay You shouldn’t delay studying until the last minute.
deny You can’t deny taking the last cookie.
discuss We need to discuss using gerunds in sentences.
talk about We need to talk about using gerunds in sentences.
dislike He dislikes doing homework.
enjoy He enjoys doing homework
finish Ali didn’t finish answering all the questions.
imagine He couldn’t imagine leaving home.
keep Keep studying after you finish the course
keep on Keep on studying after you finish the course.
mention He mentioned studying at U.C.L.A.
mind I don’t mind waiting a few minutes.
miss He won’t miss having to study so much.
postpone We can not postpone moving to KKMC.
put off We can put off taking the ALCPT test.
quit He quit smoking.
stop He stopped smoking.
Notice that the gerund follows to with these verbs. Usually to is followed by the
infinitive.
be close to They are close to finishing the test.
be used to He wasn’t used to getting up so early.
be accustomed to He wasn’t accustomed to getting up so early.
get used to He couldn’t get used to getting up so early.
look forward to Do you look forward to finishing the course?
object to Some people object to smoking inside the office.

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 Go is often followed by the (ING) form of the verb.
Examples:
I often go swimming in the summer. He went fishing last week.
Ali hasn’t gone hunting for a long time. Can we go shopping tomorrow.
They hadn’t gone running for a long time. I like to go scuba diving in the summer.
Some verbs are followed by either a gerund or an infinitive.
begin It began raining. It began to rain.
can’t stand He can’t stand waiting for people. He can’t stand to wait for people.
continue They continue writing. They continue to write.
hate He hates taking tests. He hates to take tests.
like I like swimming. I like to swim.
love Mohammad loves eating candy. Mohammad loves to eat candy.
start You may start answering now. You may start to answer now.

Gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence. Infinitives are used after adjectives.
Swimming is fun It is fun to swim.
Studying outside class is necessary It is necessary to study outside class.
Being on time for class is important. It is important to be on time for class.
Is learning English difficult? Is it difficult to learn English.
Eating in that restaurant is expensive. It is expensive to eat in that restaurant.
Flying is faster than driving. It is faster to fly than to drive.
Having a broken leg is painful. It is painful to have a broken leg.
Driving too fast is dangerous. It is dangerous to drive too fast.
NOTE: A gerund as a subject always takes a singular verb.
Examples: Swimming is difficult to learn.
Learning English takes time.
The gerund can be used after most prepositions.
by Ali got a high score by working so hard.
for A fire extinguisher is for putting out fires.
about Abdul wanted to learn about scuba diving.
in Mohammad was interested in playing football.
after People shouldn’t swim after eating a big meal.
before Kim left before finishing the exam.
on They attended a conference on putting out fires.

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GERUND can be used after various conjunctions such as:
(when, and) , (while, as):
- While repairing his car, he tried to listen to me.
- While talking, her baby got slept.
- Remember to take all your belongings with you when leaving the train.
Verb + preposition + gerund
Examples of verbs followed by a preposition and a gerund:
(dis)agree with, (dis)approve of, admit to, agree with, aim at, apologize for, believe in,
benefit from, boast about, care for, complain about, concentrate on, confess to, cope
with, count on, decide against, depend on, dream about/of, feel like, get on with, get
used to, give up, insist on, laugh about, look forward to, object to, pay for, put off, put
up with, rely on, resort to, specialize in, succeed in, talk about/of, think about/of, vote
for, worry about:
She apologized for not introducing herself sooner.
He is always boasting about having met the president.
The suspect never confessed to killing his wife.
Nick insisted on calling an ambulance.
We laughed about having to do such silly things.
I objected to him calling me a liar.
Do you put off going to the dentist?
My sister is always talking about having her hair dyed.
Do you ever think about getting married and having children?
The gerund used in compound nouns
In compound structures, a gerund is often used before a noun to modify it:
drinking water (water for drinking)
a reading lamp (a lamp for reading)
a swimming cap (a cap for swimming)
Other expressions followed by the gerund
- It's no use crying over spilt milk.
- It would be worth giving it a try.
- There's no point in arguing.
- I had problems starting the car this morning.
- You will have no problem finding a job.
- We all had a good time dancing last night.
- She is having a hard/difficult time adapting to her new circumstances.
- Mike was so tired that he had difficulty staying awake.
- I had no difficulty passing the exam.
- The children have a lot of fun playing together.

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INFINITIVES

An infinitive is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb. An infinitive can be a noun,
an adjective or an adverb. It is always "to" plus a verb.

Examples: Students need to learn the parts of speech.

(The infinitive to learn is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.)
The ants have arrived to grab the leftovers from the picnic.
(The infinitive to grab is an adverb explaining why or where they have arrived.)
That attorney has the right to represent you.
(To represent is an adjective telling us what kind of right.)

Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs.

agree Mohammad agreed to go with us.
aim Ali aims to become an officer.
appear You appear to know all the answers.
arrange We must arrange to send these boxes to Dallas.
ask You shouldn’t ask to leave the class early.
bother Don’t bother to return this pencil
can/can’t afford Mohammad can’t afford to buy a new car.
care Mohammad doesn’t care to watch television.
choose Tared chose not to go with us.
decide They have decided to go on vacation in June.
demand He demanded to see the manager of the store.
expect That student expects to complete the course.
fail He failed to ask for permission to leave.
happen Sam happened to get all of the answers correct.
hesitate Do not hesitate to ask for help.
hope He hopes to return by the end of the month.
instruct He was instructed to come immediately.
intend Where do you intend to study next year?
invite I was invited to come next year.
learn You must learn to read fast.
manage I managed to pass the quiz.
mean Ali didn’t mean to interrupt the meeting.
need You need to study to get a good grade.
neglect Don’t neglect to get a good nights sleep.
offer I offered to give him a ride.
plan I didn’t plan to go to Texas.
prefer I prefer to study by myself.

32
prepare I am prepared to take the test.
pretend I am pretending to study.
promise I promise to be a good student.
refuse I refuse to move to Iraq.
remember I remembered to bring my book.
request I requested to see the Major.
seem You seem to be upset.
tend I tend to get upset easily.
threaten I threaten to leave the program.
try I tried to give him some advice.
volunteer I volunteered to help him learn English.
wait I will wait to go to Egypt.
want I want to visit my mother.
wish I wish to travel around the world.
would like I would like to know you better.

Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs when they are followed by a noun or
pronoun.
advise We advised him to come early.
allow The manager wouldn’t allow Ali to go.
cause The sudden noise caused him to jump.
direct He directed Mohammad to clean the aircraft.
encourage Mr. Dann encourages his students to study.
expect * He expects them to do well on the test.
forbid The colonel forbids them to smoke.
instruct He instructed them to replace the engine.
invite Mohammad invited Abdul to come to dinner.
motivate I motivate my students to try hard.
order * The doctor ordered him to stop smoking
permit They won’t permit us to leave.
persuade * I persuaded Ali to go with us
promise * He promised her to send a post card.
recommend * He recommended Ali to get a medal.
remind * Ali reminded the students to arrive early.
request * I requested the general to find a good location.
want Mr. Smith wants all of his students to pass.
The verbs marked with * can be followed by a THAT clause.

33
The following verbs are followed by a WH question word and the infinitive.
ask They should have asked when to come.
decide He must decide when to go on leave.
find out We will find out what to do in an emergency.
forget Abdul hasn’t forgotten how to cook steaks.
know They don’t know where to put the new sofa.
learn He needs to learn who to ask for help.
remember Ali couldn’t remember which book to bring.
show Mohammad showed him how to repair the engine
teach I am teaching him how to drive.
tell The teacher will tell him which homework to do.

34
 Verbs that take a gerund or an infinitive
forget
He forgot opening the window.
(Meaning: He opened the window, but he forgot doing so.)
He forgot to open the window
(Meaning: He was supposed to open the window, but he forgot.)
regret
She regrets quitting her job.
(She quit her job, and now she regrets it.)
She regrets to quit her job.
(She is sorry to quit her job.)
I regretted being late to the interview.
'Regret' is normally used with a gerund.
We regret to inform you that your position at the company is being eliminated.
'Regret' is sometimes used with phrases such as 'to inform'. The meaning is 'we
are sorry to inform'.
stop
He stopped chatting.
(He was chatting, and then he stopped.)
He stopped to chat.
(He was doing something else, and then he stop in order to chat.)
remember
I remembered locking the storage.
(I had a memory in my mind of locking the storage.)
I remembered to lock the storage.
(I locked the storage as I should have.)

try
They tried moving to Australia.
(They moved to Australia for some time to see if it works out for them.)
They tried to move to Australia.
(They made an attempt to move to Australia, but it wasn't successful. They didn't move
to Australia after all.)

35
Verbs that take a gerund or an infinitive with no difference in meaning

can't bear I can't bear being alone.

I can't bear to be alone.
can't stand Anne can't stand working the late
Anne can't stand to work the late shift.
cease The government ceased providing free provide free health care.
The government ceased to health care.

continue Sarah continued talking.

Sarah continued to talk.

hate He hates cleaning dishes.

He hates to clean dishes.

like Chris likes reading.

Chris likes to read.

love We love scuba diving.

We love to scuba dive.

neglect He neglected doing his daily chores.

He neglected to do his daily chores.
prefer He prefers eating at 7 PM.
He prefers to eat at 7 PM.

propose Peter proposed paying for the trip.

Peter proposed to pay for the trip.

36
 Question word + TO-infinitive

A question word can be used before a to-infinitive to express an indirect question

about what should be done:
Before the question word we can use a verb such as:
ask, decide, explain, forget, know, show, tell, understand, can be followed by a question
word such as where, how, what, who, when or 'whether' + the 'to-infinitive'.
She asked me how to use the washing machine.
- Do you understand what to do?
- Tell me when to press the button.
- I've forgotten where to put this little screw.
- We don't know where to put the sofa. (where we should put the sofa)
- No one could tell me how to start the engine. (how I should start the engine)
- The rules didn't specify who to speak to in case of an emergency.(who you should speak to)
- I had no idea what to write my home paper about. (what I should write my home paper about)

Note that a question word + infinitive cannot stand alone. We cannot say ‘what to do’.
Instead we must say: ‘What shall we do?’ or ‘What is to be done?’

Sometimes there is a verb + object before the question word. In this structure we can use
advise, ask, show, teach and tell.
Tom showed me how to change a wheel.

Why cannot be used in this way.

If the original question was a yes/no question, we use whether (but not if):
- I didn't know whether to laugh or cry. (whether I should laugh or cry)
- He couldn't decide whether to accept the job or not. (whether he should accept the job or not)
- I can't decide whether to wear the red dress or the black one.

37
The question word Why is followed by the zero infinitive in suggestions:
 Why wait until tomorrow?
 Why not ask him now?
 Why walk when we can go in the car?
 Why not buy a new bed for your bedroom?
 Why leave before the end of the game?
 Why not spend a week in Beirut and a week in Baghdad?

WHY DON’T and WHY NOT

Why don’t / why not …?

Another way to give advice/ suggestions is with the questions “why don’t…?”
and “why not…?”

To use “why don’t…” you use: Why don’t (subject) + bare infinitive ?
Example: Why don’t you go to bed earlier?
To use “why not…” use Why not + bare infinitive ?

Notice that “Why not” does not take a subject.

Example: Why not go to bed earlier?
Use the infinitive of the verb (without to) after “why don’t you” and “why
not”.
 Why not buy now and pay later?’
 Why don’t you call him?
 Why don’t we watch the news?
 Why not open it now?

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 Noun phrase + TO-infinitive

There are various structures with noun phrases and the to-infinitive:

Noun phrase + TO-infinitive

Some nouns can be followed by a to-infinitive. Many of these nouns have been formed
from adjectives or verbs normally followed by a to-infinitive:

The ability to cooperate with others is as important as managing on our own.

Our decision to close the firm was a difficult one to make.
We were surprised at his offer to take us home.
As a result of his failure to pay the mortgage, his house was foreclosed.
She showed no willingness to help.

Nouns followed by the to-infinitive

ability chance failure permission reminder

advice choice goal plan request
agreement decision intention preparation requirement
ambition demand motivation promise suggestion
anxiety desire need proposal tendency
appeal determination offer recommendation way
arrangement dream opportunity refusal willingness
attempt eagerness order reluctance wish

IT + linking verb + noun phrase (+ FOR + somebody) + TO-infinitive

It's a pity (for them) to lose such a good player.

It's a privilege (for me) to be invited to this conference.
It would be a mistake (for you) to hire him.
It's a pleasure (for us) to have you here.

39
Noun phrase + TO-infinitive to express necessity or possibility

There is a lot of work to do around the farm.

(There is a lot of work that we need to do around the farm.)
I have some e-mails to write.
(I have some e-mails that I have to write.)
She had two more clients to call that afternoon.
(She had two more clients that she had to call that afternoon.)
Let's get something to eat.
(Let's get something that we can eat.)

WHICH DO YOU PREFER?

Prefer + optional than

“Preference” means that you like one thing more than another. There are several ways to
express the idea that you prefer one thing to another.

Subject + prefer + noun pronoun + to + noun / pronoun

I prefer chocolate to vanilla.
Subject + prefer + verb-ing to verb-ing
I prefer sleeping to studying.
Subject + prefer + noun / pronoun + rather than + noun / pronoun
I prefer chocolate rather than strawberry.

Subject + prefer + to-infinitive + rather than + bare infinitive

I prefer to cook rather than eat out.

I prefer meat to chicken.

You prefer boating to skiing.
She prefers tea rather than coffee.
We prefer to ride rather than walk.

40
 Would rather (+ optional than)

Another way to express preference (you like one thing more than another one) is to use
“would rather.”

Sentence: Subject + would rather + bare infinitive (than _______).

I would rather see a movie than watch a play.

Question: Would (subject) rather + bare infinitive (than______)?

Would you rather go to New York than Houston?

You can also use “or” instead of “than” in questions.

Would you rather eat hamburgers or hot dogs?

Predicate adjective + to-infinitive

We use the structure:

Subject + BE + adjective + to-infinitive: to express an opinion or degree of possibility.
Possible adjectives include dangerous, difficult, easy, hard, impossible, safe, unsafe
To make a question, move the verb to the front of the sentence.

The roads were dangerous to drive on.

Were the roads dangerous to drive on?

ENOUGH

Adjective / adverb + enough ( + optional to-infinitive)

Subject + adjective / adverb + enough (+ to-infinitive)
Jim couldn’t jog fast enough to catch Bill.
Pvt. Sanchez isn’t old enough to buy alcohol.
I’ve been in the sand pit all morning, and I’m dirty enough to take a shower!
Do you swim regularly enough to keep fit?

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EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE
Expressions of purpose tell the reason why something is done.
If you want to tell the REASON WHY use these words.
TO + SIMPLE VERB
IN ORDER TO + SIMPLE VERB
Examples: WHY do you come to school?
I come to school TO study English.
I come to school IN ORDER TO study English.

BECAUSE + clause (subject + verb) to indicate the reason.

SO + clause (subject + verb) to indicate the result.

Examples: WHY did he leave early?

He left early BECAUSE he was sick.
He left early SO he could go to bed
FOR + NOUN
Examples: WHY will they go to the store?
They will go to the store FOR some milk.
I will go to Miami FOR my vacation.
TO + SIMPLE VERB or FOR + VERB ING
Examples:
What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?
Hammers are used TO drive nails. Knives are used TO cut meat.
We use hammers TO drive nails. We use knives TO cut meat.

Examples:
What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?
Hammers are used FOR driving nails. Knives are used FOR cutting meat.
We use hammers FOR driving nails. We use knives FOR cutting meat.
BE ABOUT + TO-infinitive
Be about + to-infinitive refers to arranged actions that happen in the immediate
future. It is often used with just:
- Hurry up! The ceremony is about to begin!
- "Do you have a minute?" "I'm sorry, I'm just about to leave."

42
BE BOUND + TO-infinitive
Be bound + to-infinitive is used to refer to future events which are certain or very likely
to happen:
- Kevin is stuck in a traffic jam, so he is bound to be late.

BE DUE + TO-infinitive
Be due + to-infinitive is used to refer to fixed events happening at or within a specific
time:
- The film is due to start at 8 pm.
- Half of our employees are due to retire in five years.
- Negotiations were due to take place later that week.

BE LIKELY + TO-infinitive / IT IS LIKELY + THAT-clause

Be likely + to-infinitive and it is likely + that-clause are used for future events which are
probably going to happen:
- Smokers are more likely to develop lung cancer compared to non-smokers.
- It is likely that he will win the race.

BE ON THE EDGE / POINT / VERGE OF (doing) something

The expressions be on the edge / point / verge of (doing) something refer to
actions that happen in the near future and have a meaning similar to be about to:
- She is on the point of bursting into tears.
- Researchers are on the verge of a breakthrough.

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 Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive

After certain VERBS of urgency, a "that" clause takes a subjunctive (simple) form.

The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs or expressions:

to order (that) It's advisable that

to advise (that) It's best that
to ask (that) It's crucial that
to command (that) It's desirable that
to demand (that) It's essential that
to desire (that) It's imperative that
to insist (that) It's important that
to propose (that) It's mandatory that
to recommend (that) It's necessary that
to request (that) It's recommended that
to suggest (that) It's required that
to urge (that) It's urgent that
It's vital that

Examples:

 Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.
 Donna requested Frank come to the party.
 The teacher insists that her students be on time.
 His wife ordered that he be home before 6 p.m.
 It is mandatory that Lt. Smith be in Col. Jones's office at 0730.
 The Captain ordered that Lt. Smith go to Defensive Driving School on Saturdays
for 2 months.
 The policeman ordered that Joe get out of the car with his hands up.

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 How to Use the Verb “Suggest”

Start your sentence with this specific structure:

I suggest that…

The next part of the sentence needs a subject and a verb, because it’s a clause.
I suggest that someone do something

“Someone” is the subject of the clause. The subject is followed by the verb phrase “do
something.”

Example sentences

- I suggest that you memorize sentences instead of grammar rules!

- Emily suggests that we go out for dinner after the movie.
- My mom suggested that I get a summer job.
- Her brother suggests that she study harder so she can get into a good university.
Shouldn’t it be “she studies“?
This is what makes the English verb suggest different from other verbs.
Remember, in this structure, I suggest is followed by a that-clause. A clause contains a
subject and a verb.
The verb in the that-clause is the subjunctive form.
In the subjunctive form, the verb doesn’t change. Don’t add -s or change the verb
after the subjects he, she, or it. The verb says in the base form of the verb. The base
form, or the bare infinitive, is the simplest form of a verb. It’s the way that you find a
verb in the dictionary.

Her brother suggests that she study harder.

NOTE: You cannot use another verb tense in the that-clause. You cannot use the
simple past. You must use the subjunctive form.

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More example sentences

- She suggests that he go to France instead of Italy this summer.

- I suggested that she be Queen Elsa from Frozen for Halloween!

- I suggested that he ask someone else for help.

Tip: You don’t need to include that in the sentence. It is still a that-clause even if you
don’t say or write that in this sentence structure

- Emily suggests we go out for dinner after the movie.

- My mom suggested I get a summer job.

- Her brother suggests she study harder so she can get into a good university.

- She suggests he go to France instead of Italy this summer.

- He suggested I ask someone else for help.

Tip: Make the that-clause negative by adding not in front of the verb.

The teacher suggests we not waste time playing video games after school.

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MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES)
Modal verbs are used to express ideas such as possibility, intention, obligation and
necessity. CAN, COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, DARE
and NEED are some examples. Modal verbs have to do with degrees of certainty.
Most Degree of Certainty

Will


Must


Can


Should


May


Might

Least Degree of Certainty

For Modal Verbs the Sentence Structures are always the same.
For statements: Subject + Modal Verb + Main Verb
For Questions: Modal Verb + Subject + Main Verb
Note: Modal auxiliary verbs are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is
always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").
No conjugation... means modal verbs do not change for present, past or future tenses.
Bare infinitive… means do not use to before the verb… you can use ‘can eat’ ‘may eat’
‘might eat’…but do not use ‘can to eat’ ‘may to eat’ ‘might to eat’

47
USING MODAL VERBS TO EXPRESS DEGREES OF CERTAINTY

Will… Is used to express something that is certain.

Example: I will go to Texas this weekend
Must… Is used to express something that is necessary.
Example: I must go to Texas to see my doctor.
Can… Is used to express something that is possible, ability or to ask or give
permission.
Examples: I can go to Texas on Thursday since it is a weekend.
I can swim.
Can he smoke here?

Should… Is used when we want something to happen, and it is reasonable to expect it

to happen.
Example: We should be able to go to Spain next summer if we save our money.

May… Is used when we wish to express the something will possibly happen.
Example: We may go to the party but we haven’t made a decision yet.

Might… Is used when we want to express that something will possibly happen, but
we are less certain.
Example: He might be at home, but he usually prays at this time.

OTHER MODAL VERBS

Could… Is used when we talk about what was possible in the past or to make
requests.
Examples: I could swim when I was 5 years old.
Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

Would… Is used when we want to express a condition, a doubt, or to make a polite

request.
Examples: She would go to the movie if you would go with her.
It would appear he was wrong.
Would you please get me my hat?

48
AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS

Auxiliary verbs are verbs that COME WITH ANOTHER VERB. Any verb that is by
itself is not a helping verb! For instance, in the sentence: He IS GOING to class. _The
word "is" is a helping verb because it is with the action verb "going."

The helping verbs DO, DOES, DID, and MODALS are followed by the infinitive (verb
one).
Examples: DO you know the phone number?
DOES he drive to work everyday?
DID they pass the test?
WILL you eat lunch today?
SHOULD I visit my mother?
MAY I go to the washroom?
CAN you swim?
MUST she wear a uniform?
__________________________________________________________________
The helping verbs AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary verbs (such as
in the continuous tenses) are followed by the ING form of the MAIN VERB.
Examples: AM I DOING this correctly?
ARE you COMING to class tomorrow?
IS she MAKING dinner now?
WAS he DRIVING carefully?
WERE they SLEEPING in class?
WILL they be EATING at 1:30?
HAVE they been WRITING for 2 hours?

Note: AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary (helping verbs) are not
followed by the ING form of the MAIN VERB if the sentence is passive.
Examples: ARE the planes INSPECTED daily?
WAS the job FINISHED early?
Have the chairs BEEN PAINTED?
_____________________________________________________________________
The helping verbs HAVE, HAS, and HAD are followed by the PAST PARTICIPLE.
Examples: HAVE you DONE your homework?
HAS he ARRIVED yet?
HAD they EATEN before they left?

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 Used to / Be + used to / Get used to

Used to + infinitive
- He used to live in America
- She used to wear glasses
Be + used to + Gerund
- I am used to Smoking
- She is used to living in America
- I’ used to wearing glasses
Get used to + Gerund
- I am getting used to training hard.
- They will get used to waking up early for school
Use + noun + preposition + Gerund
- I use a pencil for writing.
Use + noun + to + infinitive
- I use a pencil to write.

50
 Subject and verb agreement

Every verb must agree with its subject in person and number. Therefore, a
singular subject requires a singular subject requires a singular form of the verb.
The following indefinite pronouns are always singular.
each anyone anybody either everyone everybody neither
no one nobody one someone somebody
- One of the boys was late for the game.
- Each of the apples was ripe.
- Everyone cheers when his hero appears.
- One of my favorite foods is spaghetti.
- Neither the student nor the teacher was present
- A doctor, together with some nurses, was on duty.
- The guitar, accompanied by the bass viol, plays the tune.
- Beth, with her new hair-do and sunglasses, is hard to recognize.
- Neither of the teams has a perfect record.

Subject / verb Agreement with either ..... or/ neither ..... nor
When we use the conjunctions either .... or/ neither .... nor, the verb of the
sentence agrees with the subject that is closest to it:

- Either my sister or my brother is going to visit him.

- Either my brother or my sisters are going to help him move.
- Neither you nor your friend was helpful.
- Neither John nor his friends were there.

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ADJECTIVES

An adjective modifies a noun. It describes the quality, state or action that a noun refers to.

USING ADJECTIVES
i) Adjectives can come before nouns: a new car
ii) Adjectives can come after verbs such as be, become, look, etc.: that car looks fast
iii) Adjectives can be modified by adverbs: a very expensive car
iv) Adjectives can be used as complements to a noun: the extras make the car expensive

NOTE: When we change a plural noun into an adjective we must add a hyphen (-) and
remove the “s”

Examples: The shirt costs ten dollars… becomes… It’s a ten-dollar shirt.
The general has five stars… becomes… He’s a five-star general.

NOTE: We can change some verbs into adjectives:

Examples:
interest interested interesting amaze amazed amazing
surprise surprised surprising annoy annoyed annoying
irritate irritated irritating excite excited exciting

The book interested Ali. It is an interesting book. Ali is interested in the book.
The story amazed Ahmed. It is an amazing story. Mohammad is amazing.
The news surprised the boys. The news is surprising. The boys are surprised.
The game excited people. It is an exciting game. They were excited people.
The noise irritated us. It was an irritating noise. They were irritated students.

COMPARATIVE & SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

Comparatives and Superlatives are special forms of adjectives. They are used to compare
two or more things. Generally, comparatives are formed using -er and superlatives are
formed using -est.

52
HOW TO USE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

COMPARATIVES are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with
THAN, or you can use a conjunction like BUT.
Examples: Ahmed is taller than Ali.
Ali is tall, but Ahmed is taller.

SUPERLATIVES are used to compare more than two things. Superlative

sentences usually use THE, because there is only one superlative.
Examples: Abdul is the tallest in the class.
Ali is tall, and Mohammad is taller, but Abdul is the tallest.

RULES FOR FORMING REGULAR COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

How these forms are created depends on how many syllables there are in the adjective.

Adjective form Comparative Superlative

One syllable, ending in E. Add -R: Add -ST:

wide, fine, cute wider, finer, cuter widest, finest, cutest

Double the
One syllable word, with one Double the consonant,
consonant, and add -
consonant one vowel and one and add -EST:
ER:
consonant at the end (except
words ending in w).
hot, big, drop hottest, biggest, dropped
hotter, bigger, fatter

One syllable, with more than Add -ER: Add -EST:

one vowel or more than one
consonant at the end.
light, neat, fast lighter, neater, faster lightest, neatest, fastest

Add –ER Add –EST

All words ending in w
slower, newer, slowest, newest,
slow, new, narrow
narrower narrowest

53
 Change Y to I, then
Two syllables, ending in Y. Change Y to I, then add -
add -ER:
EST:
happier, sillier,
happy, silly, lonely happiest, silliest, loneliest
lonelier

Use MORE before

Use MOST before the
Two syllables or more, not the adjective:
adjective:
ending in Y. more modern, more
most modern, most
modern, interesting, beautiful interesting, more
interesting, most beautiful
beautiful

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

FORM ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
bad worse the worst

good better the best

well better the best

far further the furthest

far farther the farthest

little less the least

much more the most

many more the most

54
Examples:
GOOD / BETTER / BEST
These tools are GOOD.
These tools are BETTER than those tools.
These are the BEST tools you can buy.
BAD / WORSE / WORST
Abdullah is a bad driver.
Abdullah is a worse driver than Ali.
Abdullah is the worst driver in the class.
LITTLE / LESS / LEAST
I have a little money.
I have less money than you.
I have the least money of everyone in the class.
Use AS ____________ AS to show equality.
Examples: This boy is as heavy as that boy.
Ali is as intelligent as Mohammad.
He studies as much as I study.

PARTICIPLES
There are two participles in English: the present participle and the past participle. They
can both be used as adjectives.
Present Participle:
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb.
It is used in:
i) Continuous or Progressive verb forms - I'm leaving in five minutes.
ii) As an adjective: A dying man
Past Participle:
The past participle is formed by adding -ed to the base form, unless it is an irregular
verb. It is used:
i) As an adjective - A tired group
ii) With the auxiliary verb 'have' to form the perfect tense :
- They have just arrived.
iii) With the verb 'be' to form the passive:
- He was robbed a couple of days ago.

55
56
 Adjectives ending in ED and ING

There are many adjectives that we have in English that end in -ED or -ING.
Yes, that's correct, they are not only endings that we use for verbs!
An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe: the characteristic of a person,
a thing or a situation.
An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe: a feeling (or how a person feels)
or an emotion. It is used to describe a temporary thing. Since only people (and some
animals) have feelings, -ed adjectives cannot be used to describe an object or
situation.
Compare the difference:
 My girlfriend is bored. - (My girlfriend feels bored)
 My girlfriend is boring. - (My girlfriend is a boring person)

You can use these adjectives to describe people or situations but be careful that you
are using the correct adjective. For example, there is a big difference in meaning
between:
 I am confused. - (I don't understand something)
 I am confusing. - (I will cause you to be confused)

Note that the sentences below are to highlight the difference between the two types
of adjectives. They are NOT common to do or say because they sound repetitive.
 I was shocked by how shocking the accident was last night.
 They were frightened by the frightening roller-coaster ride!
 I am annoyed by how annoying that person in front of us is.
 Sally was confused by the confusing street signs in the city.

Example sentences of adjectives ending in -ED and -ING

- This grammar lesson is boring. I am bored reading all about these grammar rules.
- I am tired right now. My flight was tiring (because it was a twelve-hour flight).
- Public toilets are usually disgusting. I am disgusted by the smell in some of them.
- Your speech was very inspiring. I am inspired to do wonderful things with my life.

Irregular Past Participles Used as Adjectives:

a broken shoulder, window, arm, leg, door// a drunk driver,// a half-eaten pie// fallen
leaves// frozen orange juice //grown daughter// hidden treasure// a well-known singer//
a lost puppy// a stolen car// a badly-written essay.

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Question:

- I think Ken is ________ of the two boys.

a. the taller b. the tallest c. taller d. the most tall

I think Ken is the taller of the two boys.

It is comparison between two Ken and other boy. In other words:

- Ken is taller than the other boy.

- Ken is the taller of the two boys.
- Ken is taller than (who?) ... than his friend.
- He is the taller of the two.

When we compare 2 things, we use the ending -er. The ending -est is used when
comparing more than 2 things or people.
For example:

- He is the tallest of the boys in his class but the smaller of the two brothers.

Tallest because you are comparing one thing to many ( one boy to all the boys); smaller
because you are comparing only 2 things…one brother is being compared to another.

- Is the sun brighter than the moon? (Comparing one thing to one other thing)
- It is the brightest star in the galaxy. ( one thing to many things)

Incorrect:--This is the best pen of the two.

Correct:----This is the better pen of the two.
Incorrect:--Of the two boys, he was the tallest.
Correct:----Of the two boys, he was the taller.

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ADVERBS

Most adverbs in English are formed by adding -ly to an Adjective. An adverb is a word
that modifies the meaning of a Verb; an Adjective; another adverb; a Noun or Noun
Phrase; Determiner; a Numeral; a Pronoun; or a Prepositional Phrase and can sometimes
be used as a Complement of a Preposition.

Adverb Spelling Notes:

i) Adjectives ending -l still take -ly; careful-carefully.
ii) Adjectives ending -y change to -ily; lucky-luckily
iii) Adjectives ending -ble change to -bly; responsible-responsibly

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.
Example: She did the work carefully. ('Carefully' modifies the verb to describe
the way the work was done, as opposed to quickly, carelessly, etc..)
ADVERBS OF PLACE or LOCATION
Adverbs of place show where the action is done.
Example: They live locally.
ADVERBS OF TIME
Adverbs of time show when an action is done, or the duration or frequency.
Example: He did it yesterday. (When)
They are permanently busy. (Duration)
She never does it. (Frequency)
ADVERB OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree increase or decrease the effect of the verb.
Example: I completely agree with you. (This increases the effect of the verb,
whereas 'partially' would decrease it.)
ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES
An adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective, except
'enough' which comes after.
Example: That's really good.
It was a terribly difficult time for all of us.
It wasn't good enough. ('Enough' comes after the adjective.)

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 ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBS
An adverb can modify another. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the one it
is modifying with 'enough' being the exception again.
Example: She did it really well.
He didn't come last night, funnily enough.

ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUNS

Adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place.
Example: The concert will start late tomorrow.
The room is upstairs.

ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUN PHRASES

Some adverbs of degree can modify noun phrases.
Example: We had quite a good time.
They're such good friends.
Quite; rather; such; what (What a day!) can be used in this way.

ADVERBS MODIFYING DETERMINERS, NUMERALS & PRONOUNS

Adverbs such as almost; nearly; hardly; about, etc., can be used:
Example: Almost half the students passed the course.
Nearly everybody came in the end.
I don’t know anything about him.

OTHER ADVERDS OF FREQUENCY

Daily = Every Day Weekly = Every Week

Monthly = Every Month Yearly = Every Year

I eat lunch daily. = I eat lunch every day.

I visit my mother weekly. = I visit my mother every week.
The meeting is held monthly. = We have one vacation every year
We have one vacation yearly. = The meeting is held every month.

Adverbs of Frequency usually come:

1. Before the main verb. Example: I always come to class on time

2. After the verb to be Example: I am never sick
NOTE: Daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly always come after the main verb.
Examples: I get paid monthly. or We go to school daily.

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ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of frequency tell a person how often something happens. This chart will help
you understand the meaning of the adverbs of frequency. These meanings are subjective
(which means everyone has a different understanding of their meaning) and are not
exact. These percentages will give you a general idea of their meaning.

Words Used as Both Adjectives and Adverbs

Half / Straight/ Just/ alone/well/ wrong/ hard / fast ….etc.
- Each of us has half ownership in the property. (adjective modifies the noun ownership.)
- She was half crying, half laughing. (adverb modifies the verbs crying and laughing.)
- She is half Spanish, half French. (adverb modifies the adjectives Spanish and French.)
- Don’t expect to get a straight answer from her. (adjective modifies the noun answer.)
- She went straight home. (adverb modifies the verb went.)
- He arrived just in time. (Adverb)
- God is just. (Adjective means Fair or Morally correct)
- The judge's sentence was perfectly just because the judge has a just cause. (Both Adjectives)
- She alone knew what happened that night. (Adjective)
- She raised twenty puppies alone. (Adverb)
- He feels well today . (Adjective). He did well on his test. (Adverb)
- You must be using a wrong form; it should be yellow, not pink. (Adjective)
- You again dialed the numbers wrong. (Adverb)
- A fast car goes fast. (Adjective / Adverb)
- If you do hard work, you work hard. (Adjective / Adverb)

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PREPOSITIONS
There are about 150 prepositions in English. A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is
never followed by a verb. There are no exceptions to this rule. By "noun" we include:

 noun (dog, money, love)

 proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
 pronoun (you, him, us)
 noun group (my first job)
 gerund (swimming)

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME
Preposition Use Examples
in months in July; in September; in June; in December
year in 1985; in 1999; in 2006
in summer; in winter; in spring; in autumn; in the
in seasons
fall
part of the day in the morning; in the afternoon; in the evening
in a minute; in two weeks; in three years; in three
duration
days
part of the day at night
time of day at noon; at midnight; at 6 o'clock; at 3:15, at 4:25
at
celebrations at Christmas; at Easter; at Ramadan
fixed phrases at the same time; at a different time
days of the week on Sunday; on Friday; on Thursday
date on the 25th of December*
on on Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; on my
special holidays birthday; weekend ; on labor day; on
independence day
a specific part of a day on the morning of September the 11th*
following something; after school; after lunch; after class; after
after
later than something swimming
how far something 6 years ago; 1 month ago; 3 days ago; 5 weeks
ago
happened (in the past) ago; 3 hours ago
earlier than something; before Christmas; before Ramadan; the day
before
prior to something before yesterday

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 between Monday and Friday; between 3 o’clock
time that separates two
between and 4:20; between now and 4 PM; between 2005
points
and 2006
by Thursday; by November; by 2007; by 3
not later than a special
by o’clock; by next month; by next year; by
time
Ramadan
throughout an entire during the holidays; during Ramadan; during
during
period of time March; during 2006; during my vacation
a specific period of
for for 3 weeks; for a month; for a day; for 2 years
time
from ... to from Monday to Wednesday
connects two points in
from... from Monday till Wednesday
time together
till/until from Monday until Wednesday
for telling time of the 23 minutes past 6 (6:23); a quarter past 3; half
past
day past 2
past time to present
time… use since with a
since since Monday; since his birthday; since Ramadan
specific date or time

till tomorrow; a quarter till 3; till the year 2007

till/until up to a specific time or
until tomorrow; a quarter until 3; until next
(up to) date
month
for telling time of the
to 23 minutes to 6 (5:37); a quarter to 3
day
up to 6 hours a day; up to May 1/06; up to the
up to until a specific time or
end of March; up to 2007; up to tomorrow; up to
(until) date
a quarter to 3
within during a period of time within a day; within a month; within an hour

COMMONLY USED PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION

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Preposition Use Examples
in the garden; in a box; in my pocket; in a building;
in my wallet; in a car; in a taxi; in a helicopter; in a
within enclosed spaces boat;
in an elevator; in an office; in a room; in a
classroom; in the swimming pool; in the bathtub
in bodies of water in the water; in the sea; in a river; in the ocean
with lines in a row; in a line; in a queue
names of countries,
in Texas; in America; in the United States; in Saudi
counties; continents;
Arabia; in New York; in Texas.
towns, cities, states
at the bus stop; at the corner; at the door; at the end
of the road; at the entrance; at the exit; at the
with places
cinema; at the back of the class; at the front of the
At class
at the top of the page; at the bottom of the page
with places on a page
BUT: in the middle of the page
on the ceiling; on the wall; on the floor; on the table
with surfaces on the baseball field; on the tennis court; on the
on base
with directions on the left; on the right; straight on
with verbs of
go to work; drive to California; come to me
to movement such as go,
come, drive, etc.:

IMPORTANT NOTES:

In / at / on the corner
We say ‘in the corner of a room’, but ‘at the corner (or ‘on the corner’) of a street’

In / at / on the front
We say ‘in the front / in the back’ of a car
We say ‘at the front / at the back’ of buildings / groups of people
We say ‘on the front / on the back’ of a piece of paper

NOTE: With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs,
we use no preposition.

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I went home at 8 PM. She went inside the house.
They went downtown. The dog is going outside the building.
She went uptown. He is going downstairs to the basement.

OTHER PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION

Preposition Use Examples
above a position directly overhead or The picture hangs above my bed.
higher than something
Across from one side to the other side You mustn’t go across this road here.
There isn’t a bridge across the river.
After later in time than something else The dog ran after the cat.
Against to strike or come in contact with The bird flew against the window.
Along in a line; from one point to another They’re walking along the beach.
Among in a group I like being among people.
Around in a circular way We’re sitting around the campfire.
Behind at the back of Our house is behind the supermarket.
Below lower than something, under Death Valley is 86 meters below sea
something level.
Beside next to Our house is beside the supermarket.
Between something or somebody is on each Our boy is between his dog and cat.
side
By beside He lives in the house by the river.
Close to near, by Our house is close to the supermarket.
Down going from a high place to a low He came down the hill.
place
From the source or beginning of sth Do you come from Tokyo?
In front of the part that faces forward Our house is in front of the
supermarket.
Inside opposite of outside, being within You shouldn’t stay inside the castle.
something
Into entering something You shouldn’t go into the castle.
Near close to, by Our house is near the supermarket.
Next to beside Our house is next to the supermarket.
Off movement away from something The cat jumped off the roof.
Onto to move on the top of something The cat jumped onto the roof.

Opposite on the other side, across from Our house is opposite the
supermarket.
Out of leaving something The cat jumped out of the window.

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Outside opposite of inside, outdoors Can you wait outside?
Over above something or somebody The cat jumped over the wall.
Past movement that involves passing by Go past the post office.
somebody or something
Round in a circle We’re sitting round the campfire.
Through movement from one side to another You shouldn’t walk through the
forest.
To towards something or somebody Can you come to me?
Towards in the direction of something They walk towards the castle.
Under below something The cat is under the table.
Up going from a low place to a high He went up the hill…He went up the
place stairs.
AT A GUESS to indicate that what you are saying is only an estimate or what you
believe to be true, rather than being a definite fact.
- At a guess he's been dead for two days.
- At a guess, there were forty people at the party.

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67
 IMPORTANT NOTES: Prepositions that used with STREET
(in- on- at)
A. When there is a mention to the word street in general without details use IN
1- Children should not walk in the streets.
2- The children are paying in the street again.
B. When you have the NUMBER and the street name use AT.
1-John lives at 1158 Jefferson's Street.
2- My parents live at 253 Oak Street.
C. When we have the Name of the street by itself Without number use ON
1- Some of the best stores in New York City are located on Fifth Avenue.
2- Their new business will be located on Lincoln Street.
3- Lt. Smith passed out dead drunk on the sidewalk near his car.
Also we use ON with the sidewalk.

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 LEAVE FOR & LEAVE TO

- FOR is a preposition to indicate, or show, a future goal or to depart for some place.
When you go away from one place and start going to another place, use LEAVE FOR:

"I am leaving for England " means that you are leaving your present place, and your
future goal is to arrive in England.

- I’m leaving for Beijing tomorrow. (I’m going away from home and go to Beijing.)
- When are you leaving for work? (When are you going away from home and go to work?)
- The plane leaves for London at 10 am. (The plane leaves the airport and starts flying
towards London at 10 am.)

- TO is also a preposition, but it shows movement toward a place.

So, you would not say, "I am leaving to England," because "leaving" does not indicate
movement toward a new place.
You could say:
"I am traveling to England." or "I am driving to England." or
"I am flying to England." or "I am going to England."
- LEAVE something /someone TO somebody means giving somebody the
responsibility to take care of something/someone:
You can leave the cleaning to me, Jeff’s doing the cooking.
I can’t deal with Mr. Jones anymore. I think I’ll just leave him to you.

- Also, use LEAVE something TO somebody when somebody wants another person
to have something after his/her death:
Tom left his house to his daughter.
He didn’t leave anything to his son.
*note: LEAVE TO is not used with places. Use FOR when talking about where
somebody is going.
LEAVE may be followed by TO + VERB when saying WHY you are leaving:

I’m leaving to start a new life.

We have to leave to get there on time.

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 In the end or At the end
IN THE END means finally, after all.
In the end is used mostly as an idiom that means "finally," "after a long time,"
or, "when everything is considered." It is often followed by a comma. It suggests
that something happened after a lot of changes, problems or uncertainty.
Here are some sentences with this idiom:
1. We worked hard, and in the end, we achieved our goal.
2. In the end, what really matters in a friendship is trust.
3. Are you going to marry her in the end?
AT THE END
At the end is used in the idiom "at the end of the day." which means something
similar to in the end (= when everything is considered). However, at the end is
most commonly used more literally, as a prepositional phrase followed by of, to
refer to the end of a specific noun. This noun can be a physical object, a period of
time, an event, a place, or something more abstract, such as one's patience. simply
refers to position at the end of something.
Here are some sentences with at the end + of:

1. At the end of his life, he had no regrets.

2. Put a period at the end of every sentence.
3. I pay the phone bill at the end of each month.
4. There is a brick building at the end of the driveway.
5. At the end of the street.
at the end of the month, at the end of the film, at the end of May.

How to use PREPOSITIONS IN, INTO

IN : A preposition indicating that something or somebody is within or inside
something. Expressions using IN:
in between means between
in for indicates that somebody will experience something such as a surprise
in on having knowledge about or involvement in something
in that introduces an explanation of a statement
in with associated with or friendly with
the ins and outs all the detailed facts and points about something
INTO : A preposition indicating that something or somebody moves or is moved from
outside to inside or toward the inner part of something

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71
 At, on and in (place)
We use at:
 to refer to a position or location which we see as a point:
- I was sitting at my desk.
 to talk about locations at companies, workplaces when we see them as a place
of activity:
- How many people are working at Microsoft?
 to refer to activities which involve a group of people:
- Were you at Lisa’s party? (also at the cinema, at the theatre)
 with school/college/university:
- She always did well at school.
 to refer to an address:
- They once lived at number 12 South George’s Street.
 to talk about public places where we get treatments, such as a hairdresser’s or
doctor’s surgery:
- I can’t meet at four. I’ll be at the hairdresser’s until five.
 to refer to most shops:
- Look what I bought at the butcher’s today.
We use on:
 to refer to a position on any surface:
- I know I left my wallet on the table.
 to describe a position along a road or river or by the sea or by a lake:
- Dublin is on the east coast of Ireland.
 to talk about a floor in a building:
- They live on the 15th floor!
 to talk about being physically on public transport:
- I was on the train when she phoned. (but to talk about ways of traveling, we use by: I
went to Rome by train.)
We use in:
 to talk about locations within a larger area:
- I know my book is somewhere in this room. Can anyone see it?
 to talk about workplaces when we see them as a physical location:
- She works in an open-plan office. (but we use on when we talk about a farm: I’ve
always wanted to work on a farm.)
 with class: He found it difficult to concentrate in class.

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 Main Difference – By vs. With
Function
By indicates who performs the action.
With indicates what was used to perform the action.

Indication
By can indicate a person, animal institution, or object.
With can indicate a tool, ingredients or a part of the body.

Usage
By is more commonly used in passive construction than with.
With is less commonly used in passive construction than by.

By vs. With

Both prepositions can be used to show how something is done.

‘By’ can be followed by a gerund (-ing form):
- He improved his English by reading novels.
‘By’ is followed by a noun in combinations referring to the means of transportation or
communication:
by plane/car/bus/subway
by fax/mail/phone/sea
‘With’ is used when instruments, tools or parts of the body mentioned:
- I opened the Pepsi with a bottle opener.
- He pushed the door with his foot.
Note: ‘by hand’ means ‘handmade’, ‘made by a person, not by a machine’:
- She made the pie dough by hand.

By and with can both be used to say how somebody does something, but there is an
important difference. By refers to the method; with refers to the tool.
He killed the spider by hitting it. (method)
He killed the spider with a stone. (tool)

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 Arrive in, at or to?
One of the typical mistakes my students make is using the preposition "to" with the
verb "arrive".
For example: *We arrived to London.

The preposition “to” can never follow the verb “arrive”, because it is a preposition
of movement and the verb is not. Instead of “to”, we can use “at” or “in”, but, when
should we use one or the other? The answer is easy:

 We use “at” when we get to a small place such as an airport, station or village.
Ex.: The children arrived at school quite late.
 We use “in” when we get to a large place such as a country or a city.
Ex.: The Vikings arrived in Britain in the 8th century.
Sometimes it's not so easy and you can find examples like:
- They arrived at Cardiff

Being Cardiff a big town, "in" should have been used, but "at" is correct because we
actually mean arrive at Cardiff station or airport.

- Prime Minister has arrive ….. London.

A. at B. to C. in
- The children arrived …….. school quite late.
A. at B. to C. in
- Major Sims will write to us after he arrives ….. home.
A. at* B. to C. in
Don't say: We arrived to the village at night.
Say: We arrived at the village at night.

NOTE: "Arrive in" is used of countries and large cities: as, "Mr. Smith has
arrived in London (New York, India, etc.)"

*"At home" generally means "in your home" and is used to indicate a place where you
are located rather than a destination: I was at home last night. I left my wallet at home.
On the other hand, we often say "to arrive at" a destination. Ex: When did he arrive at
the airport? So I think you could say either "arrive home" or "arrive at home".

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 I was amazed ________ his misbehavior.
A. In B. at C. For D. With
Sana is not known ______ me.
A. to B. on C. at D. with
He succeeded ____ killing the tiger.
A. by B. with C. on D. in
I told the tailor to put red buttons _____ the dress he is making for me.
A. in B. at C. on D. none
My friend amused us ________ funny jokes.
A. from B. at C. on D. with
Parents expect more _____ their children?
A. with B. of C. from D. to
I saw you dancing _____ party.
A. at B. at a C. at the D. in E. in the
He is accustomed ______ hot weather.
A. with B. of C. to D. by
Please do not get angry __ me.
A. with B. on C. at D. towards

The Number vs. A Number

The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the expression
a number is followed by a plural verb.
1. “A number” is always plural.
2. “The number” is always singular.

Examples:

- The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.

- A number of people have written in about this subject.

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 Prepositions with tired

• If you are tired of doing something, you do not want to do it anymore because it
has started to annoy or bore you:
- I’m tired of explaining it.
✗Don’t say: I’m tired from explaining it.
• If you are tired from doing something, you feel tired because you have used a lot
of effort:
- He was tired from walking all day.
✗Don’t say: He was tired of walking all day.

Over / On / At weekend

Over the weekend

Over the weekend means the same thing as during the weekend. It is used to talk about
sth that happened (or will happen) between Friday evening and Sunday evening.
- We started packing up our apartment over the weekend.

On the weekend

The meaning of on the weekend is similar to the meaning of over the weekend,
although it is not used quite as often. The two expressions are usually interchangeable.
- The excitement started to build on (over) the weekend.

On the weekends (plural)

One clear difference between over the weekend and on the weekend is that only on is
used with the plural: weekends.
- They go sailing on (the) weekends.// - On (the) weekends, I like to watch football.

At the weekend
AT the weekend is used in British English. - I play football AT the weekend.
ON the weekend is used in American English. - I play football ON the weekend.

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 Close vs Near

Both these words mean ‘not far’ or ‘a short distance away’, and thus can be used
interchangeably. Close can also refer to the proximity or intimacy in a relationship
whereas near cannot. This can be termed as the key difference between close and
near.

- She lives close to the sea.

- I told my daughter to stay close as we walked through the crowded market.

This adjective can be also used to describe relationships where members are very
affectionate and intimate.

- I only invited some of my close friends to the wedding.

Near also means ‘short distance away’ or not very far. Thus, it can be used
interchangeably with close when referring to the distance.

He left the basket close to her door. → He left the basket near her door.
I live close to St. Mary’s hospital. → I live near St. Mary’s hospital.

In the above examples, you can notice that close is followed by the preposition to
whereas near is used without preposition. This is a grammatical difference
between close and near.

Near can be also used to refer to a short distance in time.

- We returned home near midnight. - He was born sometime near the end of 18th
century.

Near can also be used to replace the adjective almost.

- He was near death when we found him.

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 The Common Mistakes Concerned With Using a
Wrong Prep.

Common mistakes can be based on misused forms. Misused Forms are usually concerned
with using a wrong preposition because “using prepositions” is a difficult topic. This
lesson main purpose is to help to correct the common mistakes about using prepositions.

1.absorbed (=with sb’s attention completely held) in, not at

(False) - She was absorbed at her work.
(True) – She was absorbed in her work.
2.accuse of, not for
(False) - He was accused for murder.
(True) – He was accused of murder.
(False) - He accused her for cheating.
(True) – He accused her of cheating.
3.afraid of, not from
(False) -He is not afraid from spiders.
(True) - He is not afraid of spiders.
4.aim at, not on
(False)She aimed on the horse.
(True)She aimed at the horse.
5.angry with (a person), not against (a person)
(False) – Police was angry against him.
(True) – Police was angry with him.
angry at (a thing), not with or against (a thing)
(False) - she was angry with the weather.
Generally (angry with/at) are the same.
(True) – She was angry at the weather.

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6.annoyed with (a person), not against (a person)
(False) – She is annoyed against herself for failing the exam.
(True) – She is annoyed with herself for failing the exam.
7.anxious (=worried and nervous) about, not for
(False) – We are anxious for his sanity
(True) – We are anxious about his sanity
anxious (=eager to do sth) for, not about
(False) – We are anxious about our friends’ success
(True) – We are anxious for our friends’ success
8.arrive at, not to
(False) – we arrived to the village last night
(True) – we arrived at the village last night
arrive in (for countries or large cities), not to or at
(False) – Mr. John has arrived to Madrid (Tokyo, Rome, Ukraine, Turkey, Ankara, etc)
(True) – Mr. John has arrived in Madrid (Tokyo, Rome, Ukraine, Turkey, Ankara, etc)
9.ashamed of, not from
(False) – Mr. Smith was ashamed from his mistake. I am ashamed from my teacher.
(True) – Mr. Smith was ashamed of his mistake. – I am ashamed of my teacher.
10.believe in, not to
(False) – Muslims believe to the Prophet Muhammad. - Christians believe to Jesus Christ.
(True) – Muslims believe in the Prophet Muhammad. - Christians believe in Jesus Christ
NOTE: “To believe in” means to have faith in
“To believe (without in)" means to regard as true, “I believe what she says”
11.boast of (or about), not for
(False) – he boasted for his car.
(True) – he boasted about (or of) his car

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How to use FOR / SINCE / AGO / ALREADY / YET when referring to TIME
SINCE
Use SINCE with a specified time. Refers to the time between a point in the past and now.
Examples: SINCE last week SINCE Monday SINCE three o’clock
SINCE 1975 SINCE I arrived SINCE May 21 1992
Use the PRESENT PERFECT or the PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tense
with SINCE
Examples: I HAVE STUDIED here SINCE last month.
I HAVE BEEN STUDYING here SINCE last month.
FOR
Use FOR with how much time. Refers to a length of time.
Examples: FOR three hours FOR one day FOR a few minutes
FOR a week FOR two months FOR several years
FOR a long time FOR a night FOR a couple of hours
All tenses can be used with FOR
Examples: I study for 3 hours each day. (Simple Present)
I have been studying for 3 hours. (Present Perfect Continuous)
I studied for 3 hours each day (Simple Past)
I will have studied here for one week. (Present Perfect)
AGO
Use AGO with the SIMPLE PAST & PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES.
Examples: They left a few hours AGO. (Simple Past)
They were studying a few minutes AGO. (Past Continuous)
ALREADY
Use ALREADY to refer to something that occurred before now (before this time). It is
often used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS
tenses.
Examples: John has ALREADY eaten.
Note: ALREADY is used with affirmative sentences and comes in the middle of the
sentence.
YET
Use YET to refer to something that occurs or should occur up to and including the
present time. It is often used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS tenses.
Examples: The plane hasn’t arrived YET. The plane has YET to arrive.
He hasn’t been studying YET. He has YET to study.
Note: When YET is used in negative sentences it comes at the end of a sentence.

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How to use SO / TOO / EITHER / NEITHER / ALSO / AS WELL (AS) to connect
sentences.

NO NEGATIVES

If there are NO NEGATIVES in a combined sentence use SO, TOO, ALSO, AS

WELL

Examples: I enjoy my work. He enjoys his work.

I enjoy my work AND SO does he.
I enjoy my work AND he does TOO.
I enjoy my work and he does ALSO.
I enjoy my work and he does AS WELL.
ONE NEGATIVE
If there is ONE NEGATIVE in your combined sentence use NEITHER.

Examples: He didn’t like the film. I didn’t like the film.

He didn’t like the film and NEITHER did I.
TWO NEGATIVES
If there are TWO NEGATIVES in your combined sentence use EITHER.

Examples: Tom isn’t coming. Fred isn’t coming.

Tom isn’t coming and Fred isn’t coming EITHER.

SO AND NEITHER
SO and NEITHER come after ‘and’ in the second clause and the VERB comes before
the subject.
The order of the words = and + (SO or NEITHER) + VERB + subject
Examples: He likes rice. We like rice.
He likes rice and SO DO we.
They haven’t gone. We haven’t gone.
They haven’t gone and NEITHER HAVE we.
NOTE: In the four cases cited above the verb in the second clause MUST have the same
tense as the verb in the first clause!!! Substitute the correct auxiliary or modal verb for
the main verb in the second clause of the sentence.

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AS WELL AND AS WELL AS
AS WELL comes AT THE END of a sentence.
AS WELL AS comes IN THE MIDDLE of a sentence.
Do not use AND with AS WELL AS.
Examples: He smokes a pipe AND cigarettes AS WELL.
He smokes a pipe AS WELL AS cigarettes.
How to use PREPOSITIONS TOO, SO, SUCH, ENOUGH to stress an idea or
something else in a sentence.

TOO
TOO + ADJECTIVE + INFINITIVE
Example: This coffee is TOO hot to drink.
This homework is TOO hard to do.
The car is TOO expensive to buy.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR

Example: This coffee is TOO hot for me.
This homework is TOO hard for me.
The car is TOO expensive for me.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR + INFINITIVE

Example: This coffee is TOO hot for me to drink.
This homework is TOO hard for me to do.
The car is TOO expensive for me to buy.

NOTE: TOO carries a negative idea. It indicates the impossibility of the event that
follows. Example:
This coffee is TOO hot to drink. = I cannot drink this coffee because it is very hot.
This homework is TOO hard for me. = I cannot do this homework because it is hard.
The car is TOO expensive for me to buy. = I cannot buy this car because it is expensive.

SO
SO + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB + THAT + (CLAUSE)
Example: This process is SO complex that I do not understand it.
This pizza is SO bad that I can’t eat it.
This car is SO old that it shouldn’t run.

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SUCH
SUCH + (ADJECTIVE) + NOUN + THAT + (CLAUSE)
Example: He is SUCH a busy man that it is difficult to see him.
He is SUCH a good player that he will be an all-star.
The car is SUCH a piece of junk that it should be destroyed.

ENOUGH

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + INFINITIVE

Example: It is warm ENOUGH to remove your coat.
She is beautiful ENOUGH to win the contest.
We were angry ENOUGH to kill someone.
ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR
Example: The coffee is sweet ENOUGH for me.
The water is warm ENOUGH for us to go swimming.
The Omani people were hospitable ENOUGH for them.

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR + INFINITIVE

Example: The process is simple ENOUGH for us to understand.
Skiing was easy ENOUGH for us to learn.
They were kind ENOUGH for the children to love them.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR

Example: There is ENOUGH heat for us.
There is ENOUGH candy for all the children.
There isn’t ENOUGH food for all of us.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR + INFINITIVE

Examples: There are ENOUGH chemicals for us to finish the experiment.
There isn’t ENOUGH money for us to keep working.
There is ENOUGH heat for us to melt the metal.

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 The Difference between ‘So’ ,‘Too’& ‘VERY’

The weather is so nice today. The sun is shining very brightly and the sky is very
blue. I love the summer. Well, I don’t like when it is too hot and humid. Sometimes
it is so hot in New York that you can’t walk around outside for too long.

Too, so, and very are similar words but we use them differently. In today’s lesson
we will take a look at the difference between the these words.

Too + Adjective

Too + adjective is used to show something is excessive or problematic. Too is used

with negative adjectives like expensive, tired, difficult, etc. Too implies a negative
feeling and perhaps an unstated negative consequence. Look at the following
example:

Justin: Do you want to come to the party tonight, Mike?

Mike: Sorry, Justin. I’m too tired.
This means, I am tired, and because I am tired I won’t go out tonight. Here are some
more examples:

 My old car is too unreliable.

 Economics is too difficult for many students.

When we want to show that because something is excessive or problematic and there
is a consequence, we use too + adjective, as in the above examples. When we simply
want to emphasize an adjective, we use very.

Very + Adjective

Very + adjective makes that adjective stronger. Very is used to emphasize an

adjective.

 I’m very tired today.

 My old car is very unreliable.
 Economics is very difficult for many students.

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Let’s compare too and very:

 It’s very hot today. This is just a statement that the weather is hot…very hot.
 It’s too hot today. This implies that it is hot and there is some negative feeling or
problem

 That bag is very expensive. This is just a statement that the bag costs a lot of
money.
 That bag is too expensive. This implies that the bag costs a lot of money and I
cannot buy it.

Remember, we do not use too with positive adjectives:

 Angelina is very beautiful. Not, Angelina is too beautiful.

 Justin is very kind to his fans. Not, Justin is too kind to his fans.

So + Adjective

So + adjective is similar to too, but it can be used with positive or negative

adjectives. So is used to show a cause and effect relationship. So is often use
with that:

 I’m so excited about my vacation that I can’t sleep.

 Joe was so nervous when he went on his first date that he forgot to shave.
 It’s so hot and humid that it is hard to breathe outside.

So, how was today’s lesson? I hope it wasn’t it too difficult. I’m so happy that you
visited my home today. That was very nice of you. By the way, what is the summer
like where you live?

Note: So cannot be used before a noun. For example, we cannot say ‘He is so nice
man’. Instead, we use such (He is such a nice man).

 = This is so delicious.
 = I am so happy
 = She is so beautiful.

These sentences all describe good (positive) things, so we do not use too.

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Note: Too is often used in the structure too + adjective/adverb + infinitive

 The pizza is too hot to eat. = (The pizza is too hot. I cannot eat it)
 You are too young to watch that movie. = (You are not old enough)
 I was too tired to do my homework. ( = I didn’t do it. My tiredness was ‘over the
limit’, so I slept).
 She ran too slowly to win the race. (= Her speed was too slow; she could not win)
 She speaks too poorly to get a job. (= Her writing is not good enough; she cannot get a job)

Again, in all these sentences, too means over the limit or more than a desired
quantity/level.

Following these rules, we still come across sentences that are similar in meaning.
For example:

 It’s so hot today. Let’s stay inside. (very hot)

 It’s too hot today. Let’s stay inside. (there is too much heat so we cannot go outside)

Both of these sentences are correct and work well in this situation. In
many situations though, one word is more suitable than the other. Look at this
example:

1. The camera was ___ expensive, but I bought it.

2. The camera was ___ expensive. I didn’t buy it.

What’s the answer for #1? So is the best answer. Why? If it were too expensive,
then you couldn’t have bought it. It would be over the limit of the money you had
(unless you had a credit card). The camera was so expensive (very expensive), but
you bought it. The price was within your limits.

What’s the answer for #2? Too. The price was too high. You didn’t have enough
money. Therefore, you could not buy it. You could use ‘so’ here to mean it was very
expensive. But if you want to express that the price was higher than you could afford,
use too expensive.

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 Many- Much- A lot of – Lots of- Plenty

Much, many, a lot:

"Much", "many", and "a lot of" indicate a large quantity of something, for example "I
have a lot of friends " means I have a large quantity of friends.

Much, many, and a lot are quantifiers.

Study the examples below:

How much money have you got?
How many students are in the
classroom?
I haven't got much money.
I have got a lot.
I have got a lot of money.
There aren't many.
There are a lot.
There are a lot of/lots of students.

In the interrogative forms we use:

much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)

Example:
How much money/bread/water...is there?
many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)
Example:
How many students/teachers/desks... are there?

In the negative forms we use:

much with uncountable nouns. (money, bread, water...)

Example:
I haven't got much money/bread/water...
many with countable nouns. (students, desks, windows...)
Example:
There aren't many students/teachers/desks...

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In the affirmative forms:

In spoken English and informal writing we tend to use:

a lot, a lot of, lots of with countable and uncountable nouns.

Example:

"How many students are there in the classroom?"

"There are a lot."
"How many students are there in the classroom?"
"There are a lot of / lots of students"..

In formal written English:

It is also possible (and preferable) to use many and much rather than a lot
of, lots of and a lot in formal written English.
Example:
There are many students.
Much time was spent on studying.

So if you're speaking or writing to friends (informal), use a lot, a lot of, lots of. But if
you want to be more formal, perhaps it is preferable to use much and many.

Remember:

In affirmative sentences with so, as or too, we also use much / many.

Examples:
"Carla has so many friends."
"She has as many friends as Sue."
"Kevin has too much money."

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Summary:

Interrogative Negative Affirmative

How many books are there? There There are a lot.
aren't many.
There are a lot of books.
There are lots of books.
There are many books
(formal)
How much money have you I haven't I've got a lot.
got? got much.
I've got a lot of money.
I've got lots of money.
I have got much money
(formal)

We use lots, a lot and plenty in informal styles to talk about quantities, amounts and
degree. Lots and a lot are similar in meaning to much and many. Plenty means
‘enough’ or ‘more than enough’. Lots is even more informal than a lot:

Lots, a lot, plenty with a noun

When we use lots, a lot or plenty with a noun, we need of:

- I’ve got lots of plans for today.
- There’ll be a lot of your friends there.
- There’s no need to rush. We’ve got plenty of time.
- Not: We’ve got plenty time.

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 Lots, a lot, plenty without a noun

We usually leave out the noun after a lot, lots and plenty when the noun is obvious.
When there is no following noun, we don’t use of:
A: I haven’t got any money
B: Don’t worry, I’ve got plenty. (plenty of money)
She didn’t bring anything to eat but we’ve got lots anyway.
Not: … but we’ve got lots of anyway.

Formal styles: a great deal of, a good deal of, a large number

We prefer to use expressions like a great deal of (+ singular uncountable nouns) or a

large number of (+ plural nouns) in more formal styles:
There’s a great deal of truth in what he said.
From here, a large number of roads led back to various parts of the city.

Use 'many' and 'much' in questions and negatives statements

Use 'lots of' (informal) or 'a lot of ' (formal) in affirmative statements

For example:
- "There are lots of people in the street"
-"That is a lot of milk" are affirmative statements.
- "There aren't many people in the street," is negative
- "How much milk do you want?" is a question.

But in more formal writing, it's probably true that we prefer 'many' and 'much' to 'a
lot of' and 'lots of', so if you're speaking or writing to friends, it should be: "There are
lots of cars in the street," or "People have written a lot about it."
But if you want to be more formal, perhaps "There were many cars in the street that
day" or "Much has been written about it" might sound better.

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91
92
CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations.
There are three types of conditional sentences.
type condition

I condition possible to fulfill (A possible condition )

II condition in theory possible to fulfill (A hypothetical condition )

III condition not possible to fulfill (too late) (unreal past condition)

1. Form
type if-clause main clause

I Simple Present will-future or (Modal + infinitive)

II Simple Past would + infinitive *

III Past Perfect would + have + past participle *

2. Examples (if-clause at the beginning)
type if clause main clause

I If I study, I will pass the exam.

If I studied, I would pass the exam.

II
If I were you, I would travel abroad. *

III If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.

3. Examples (if-clause at the end)
type main clause if-clause

I I will pass the exam if I study.

II I would pass the exam if I studied.

III I would have passed them exam if I had studied.

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*There is one exception to this rule, however. If the verb in the if clause is
“to be,” use “were,” even if the subject of the clause is a third person
singular subject (i.e., he, she, it). See the examples below for an illustration
of this exception:

If I was a rich man, I would make more charitable donations. incorrect

If I were a rich man, I would make more charitable donations. correct
If he was here right now, he would help us. incorrect
If he were here right now, he would help us. Correct

Remember, though, that this exception applies only to unreal

conditionals—that is, situations that do not reflect reality. (Hint: unreal
conditionals often contain words like “would” or “ought to.”) When you’re
talking about a possibility that did happen or might be true, use “was”
and “were” as you normally would.

If I were rude to you, I apologize. incorrect

If I was rude to you, I apologize. correct

Zero Conditional
The zero conditional is used to talk about things which are always true — such as
scientific facts and general truths:

If + Present Simple, Present Simple

 If you put water in the freezer, it becomes ice.

 If you stand in the rain, you get wet.
 If you heat ice, it melts.
 If people don't eat, they get hungry.

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 WISH / IF ONLY

We can make second and third conditionals more emphatic by placing only after if:
- If (only) I knew the answer, I'd tell you.
- If (only) I had revised more, I would have done better on my exam.
- If only can be replaced with I wish, and the main clause can be omitted:
- I wish I knew the answer.
- I wish I had revised more.
Wishes about the present
WISH / IF ONLY + PAST SUBJUNCTIVE
This pattern is used to express wishes or regrets about the present:
I wish I lived nearer. Then we could meet more often. (I'm sorry that I don't live
nearer)
Cathy wishes she had blond hair. (Cathy is sorry that she doesn't have blond hair)
Instead of the past subjunctive, we can use could + infinitive:
You're brilliant. I wish I could play the guitar like you. (I'm sorry that I can't
play the guitar like you)

Wishes about the past

WISH / IF ONLY + PAST PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE
This pattern is used to express wishes or regrets about the past:
I wish I had never told him my secret. (I'm sorry that I told him my secret)
Santiago wishes he hadn't spent so much money last night. (Santiago regrets
spending so much money last night)
Instead of the past perfect subjunctive, we can use could + perfect infinitive:
If only I could have been there. I'm sure it was a great concert. (I'm sorry
that I couldn't be there)

Wishes about the future

WISH / IF ONLY + WOULD
This pattern is used for wishes about the future when there is a chance that
something may happen or somebody (but not the person who wishes) may change
their behavior:
- I wish it would stop snowing.
- I wish Mark would call me back.
- I wish more people would read my blog. (= a diary on Internet)
Wish + would can also express not-so-polite requests or complaints:
- I wish you wouldn't smoke in here.

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 AS IF / AS THOUGH

Clauses that start with as if / as though describe an unreal or improbable situation

if they are followed by an unreal tense (the past subjunctive or the past perfect
subjunctive). Otherwise, they express that the statement is true.
The past subjunctive after as if / as though indicates an unreal situation in the
present. However, if the situation is true, we use a real tense to express present
time:

- He looks as if he knew the answer. (he gives the impression that he knows the answer,
but he (probably) doesn't know or we don't know whether he knows or not)

- He looks as if he knows the answer. (he knows the answer)

If we put the verb preceding as if / as though into the past tense, the present simple
knows changes into past simple, whereas the past subjunctive knew stays the same.
Therefore, both sentences will read as follows:
He looked as if he knew the answer.

Consequently, the meaning of this sentence (whether he knew the answer or not)
can only be deduced from the context.

The past perfect subjunctive after as if / as though is used to refer to an unreal past
situation. If the situation is true, we use a real tense to express past time:

- He seems as if he hadn't slept for days. (it seems that he hasn't slept for days,
but he (probably) has or we don't know whether he has or not)

- He seems as if he hasn't slept for days. (he hasn't slept for days)

If the preceding verb is put into the past tense, the present perfect hasn't slept
changes into past perfect, while the past perfect subjunctive hadn't slept stays the
same:
- He seemed as if he hadn't slept for days.
- Live every day as if it were going to be your last; for one day you're sure to be right.

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In formal speech and writing, counterfactual clauses beginning with as if and as
though take imperfect subjunctive, which means the were form in the case of to be,
the only verb in English specifically marked for that tense. This the same tense you
use with wish. For example:

- It looked as if it were already done.

- I wish it were done already.
- She dressed herself up as though she were a little princess.
- She wishes she were a little princess.
- He orders me about as if I were his wife. (but I’m not)
- He wishes I were his wife, but I’m not.

For other verbs, you just use the past perfect there by using had learned, as you
have done.
- He talks about Rome as though he had been there himself. (but he hasn’t)

There is some distinction between whether the hypothetical is in the past or the
present, leading to a simple past versus past perfect distinction:

- He acts as though he hadn’t eaten a decent meal for a month. (subjunctive about
the past, so pluperfect/past perfect)

- He acts as though he ate a decent meal right before today’s race. (subjunctive
about the present, so simple past)

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REPORTED SPEECH

Direct speech or reported speech is the original words of the speaker. Quotation marks
(“”) are used around direct speech. Reported or indirect speech uses a noun clause (that)
to tell us what someone has said. Quotation marks are not used and pronouns will change
from direct to indirect speech.
When the verb of the reported speech is in the past tense (said, told, asked). The verb in
the noun clause will also be in the past tense. When the reported speech is a Yes / No
question (do does etc.) use if or whether to begin the clause. When the reported speech is
a question word (where, when etc.) the clause begins with the question word and is a
sentence, not a question. Study the examples below.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Command  Infinitive (to + simple verb)

The police man said “Stop!” The police man said to stop.
Present  Past
He said, “I write letters on Tuesdays.” He said (that) he wrote letters on Tuesdays.
Present Continuous  Past Continuous
He said, “I’m writing a letter.” He said (that) he was writing a letter.
Present Perfect  Past Perfect
He said, “I have written a letter.” He said (that) he had written a letter.
Past  Past Perfect
He said, “I wrote a letter yesterday.” He said (that) he had written a letter yesterday.
Will  Would
He said, “I will write a letter tomorrow.” He said (that) he would write a letter tomorrow.

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Am, Is, Are going to  Was, Were going to
He said, “I’m going to write a letter tomorrow. He said(that) he was going to write a
letter tomorrow
Can  Could
He said, “I can write a letter next week.” He said (that) he could write a letter next week.
May  Might
He said, “I may write a letter to John.” He said (that) he might write a letter to John.
Must  Must
He said, “I must write a letter to Alice.” He said (that) he must write a letter to Alice.
Have to  Had to
He said, “ I have to write a letter to Rob.” He said (that) he had to write a letter to Rob.
Yes / No Question  If or Whether Clause (no do, does, or did)
He asked, “Do you want to write a letter?” He asked if (whether) I wanted to write a
letter.
WH Question Word Question  WH Noun Clause
He asked, “When do you usually write Letters?” He asked when I usually wrote letters.

He asked, “Where is the letter?” He asked where the letter was.

NOTE: The verb tenses change for yes / no and WH questions as above, and in reported
speech there is no question. (The speaker is reporting a question not asking a question.)

99
 In Part 2, we will focus on requests, orders, and questions.
DIRECT REPORTED EXAMPLE
SPEECH SPEECH
Requests/ Asked (me/him/her) “Please make 10 copies of this report.”
orders to… She asked me to make 10 copies of the report.
Told (me/him/her) ” Go to the bank.”
to… He told me to go to the bank.
Yes/no Asked if… “Are you coming to the party?”
questions Wanted to know if He asked if I was coming to the party.
.. ” Has John seen the new movie?”
She asked if John had seen the new movie.
Other Asked… “When was the company founded?”
questions Wanted to know… She asked when the company was founded.
“What kind of car do you drive?”
He wanted to know what kind of car I drive.

1. REQUESTS/ORDERS
 “Asked me to” is used for requests.
 “Told me to” is stronger; it is used for orders/commands.
 The main verb stays in the infinitive:
She asked me to make copies.
He told me to go to the bank.

2. YES/NO QUESTIONS
 “Asked if” and “wanted to know if” are equal.
 The main verb changes according to the rules for reported statements:
“Did you turn off the TV?” (past simple)
She asked if I had turned off the TV (past perfect)
 We don’t use the auxiliary verbs “do/does/did” in the reported question.

3. OTHER QUESTIONS
 “Asked” and “wanted to know” are equal.
 We don’t use the auxiliary verb “do” or “does” in the reported question:
“Where does he work?”
She wanted to know where he works.
 In questions with the verb “to be,” the word order changes in the reported question:
“Where were you born?” (Question word + [to be] + subject)
He asked where I was born (Question word + subject + [to be])
He asked where was I born

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 Direct speech Reported speech - Indirect speech
I ⇒ he/she
Change
We ⇒ they
of pronouns
my ⇒ his/her
your ⇒ my
our ⇒ their
me ⇒ him/her
us ⇒ them
here ⇒ there
today ⇒ that day
this morning ⇒ that morning
Change of place
yesterday ⇒ the day before
and time words
tomorrow ⇒ the next day
next week ⇒ the following week
next month ⇒ the following month

Direct Indirect

now then / at that time

today yesterday / that day / Tuesday / the 27th of June

yesterday the day before yesterday / the day before / Wednesday / the 5th of December

last night the night before, Thursday night

last week the week before / the previous week

Tomorrow today / the next day / the following day / Friday

101
102
 PASSIVE VOICE

1 2 3 4 5 6
We Have to Optional
Add BE
X am
Simple Present OBJECT P.P by Subject
X is

X are

X was
Simple Past OBJECT P.P by Subject
X were

is
Present Continuous OBJECT being P.P by Subject
are

was
Past Continuous OBJECT being P.P by Subject
were

has
Present Perfect OBJECT been P.P by Subject
Have

Past Perfect OBJECT had been P.P by Subject

will
Future OBJECT be P.P by Subject
shall

must,
Modals OBJECT be P.P by Subject
may, can,
could, …etc.

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TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE
(BE + PAST PARTICIPLE)
SIMPLE Mr. Smith teaches me. I am taught by Mr. Smith.
PRESENT Ali writes many letters. Many letters are written by Ali.
PRESENT Mr. Smith is teaching me. I am being taught by Mr. Smith.
PROGRE Ali is writing many letters. Many letters are being written by Ali.
SSIVE I am helping ten students. Ten students are being helped by me
SIMPLE Mr. Smith taught me. I was taught by Mr. Smith.
PAST Ali wrote many letters. Many letters were written by Ali.
PAST Mr. Smith was teaching me. I was being taught by Mr. Smith.
PROG. I was helping ten students. Ten students were being helped by me
PRESENT Mr. Smith has taught me. I have been taught by Mr. Smith.
PERFECT Ali has written many letters. Many letters have been written by Ali.
FUTURE Mr. Smith will teach me. I will be taught by Mr. Smith.
Ali will write many letters. Many letters will be written by Ali.
I will help ten students. Ten students will be helped by me
MODALS Ali can write many letters. Many letters could be written by Ali.
I ought to help ten students. Ten Students ought to be helped.
I have to help ten students. Ten Students have to be helped.
I might have helped ten students. Ten Students might have been helped.
GET is also used in a passive tense.
The verb combination is TO GET + PAST PARTICIPLE or
MODAL + TO GET + PAST PARTICIPLE
Examples: John sometimes GETS confused in class.
Ali GOT worried by the heavy traffic.
Mohammad HAS GOTTEN married since we last saw him.
Careless pedestrians MIGHT GET hit by a car.
Ali MIGHT HAVE GOTTEN bored by the movie.
NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is a non-specific word
like he, they, or someone, we usually leave it out of the passive sentence.
Examples: He left the book on the desk. The book was left on the desk.
Someone makes this car in Japan. This car is made in Japan.
They inspected the planes. The planes were inspected.
NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is specific we usually include
it in the passive sentence as the AGENT with the preposition BY.
Examples: Mr. Smith taught us last year. We were taught BY Mr. Smith last year.
Shakespeare wrote that play. That play was written BY Shakespeare.
The heavy traffic worried Ali. Ali got worried BY the heavy traffic.
The fire will damage the house. The house will be damaged BY the fire.

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Some other Tenses:

Future continuous

Active: They will be publishing the book.

Passive: The book will be being published.

Future perfect

Active: They will have published the book.

The book will have been published.

Modal simple

Active: They are going to publish the book.

Passive: The book is going to be published.

Modal simple

Active: They can publish the book.

Passive: The book can be published.

Modal continuous

Active: They might be publishing the book.

Passive: The book might be being published.

Modal perfect

Active: They should have published the book.

Passive: The book should have been published.

Perfect continuous forms are also possible in the passive voice; however, they are less
common:
Active: They have been publishing his novels since the 1960s.
Passive: His novels have been being published since the 1960s.

Active: They might have been publishing his novels at that time.
Passive: His novels might have been being published at that time.

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CAUSATIVES

The causative is a common structure in English. It is used when one thing or person
causes another thing or person to do something.

CV FORM
Have S + have + agent +verb1 +O
S + have + thing + verb3
Get S+ get + person + infinitive
S+ get + thing + V3
Make S+ make + person + verb1
S+ Make + thing + verb1
Let S+ let + person + verb 1
S+ let + thing + verb1
Help S+ help + person + infinitive
S+ help + person + verb1
EXAMPLE
Susan has her brother do her homework
We had our door fixed.
I will get the clerk to write the report.
He got his book published.
I can make him study.
I can make this car run.
Please let Ali go to see the colonel.
Ali let the cat go free.
He helped me to study for the exam.
He helped me study for the exam.

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TAG QUESTIONS
A tag question can be made by making a statement and putting an auxiliary verb and a
pronoun at the end. Use must be careful to use the proper auxiliary (helping) or modal
verb to make a tag question.
AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE NEGATIVE TAG QUESTIONS

He came, didn’t he?

He is coming, isn’t he?
They agree. Don’t they?
You will help, won’t you?
We have seen it, haven’t we?
We can leave, can’t we?
She was here, wasn’t she?
He should be here, shouldn’t he?
They have to come early, don’t they?
Because the neg. form they don’t have to ….
He must get some sleep, mustn’t he?

NEGATIVE SENTENCES AFFIRMATIVE TAG QUESTIONS

He didn’t come, did he?

He isn’t coming, is he?
They don’t agree, do they?
You won’t help, will you?
We haven’t seen it, have we?
We can’t leave, can we?
She wasn’t here, was she?
He shouldn’t be here, should he?
NOTE: The tag question after I AM is AREN”T I
Examples: I’m next in line. AREN”T I?
I am on duty tomorrow. AREN”T I?

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EMBEDDING
Embedding is a way to include yes / no and WH question word questions in another
sentence. The embedded question becomes a noun clause. The new sentence is no longer
a question. If the embedded question is originally a yes / no question it is introduced by
if or whether. The order of the words changes from the original question when the
question is embedded in another sentence. In other words:
Imperatives
Open the door, will you?
Don't speak like that, will you?
Suggestions
Let's dance, shall we?
THIS, THAT, THESE, THOSE
This is great, isn't it?
That's a nice dress, isn't it?
These pancakes are delicious, aren't they?
Those are quite fresh, aren't they?
EVERYBODY, SOMEBODY, NOBODY, ANYBODY
Everybody likes her, don't they?
Nobody knew the answer, did they? (negative statement with affirmative tag)
Anybody could do that, couldn't they?
Somebody should do something about this, shouldn't they?

EVERYTHING, SOMETHING, NOTHING, ANYTHING

Nothing could disturb her, could it?
THERE IS / THERE ARE
There is something you want to say, isn't there?
There weren't any policemen at the demonstration, were there?

DISLIKE is not negative

Kevin dislikes eating tomatoes, doesn't he?
Dislikes does not make the first part of the statement negative. Disliking something, just
like hating something, is an active, positive verb. The negative would be doesn’t dislike.

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Original Question Word Order = Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb
Embedded Question Word Order = Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb
Examples:
Original Question Word Order Embedded Question Word Order
Is he sick? I don’t know if he is sick.
Do they know John? I wonder if they know John.
If the question is a WH question word question the clause is introduced by the WH
question word and the other words changes as follows:
Original Question Word Order = WH ? +Auxiliary (Helping V) +Subject + Main V
Embedded Question Word Order = WH ? + Subject + Aux. (Helping V) + Main V
.
Examples:
Original Question Word Order Embedded Question Word Order
When can we leave? They didn’t tell us when we can leave.
Where is the post office? They want to know where the post office is.
How will he go? He hasn’t decided how he will go.
What has he decided? I have no idea what he has decided.
Why is he doing that? I don’t know why he is doing that.
Who are they? I have no idea who they are.

Note: The subject of the embedded question clause comes immediately after the WH
question word or IF or WHETHER. DO, DOES, and DID cannot be used in this kind of
clause. DON’T, DOESN’T, and DIDN’T can be used. Other auxiliary (helping) verbs and
modals can be used but remember that they come after the subject in the clause.
Embedded question clauses are often used as the object after verbs like know, wonder,
understand, ask, tell, find out, learn, hear, be sure, decide, remember and have.
This kind of verb can also occur as the subject of a sentence (What he told us surprised
everyone.)

Note: Remember that the verb TO BE does not have auxiliary (helping) verbs in the
present and past tenses. In embedded clauses the verb TO BE must come after the subject
and it is often the last word in the clause. (I don’t know where they ARE. He hasn’t heard
what the answer IS.)

109
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS TAG QUESTION

When the subject of the main part of the sentence is anyone, anybody, no one,
nobody, none, neither, everyone, somebody, someone, everybody, etc., we use the
Pronoun “they” as the subject of the ‘tag’ part and will have a plural verb, as in –

-Somebody has come, haven’t they?

-Nobody has come, have they?
-Everyone has come, haven’t they?
-Something happened at Jack's house, didn’t it?
-No one phoned, did they?
-Somebody wanted to borrow Jack's bike, didn’t they?

Negative adverbs

never, rarely, seldom, hardly, barely and scarcely, we treat statements with these
words like negative statements, so the question tag is normally positive.
- He never came again, did he?
- She can rarely come these days, can she?
- You hardly ever came late, did you?
- I barely know you, do I?
- You would scarcely expect her to know that, would you?

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CLAUSES

Definition of Clause:
A Clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a Subject and a Verb. It is
usually connected to the other part of the sentence by a conjunction. It is not a
complete sentence on its own.

Example: I don’t know what I’m going to wear to the wedding.

The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
I believe that she told the truth.

Independent Clause

The independent clause is the main idea (main clause) of the sentence. It is not
dependent on another clause for meaning and context. (see examples following dependent
clause definition)

Dependent Clause

The dependent clause is the subordinate idea of the sentence. It is dependent on

another clause for meaning and context. A dependent clause can be a relative clause such
as a noun clause, and an adjective clause or it can be an adverb clause. Basically any
clause can be a dependent clause if it is not the subject (main idea or independent clause)
of a sentence

Examples of: I don’t know what I’m going to wear to the wedding.
Independent I don’t know = independent clause
& dependent what I’m going to wear to the wedding = dependent clause
clauses The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
The boy never does his homework = independent clause
who sits next to me= dependent clause
I believe that she told the truth.
I believe = independent clause
that she told the truth = dependent clause

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Relative Clause

Any clause that modifies a noun in a sentence, or a noun phrase, is a relative clause.

Defining Relative Clause

A defining relative clause gives essential information about the noun or noun
phrase it modifies, without which the sentence wouldn’t make sense as the listener
or reader would not be able to identify the noun in the sentence.

Example: The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
who sits next to me… This clause gives essential information
about the boy. It answers the question which boy.

Non-Defining Relative Clause:

A non-defining relative clause gives extra information about a noun or noun phrase
and has commas at both ends.

Example: The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd.

Pausing for a moment… This clause gives extra information
about a noun (the actor) but this information is not essential to
the sentence.

Noun Clause
Noun clauses serve as subjects and objects of verbs and prepositions, just like
regular nouns.

Noun Clauses as Subjects

Noun clauses are not complete sentences all by themselves. A noun clause is used
as either the subject of a sentence or an object. If the noun clause is acting as the
subject of the sentence, then you still need a verb (and possibly other words) to
make a complete sentence.

Example: That she is telling the truth should be obvious to everyone.

In this sentence, the noun clause, “That she is telling the truth,” is the subject of the
sentence. We make a complete sentence by adding the verb, “should be” and the
other words, “obvious to everyone.”

112
 Noun Clauses as Objects
While noun clauses can serve as the subjects of a sentence, they usually serve as
objects. When they are objects, you need to have a subject and verb in order to make a
complete sentence.
Example: I need to know if the meeting has been cancelled.

In this sentence, the noun clause, “if the meeting has been cancelled,” is the
object of the verb, “need to know.” We make a complete sentence by
having a subject and verb, “I need to know,” before the object.

Adjective Clause
Adjective clauses generally describe nouns to make them clear to the reader.

Subject Adjective Clause

A subject adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.

In subject adjective clauses we substitute WHO, WHICH, or THAT for the

subject of the clause.

For people use WHO or THAT

Example: The man looks mean. The man is holding a gun.
WHO… The man WHO is holding the gun looks mean.
THAT… The man THAT is holding the gun looks mean.

For things use WHICH or THAT

Example: This is the letter. The letter arrived yesterday.
WHICH… This is the letter WHICH arrived yesterday.
THAT… This is the letter THAT arrived yesterday.

NOTE: The subject adjective clause must immediately follow the noun it describes.

Subject adjective clauses which contain is, are, was or were can be shortened. The
verb TO BE is removed along with the relative word (who, which, that). Notice
that when this happens the noun can be followed by a prepositional phrase, the
ING form of the verb (present participle), or the past participle of the verb
(passive)(verb three).

113
 Examples:

The students who are in the class should pass.

The students in the class should pass. (prepositional phrase)
The man who is wearing the jacket is his father.
The man wearing the jacket is his father. (present participle phrase = active)
The students who were taught by Tom are happy. (past participle phrase = passive) The
students taught by Tom are happy.

Object Adjective Clause

In object adjective clauses the noun which the clause describes is the object of the verb
in the clause.

Examples: The house is very beautiful. He built the house in Texas.

The house WHICH he built in Texas is very beautiful.
The house THAT he built in Texas is very beautiful.
The house he built in Texas is very beautiful.

The student is from San Antonio. They are talking to the student.
The student WHO they are talking to is from San Antonio.
The student THAT they are talking to is from San Antonio.
The student they are talking to is from San Antonio.
The student WHOM they are talking to is from San Antonio.

IMPORTANT
1. As in subject adjective clauses WHO is used for people, WHICH is used for
things, and THAT can usually be substituted for WHO or WHICH.

2. The relative pronouns WHO, WHICH, or THAT can usually be left out of the
clause without making the meaning unclear.

3. Subject Adjective Clauses and Object Adjective Clauses must follow

immediately after the word it describes.
Possessive Adjective Clause
A possessive adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.
In possessive adjective clauses we substitute the possessive pronoun WHOSE for
the noun the adjective clause describes.
Example: The woman whose baby cried during dinner was my sister.
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 Location Adjective Clause
A location adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.
In location adjective clauses the WH question word where comes after the noun the
adjective clause describes.
Example: The house where we had the party belongs to my Uncle Kenneth.

Adverb Clause
An adverb clause is not a relative clause since it does not modify a noun or noun
phrase. It acts like an adverb because it describes a verb. Adverb clauses tell us
WHEN, WHERE, HOW, WHY, and to WHAT extent something happened.
Use WHERE for place.
They drove down the street. A new hotel is being built on the street.
They drove down the street WHERE a new hotel is being built.
They drove… WHERE a new hotel is being built.
WHERE a new hotel is being built describes where (the place) they drove.

Use WHEN for time or date.

Spring is a season. Many flowers bloom in the spring.
Spring is the season WHEN many flowers bloom.
Spring is… WHEN many flowers bloom.
WHEN many flowers bloom tells us the time. It relates back to the verb is.

Use WHY for reason.

He was absent for a reason. The reason was that his father was sick.
The reason WHY he was absent was that his father was sick.
The reason… he was absent was that his father was sick.
In this sentence the clause that his father was sick describes why he was absent. It
refers back to the verb absent so therefore is an adverb clause.

Use HOW for method.

He wants to cook a cake. He can’t remember what to do.
He can’t remember HOW to cook a cake.
HOW to cook a cake. Describes what he cannot remember. It refers back to the verb
remember therefore it is an adverb clause.

Use WHAT for clarification.

I do not understand. Please say your words clearly.
I do not understand WHAT you are saying.
WHAT you are saying is an adverb clause because it describes WHAT he does not
understand. It refers back to the verb understand.

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 Relative Clause Reduction Rules

1. In defining clauses, we can omit the relative pronoun in the position of object.
- The boy who / whom / that you don’t like much wants to talk to you.
- The boy you don’t like much wants to talk to you.
Note: In non-defining sentences you neither omit the relative pronoun nor use "that".
My mother, who / whom that you met yesterday, wants to talk to you.
My mother you met yesterday...
2. We can use participles when reducing the sentence.
a) Present Participle "V-ing" (simultaneous)
- Anyone who enters the garden without permission will be punished.
Anyone entering the garden without permission will be punished.
- We stood on the bridge which connects the two halves of the city.
- We stood on the bridge connecting the two halves of the city.(Present Participle)
- The girl who sits next to Peter is my neighbor’s daughter.
- Now when we shorten the relative clause ‘who sits next to Peter’, we get:
- The girl sitting next to Peter is my neighbor’s daughter.
- Another example is given below.
- Who is the girl who is sitting next to your brother?
- Now when we reduce the relative clause, we get:
- Who is the girl sitting next to your brother?
- More examples are given below.
- A girl who works at a pub has won a lottery.
- A girl working at a pub has won a lottery.
- The lady who lives next door throws numerous parties.
- The lady living next door throws numerous parties.

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b) Past Participle "V3 or being V3" (passive simultaneous)
The boy who was attacked by a dog was taken to hospital.
The boy attacked by a dog was taken to hospital. (Past Participle)

c) Perfect Participle "having V3" (active-explaining sth. happened before the

others)
- Jenna, who has lived in Florida for 20 years, has gone through several hurricanes.
Jenna, having lived in Florida for 20 years, has gone through several hurricanes.
(Perfect Participle)
Having lived in Florida for 20 years, Jenna has gone through several hurricanes.
(Perfect Participle)

d) Perfect Passive Participle "having been V3" (passive-explaining sth happened

before the others)

- Mr. Bolt, who had been disqualified from the men’s 100m final after a false start,
made no such mistake in the 200m.
- Mr. Bolt, having been disqualified from the men’s 100m final after a false start,
made no such mistake in the 200m.(Perfect passive participle)
Having been disqualified from the men’s 100m final after a false start, Usain Bolt
made no such mistake in the 200m.(Perfect passive participle)

If "To be" verb is used after a relative pronoun we can omit "Relative Pronoun +
To be".
- The car which is parked next to mine is very expensive.
- The car parked next to mine is very expensive.

117
- Yesterday I read a book which was written by Hemingway.
- Yesterday I read a book written by Hemingway.
- Most people who were invited to the party didn’t turn up.
- Most people invited to the party didn’t turn up.

4. When the verb “have” meaning possession, we can omit relative pronoun and
“have” and use with(+) or without(-).
- Students who have enough math and English skills will be admitted.
- Students with enough math and English skills will be admitted.
- People who don’t have their ID cards can not get in.
- People without their ID cards can not get in.

5. We can use infinitive “to” in the cases below.

1. The only...to
- John is the only person who understands me.
- John is the only person to understand me.

2. Superlative...to
- Tom is the most handsome boy who came to this school.
- Tom is the most handsome boy to come to this school.

3. The first, last, second, next...to

- Jack is the first student who has handed in the exam.
- Jack is the first person to have handed in the exam.

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 Types of Reduced Relative Clauses

Relative clauses can also be reduced to shorter forms if the relative clause modifies the
subject of a sentence. Relative clause reduction refers to removing a relative pronoun
to reduce:

 An adjective/person who was happy: happy person

 An adjective phrase/man who was responsible for: man responsible for
 A prepositional phrase/boxes that are under the counter: boxes under the counter
 A past participle/student that was elected president: student elected president
 A present participle/people who are working on the report: people working on the
report

Reduce to an Adjective

1. Remove the relative pronoun.

2. Remove the verb (usually 'be', but also 'seem', 'appear', etc.).
3. Place the adjective used in the relative clause before the modified noun.
Examples:

The children who were happy played until nine in the evening.
Reduced: The happy children played until nine in the evening.
The house, which was beautiful, was sold for $300,000.
Reduced: The beautiful house was sold for $300,000.
Reduce to an Adjective Phrase

Remove the relative pronoun.

Remove the verb (usually 'be', but also 'seem', 'appear', etc.).
Place the adjective phrase after the modified noun.
Examples:
The product, which seemed perfect in many ways, failed to succeed in the market.
Reduced: The product, perfect in many ways, failed to succeed in the market.
The boy who was pleased by his grades went out with his friends to celebrate.
Reduced: The boy, pleased by his grades, went out with his friends to celebrate.

119
Steps to reduce to a Prepositional Phrase
1. Remove the relative pronoun.
2. Remove the verb 'be.'
3. Place the prepositional phrase after the modified noun.
Examples:
The box, which was on the table, was made in Italy.
Reduced: The box on the table was made in Italy.
The woman who was at the meeting spoke about business in Europe.
Reduced: The woman at the meeting spoke about business in Europe.
Reduce to a Past Participle
1. Remove the relative pronoun.
2. Remove the verb 'be.'
3. Place the past participle before the modified noun.
Examples:

The desk, which was stained, was antique

Reduced: The stained desk was antique.
The man who was elected was very popular.
Reduced: The elected man was very popular.
Reduce to a Past Participle Phrase

1. Remove the relative pronoun.

2. Remove the verb 'be.'
3. Place the past participle phrase after the modified noun.
Examples:

The car, which was purchased in Seattle, was a vintage Mustang

Reduced: The car purchased in Seattle was a vintage Mustang.
The elephant, which was born in captivity, was set free.
Reduced: The elephant born in captivity was set free.

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Reduce to a Present Participle

1. Remove the relative pronoun.

2. Remove the verb 'be.'
3. Place the present participle phrase after the modified noun.

Examples:

The professor who is teaching mathematics will leave the university.

Reduced: The professor teaching mathematics will leave the university.

The dog that is lying on the floor won't get up.

Reduced: The dog lying on the floor won't get up.

Some action verbs reduce to the present participle (ing form) especially when the
present tense is used:

1. Remove the relative pronoun.

2. Change the verb to the present participle form.
3. Place the present participle phrase after the modified noun.

Examples:

The man who lives near my home walks to work every day.
Reduced: The man living near my home walks to work every day.

The girl who attends my school lives at the end of the street.
Reduced: The girl attending my school lives at the end of the street

Followed by a prepositional phrase.

A. The man who is in the house is my father.
The man in the house is my father.
B. The books that are on the desk are mine
The books on the desk are mine.
The main verb in the relative clause is progressive.
A. The man who is swimming in the lake is my father.
The man swimming in the lake is my father.
B. The books that are lying on the floor are mine.
The books lying on the floor are mine.

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You may NOT delete the relative pronoun and the be verb when :
They are followed by an adjective:
The man who is angry is my father
X The man angry is my father
(However, you may switch the positions of the adjective and noun.)
The angry man is my father. (okay)

They are followed by a noun:

The man who is a doctor is my father.
X The man a doctor is my father.

The relative pronoun can be deleted if there is a new subject and verb following it:
A. This is the house that Jack built.
B. This is the house Jack built.
A. The person whom you see is my father.
B. The person you see is my father.
A. This is the place where I live.
B. This is the place I live.
A. I don’t know the reason why she is late.
B. I don’t know the reason she is late
(Also : I don’t know why she is late. )
A. The woman whom he likes is married.
B. The woman he likes is married.

Notes:
Do not delete a relative pronoun that is followed by a verb other than be:
The man who likes lasagna is my father.
X The man likes lasagna is my father.
Never delete the relative pronoun whose:
The man whose car broke down went to the station.
X The man car broke down went to the station.

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 PHRASES

Phrase:

A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain BOTH a subject and a verb.

Prepositional Phrase
Prepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in, at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have
a noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and may also have other modifiers.
Prepositional phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.
Examples:

The announcement for the play arrived after it was over. (as adjective)
He walked into the meeting just as the president arrived. (as adverb)
For you to pass your test is the reason for having a tutor. (as a noun; the subject)

Participial Phrase

Participial phrases are formed from participles and all the related words. Participles are
formed from verbs and end in “ing” or “ed.” Participles function as adjectives; therefore,
participial phrases also function as adjectives. They often describe the subject of the
sentence.

Examples:
Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes “she”)
The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd. (Describes “actor”)
He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green. (Describes the object “cabinet”)

Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and other related words. An infinitive is
the word “to” followed by a verb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, adjective, or
an adverb.

Examples:
To get an appointment with him requires a great amount of patience. (As a noun subject)
He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation. (As an adverb)
The decision to eliminate vacations was very unpopular. (As an adjective)

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Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its related words. A gerund is a verb with
an “ing” ending that functions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like some participial
phrases. The difference is that participial phrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases
function as nouns.

Examples:
Geraldine’s singing always enthralls the audience. (As subject)
Sam hates getting a headache when he works late. (As direct object)
His favorite activity is sailing down the Nahanni River. (As subject complement)

Verb Phrase

A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the related helping words such as participles.

Example:
I have been asking for a raise for ten years.

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 In spite of = despite = notwithstanding / although=though=even though

‘in spite of’, ‘despite’ and ‘although’ are all used to show contrast and are used for
the same meaning. The only difference is the way they are used; the structure in
which they are used.
‘in spite of’ and ‘despite’ are placed in front of a noun or pronoun:
- We had a great time in spite of the rain.
- We had a great time despite the rain.
- Despite studying very hard, he still didn’t pass the exam.
- We enjoyed our camping holiday in spite of the rain.
- Despite the pain in his leg he completed the marathon.

‘despite’ does NOT have ‘of’ after it:

Despite the rough weather they still set sail. NOT, Despite of the bad weather...
Notwithstanding
- Notwithstanding some members' objections, I think we must go ahead with the plan.
- Injuries notwithstanding, he won the semi-final match.

‘although’ is used in front of a subject and a verb (clause):

- We had a great time although it rained.
- Although he studied very hard, he still didn’t pass the exam.
If ‘in spite of’ and ‘despite’ are used in front of the phrase ‘the fact that’ then
they can be used with a subject and a verb:
- In spite of the fact that he studied very hard, he still didn’t pass the exam.
- Despite the fact that it rained we still had a great time.
‘even though’ can be used the same way as ‘although’. For most native speakers
‘even though’ is slightly stronger than ‘although’:
- Even though we were in a terrible hotel, we had a great time.
* ............, your OPI rating is too low for you to get a distinguished graduate
1- although your ECL score high
2- your high ECL score notwithstanding
3- despite of your high ECL SCORE
4- inspite your very high ECL SCORE

125
 How to study for ECL

There is only one way for you to make the score you need. You must
learn as much vocabulary as you can and understand that context is
everything when it comes to meaning.

Then you must get some listening practice online and spend a lot of
time listening again and again until you understand. Then listen some
more. Remember that context is extremely important to show you
what the words mean. Write the words in a notebook, and if you’re
smart, you’ve already written all those new vocabulary words in that
notebook.

Finally, you have to know idioms. Find an idiom website and study
those idioms. You need to know as many as possible.
The ALC books are important but they are not enough. Watch
American movies. Pay attention to the way the people speak and
expressions they use.

When you read, pay attention to the sentences and how they are
formed. The grammar, I mean. Remember that English doesn’t work
the same way that your language works. Arabic? It’s very different.
You have to think in English and dream in English and eat, sleep, and
breathe English.

Focus on Book 22 and Book 18, the grammar, the vocabulary and the
practice quizzes. All of these are important.
12, 18, and 24. Those books review the lessons of the books in each
level.

126
What is the difference between the ECL and the American Language
Course Placement Tests (ALCPT)?

Both are 100-item multiple choice tests of listening and reading. They

are constructed using the same test design, but different items. The major

difference is that ALCPTs are intended to be used for the students in an

American Language Course (ALC) program to evaluate student progress

at the end of an ALC level, while the English Comprehension Level

(ECL) can be handled only by US citizens who are employees of the US

Government or as an advance test for foreign students to evaluate the

English language abilities of local personnel working for, or being

considered for positions on overseas US military installations as required

by US military service regulations or to skip the general course for

foreign students. So when the non American students have ECL test that

means they will have a test focuses on the American Language in general.

127
 HOW TO GET A HIGHER SCORE ON A MULTIPLE-CHOICE TEST

1. Be careful you don’t read too much into a question. Try not to second-guess the
test writer by thinking the question is asking something that it is not. Most questions
are very simple.

KISS = K-KEEP I-IT S-SIMPLE S-STUDENT

2. Look for the “key words” in most questions. Key words give hints to what the
answer may be. For example, look for words like “yesterday”, “tomorrow”, “today”,
and so on, that give you the correct tense of the answer. “Yesterday” would
indicate an answer in the past tense, etc.

I like to shop for clothes

Yesterday I shopped for clothes.
I will go shopping next week.
.
3. If two choices are very SIMILAR, the correct answer is PROBABLY NOT
either one.
What is the antonym of small?

a. tiny tiny and little are synonyms c. big

b. little d. kangaroo

4. If two choices are OPPOSITE, one of them PROBABLY is the correct answer.

What is the synonym of tiny?

a. small small and big are antonyms c. few

b. big d. camel
5. Your first answer is USUALLY correct. NEVER change your answer unless
you’re positive you have made an incorrect choice. Sometimes you are smarter than
you think. Research has shown that 99% of the time the first answer you feel is
correct actually is correct.

BELIEVE IN YOURSELF – I BELIEVE IN YOU

128
6. Check for NEGATIVES and other words that can confuse you or throw you off
the track. If you read words like, “which of the following is NOT…,” be very
careful because the other three choices are true; HOWEVER, the CORRECT
answer is the one which is NOT true.

Which word is not a color?

a. purple c. pink
b. blue d. skip

7. Also, be careful if you see “all of the above” or “none of the above.” While these
are often the correct answer, they may well not be the correct answer. Read all
answers carefully.

8. The answer is USUALLY wrong if it contains the words “all”, “always”,

“never”, or “none.” Again, read carefully and be suspicious of answers containing
these absolute words.

Be careful of these words – there are always exceptions!

Monday always comes after…?
a. Sunday c. Wednesday
b. Tuesday d. Monday

9. Answers containing the words “some”, “sometimes”, or “probably” stand a great

chance of being the correct answer. Read carefully and be sure you know what is
being asked about.

10. When you simply do not know the correct answer, you will have to guess.
Don’t simply pick an answer in the blind. Look at all the answers. Maybe you will
realize that one or two of the answers are the INCORRECT answers, and you can
avoid choosing those. A simple guess gives you a 1 in 4 chance of being correct.
Eliminating just one answer as wrong gives you a 1 in 3 chance of being correct.
Eliminating two as wrong results in a 50-50 chance of getting the correct answer.
Never choose a wrong answer. Guess smartly.

Try to eliminate the obvious wrong answers to increase your odds.

129
11. Don’t eliminate an answer unless you actually know what every word in it
means.
Read every word – make sure you understand the sentence before you choose
an answer.

12. It goes without saying, really, that you MUST read every single answer choice.
Don’t jump at the first one that SEEMS correct. You want the best/most correct
answer.

Read for a purpose – First, read the questions, second, read the paragraph to
find the answers to the questions, third, answer the questions.

13. If you have to read a long paragraph or passage, read the question and all the
answers FIRST. That way you will know what you are looking for in the reading and
will probably recognize what the correct answer is when you see it in the reading.
You can pre-select what you think the correct answer is and when you read the
passage that answer may just be verified for you.

14. The longest or most complicated answer MIGHT be correct and often is on
some tests. But, always read all the answers anyway. SOMETIMES the writer has
to make it the longest one.

15. Be very suspicious of choices that seem obvious even to a child. These are
frequently wrong.

16. Never give up. Read it again. Restate it in your own words. Find a different
angle.

17. Make taking the ECL a LEARNING EXPERIENCE!

130
 AMERICAN REDUCTION WORDS

Whyzit importan' ta teach reduced forms?

Greetings

Howarya (How are you?)

Howdy (How do you do?)

Farewells

G'bye (Goodbye)
'bye (Goodbye)
Seeya (See you)
S'long (So long)

Question Forms

Howza (How is the)

How d'ya (How do you)
How'd ja (How did you)
How'ja (How would you)
Jawanna (Do you want to)
Yawanna (Do you want to)
Whaddya (What do you)
Whatduzzee (What does he)
Whaja (What did you)
Whaja (What would you)
Whad'll (What will)
Whatser (What is her)
Whatsiz (What is his)
Wheraya (Where are you)
When d'ya (When do you)
Where j'eat (Where did you eat?)
J'eat jet (Did you eat yet?)
J'ev (Did you have)
J'ever (Did you ever)
Wouldja (Would you)
whassup - what is up
whatser - what is her
whatsiz - what is his

131
Modals + TO
goin'ta (going to)
gonna (going to)
gotta (got to)
hafta (have to)
otta (ought to)
wanna (want to)

Modals + HAVE
coulda (could have)
mighta (might have)
shoulda (should have)

Negative Modals
/wõ/ [nasalized o] (won't)
/dõ/ [nasalized o] (don't)
duzn (doesn't)
havn (haven't)

Other Combined Words

c'mon (come on)
g'won (go on)
gedouda (get out of)
Wadda (what a)

Shortened Words
'bout (about)
'nother (another)
'round (around)
'cause (because)
in' (-ing)
jus' (just)
ol' (old)
yu (you)
yer (your)

Words + OF
kinda (kind of)
sorta (sort of)
type-a (type of)
a lotta (a lot of)

132
 in fruna (in front of)
ouda (out of)

Reductions - word + have

coulda - could have
mighta - might have
musta - must have
shoulda - should have
woulda - would have

Reductions - word + me
gimme - give me
lemme let me

As it was read:
Brian: Whenerya goin' ta Peking?
Jim: I'm gonna go on Sunday.
Brian: Boy! I wish I were gettin' ouda here fer awhile. Ya gotcher plane ticket?
Jim: No. I've gotta gedit tomorrow.
Brian: Whaddya hafta do in Peking?
Jim: I've gotta giv'em some lectures, but I also wanna do some sightseeing.
Brian: Where'll ya go?
Jim: I wanna gedouda Peking 'n see the Great Wall.
Brian: Okay, hav' a good time.
Jim: Okay, g'bye.

133
 As it was written:
Brian: When are you going to Peking?
Jim: I am going to go on Sunday.
Brian: Boy! I wish I were getting out of here for awhile. You got your plane ticket?
Jim: No. I have got to get it tomorrow.
Brian: What do you have to do in Peking?
Jim: I have got to give them some lectures, but I also want to do some sightseeing.
Brian: Where will you go?
Jim: I want to get out of Peking and see the Great Wall.
Brian: Okay, have a good time.
Jim: Okay, goodbye.
Reduced forms: 46 (counting underlined words only).

Reductions - word + you

betcha - bet you
doncha - don't you
getcha - get you
gotcha - got you
howarya - how are you
howdya - how do you
howjya - how did you
howujya - how would you
jya - did you
whaddaya - what are you
whaddaya - what do you
wancha - want you
whajya - what did you
whenjya - when did you
wherjya - where did you
whojya - who did you
woujya - would you

134
 American English Pronunciation: The Sounds of T
Say "time," "dime" and "nine." Notice how T, D, and N are made with the tongue
in the same place inside the mouth. This will help you understand the rules below.

T Rule Rule Notes on Rule Examples

The regular T sound is ST or TS always keep table, tall, test, best
T=T almost always used when "t" the regular T sound as all first letter T's
is the first letter of a word. well.

When T is between two It should be a soft, light Practice with:

T=D vowel sounds (A,E,I,O,U) or
Between between a vowel and L or R
Vowel (these letters are called semi-
Sounds vowels to linguists),
it becomes a D sound. In
phonetics, this sound is
called
a "flap," which means the
tongue touches the roof of
the mouth quickly.
When T comes after N, the T
T= sound is dropped in many
Silence words.
When This rule is not as important,
after N as it's informal.
It is mostly used when
people speak quickly, but it's
good to be able to listen for
this change.
T= When T comes after N, the T
Silence sound is dropped in negative
When words.
after N in
Negative
sound. This is the key computer, water,
difference bottle, heater, better,
between British and matter, ability,
American speech. This university, put it on,
rule is widely great idea
applicable—
you may find a few Say: compuder,
exceptions, but you will wader, bodul, header,
be more surprised by beder, mader, abilidy,
how well the rule universidy, pudidon,
works. ** gread'idea
It is also good to Practice with:
remember interview, interstate,
not to pronounce a international, wanted,
strong T at the middle or don't know, printer,
end of a word. enter, twenty
When not at the
beginning or stressed, a Say: inerview,
T should be fast and inerstate, inernational,
soft or barely heard at wanned, don'know,
all. priner, ener, tweny
Practice with:
couldn’t, didn’t,
wouldn’t
Say: couldn’ ; didn’;
wouldn’

135
 When T is before an N, the
T = Hard sound is stopped and turns
N When into a hard N.
before N The final N should be
strong. This sound is more
difficult.
When T is at the end of a
T= word (and this is not
Stopped followed by a vowel), the
Sound sound stops.
To say this correctly,
emphasize the preceding
vowel, put
your tongue into place and
simply stop the sound.
It may be best to listen Practice with:
for it for a while and mountain, fountain,
then start trying to use curtain, written,
it. forgotten, important,
sentence
Say: mou-N, fou-N,
cur-N, wri-N, forgo-
N, impor-Nt, sen-Nce
This one too can be hot, hat, mat, fat, lot,
difficult to master, so rat, pat, foot, want, sit,
listen for it first, sat, fit, bat, pot
especially when people
say "It's hot!" or "That's
that."

** This T = D rule applies also when T is at the end of a word and the word is followed
by a vowel sound, such as "put it on." This phrase would read "pudidon." This is very
common in expressions that use "what" and "that," as in "what a good idea" or "wada
good idea." Remember: this is only true for vowel sounds. If the vowel is silent, the rule
does not work. Note the word "write." The E is silent, so the T is not a D sound. This
rule does not apply when the middle T sound is stressed, such as "Italian."

*** TR pronounced CH : tree = chree ; truck = chruck ; country = couchry

***** interesting = inchrestin

**** comfortable = comftable

***** hundred = hunjrd

136
Gotta is a way of writing got to that shows how these words are pronounced in the
expression have got to in casual speech: have gotta. Have gotta is an informal way of
saying that something is necessary or must be true.

 I’ve gotta leave in 15 minutes. (=it is necessary that I leave in 15 minutes)

 You’ve gotta be kidding. (=it must be true that you are kidding)
 We’ve gotta learn to get along better. (=it is necessary that we learn to get along better)

In very informal language, gotta is sometimes written and spoken without have, as in
these examples, which have the same meaning as the sentences above:

 I gotta leave in 15 minutes.

 You gotta be kidding.
 We gotta learn to get along better.

With or without have, gotta is very casual, and should only be used in informal
conversation or when writing a representation of informal conversation.
wanna
1. spelling of want a.
I wanna puppy!
1. Eye dialect spelling of want to.
I wanna go home!

wanna / gonna

Wanna and gonna are frequently used in speech in informal colloquial English,
particularly American English, instead of want to and going to. You will also see them
used in writing in quotes of direct speech to show the conversational pronunciation
of want to and going to.

Gonna to express the going to form of the future is used with first second and third
person singular and plural. Note that in the interrogative, are is omitted in second person
singular and first and second person plural

 What we gonna do now? (= What are we going to do now?)

 Don't know about you two. I'm gonna put my feet up and take a break.
 We're gonna carry on and try and get there before dark.

 What's he gonna wear on his wedding day?

~ I dunno. But he's gonna look real smart.

137
Wanna can be used with all persons singular and plural, except third person singular.
This is because wanna scans with I want to, you want to, we want to, they want to, but
not with he/she wants to where the final s is too intrusive:

 What you wanna do now? (Instead of: What do you want to do now?)
 I wanna go home. My mum and dad are waiting for me and they wanna go out.

 You'll never give up gambling. I'm sure of that. ~ You wanna bet?
(which means: Do you want to place a bet on that?)

a wannabee

This term derives originally from the US, but is now used extensively in British
English. A wannabee (literally a want-to-be) is someone who is trying to copy
somebody else. Usually the person they are trying to copy is somebody famous.

Scores of Britney Spears wannabees raided the shops where she had bought her latest
outfit.

gotta

Gotta is used in a similar way to gonna and wanna, in this case to show the
conversational pronunciation of have got to, or as informal alternatives to have
to or must. It is not so much used in the interrogative:

Don't go out there tonight. It's really dangerous.

~ A man's gotta do what a man's gotta do
 I gotta / I've gotta phone home right now. My mum'll be worried.
You gotta / You've gotta get changed right away. The match starts in five minutes.

dunno

Dunno, meaning I don't know is characteristic of very informal speech in British

English. Note that the word stress in this expression is on the second syllable, whereas
with gonna, gotta and wanna it is on the first syllable.

 Are you going to college when you leave school? ~ Dunno!

 Will you quit your job if they re-locate to Manchester?
~ I dunno.

138
Words that Sound Alike

ACCEPT-to receive
ex: He accepts defeat well.
EXCEPT-to take or leave out
ex: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one.

AFFECT-to influence
ex: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work.
EFFECT-n., result, v., to accomplish
ex: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous.
ex: Can the university effect such a change without disrupting classes?

A LOT (two words)-many.

ALOT (one word)-Not the correct form.

ALLUSION-an indirect reference

ex: The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf's work.
ILLUSION-a false perception of reality
ex: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the desert.

ALL READY-prepared
ex: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived.
ALREADY-by this time
ex: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived.

ALTOGETHER-entirely
ex: Altogether, I thought that the student's presentation was well planned.
ALL TOGETHER-gathered, with everything in one place
ex: We were all together at the family reunion last spring.

APART-to be separated
ex: The chain-link fence kept the angry dogs apart. OR My old car fell apart before we
reached California.
A PART-to be joined with
ex: The new course was a part of the new field of study at the university. OR A part of
this plan involves getting started at dawn.

ASCENT- climb
ex: The plane's ascent made my ears pop.
ASSENT-agreement
ex: The Martian assented to undergo experiments.

139
BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaled
ex: You could see his breath in the cold air.
BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhale
ex: If you don't breathe, then you are dead.

CAPITAL-seat of government. Also financial resources.

ex: The capital of Virginia is Richmond.
ex: The firm had enough capital to build the new plant.
CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meets
ex: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol today.

CITE-to quote or document

ex: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper.
SIGHT-vision
ex: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of the
world.
SITE-position or place
ex: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.

COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to complete

ex: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree.
COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praise
ex: The professor complimented Betty on her proper use of a comma.

CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrong

ex: The student's conscience kept him from cheating on the exam.
CONSCIOUS-awake
ex: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house.

COUNCIL-a group that consults or advises

ex: The men and women on the council voted in favor of an outdoor concert in their
town.
COUNSEL-to advise
ex: The parole officer counseled the convict before he was released.

ELICIT-to draw or bring out

ex: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student.

ILLICIT-illegal
ex: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities.

140
EMINENT-famous, respected
ex: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award.
IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsic
ex: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized.
IMMINENT-ready to take place
ex: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter my house.

ITS-of or belonging to it
ex: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room.
IT'S-contraction for it is
ex: It's a beautiful day in the neighborhood.

LEAD-noun, a type of metal

ex: Is that pipe made of lead?
LED-verb, past tense of the verb "to lead"
ex: She led the campers on an over-night hike.

LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)
ex: I have a headache, so I'm going to lie down for a while.
(also lying, lay, has/have lain--The dog has lain in the shade all day; yesterday, the dog
lay there for twelve hours).
LAY-to lay an object down.
ex: "Lay down that shotgun, Pappy!"

ex: The town lay at the foot of the mountain.

(also laying, laid, has/have laid--At that point, Pappy laid the shotgun on the ground).

LOSE--verb, to misplace or not win

ex: Mom glared at Mike. "If you lose that new lunchbox, don't even think of coming
home!"
LOOSE--adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)--to release
ex: The burglar's pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the race with the cop
chasing him.
ex: While awaiting trial, he was never set loose from jail because no one would post his
bail.

PASSED-verb, past tense of "to pass," to have moved

ex: The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage.
PAST-belonging to a former time or place
ex: Who was the past president of Microsoft?
ex: Go past the fire station and turn right.

141
PRECEDE-to come before
ex: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers.
PROCEED-to go forward
ex: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam/

PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authority

ex: The principal ingredient in chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips.
ex: The principal of the school does the announcements each morning.
PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truth
ex: The study was based on the principle of gravity.

QUOTE-verb, to cite
ex: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.
QUOTATION-noun, the act of citing
ex: The book of famous quotations inspired us all.

RELUCTANT-to hesitate or feel unwilling

ex: We became reluctant to drive further and eventually turned back when the road
became icy.

RETICENT-to be reluctant to speak; to be reserved in manner. Note that The American

Heritage Dictionary lists "reluctant" as a synonym for "reticent," as the third definition.
For nuance and variety, we recommend "reticent" for reluctance when speaking or
showing emotion (after all, even extroverts can become reluctant).
ex: They called him reticent, because he rarely spoke. But he listened carefully and only
spoke when he had something important to say.

STATIONARY-standing still
ex: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object.
STATIONERY-writing paper
ex: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper.

SUPPOSED TO-correct form for "to be obligated to" or "presumed to" not "suppose to"
SUPPOSE-to guess or make a conjecture
ex: Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane supposed to
arrive? We are supposed to check our bags before we board, but I suppose we could do
that at the curb and save time.

THAN-use with comparisons

ex: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall.
THEN-at that time, or next
ex: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed.

142
THEIR-possessive form of they
ex: Their house is at the end of the block.
THERE-indicates location (hint: think of "here and there")
ex: There goes my chance of winning the lottery!
THEY'RE-contraction for "they are"
ex: They're in Europe for the summer--again!

THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out of

ex: He plowed right through the other team's defensive line.
THREW-past tense of throw
ex: She threw away his love letters.
THOROUGH-careful or complete
ex: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of dust when he
finished.
THOUGH-however; nevertheless
ex: He's really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside.
THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writing
ex: We're thru for the day!

TO-toward
ex: I went to the University of Richmond.
TOO-also, or excessively
ex: He drank too many screwdrivers and was unable to drive home.
TWO-a number
ex: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.

WHO-pronoun, referring to a person or persons

ex: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be having difficulties in Calculus.
WHICH-pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s);not used to refer to persons
ex: Which section of history did you get into?
THAT-used to refer to things or a group or class of people
ex: I lost the book that I bought last week.

WHO-used as a subject or as a subject complement (see above)

ex: John is the man who can get the job done.
WHOM-used as an object
ex: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement?

143
IRREGULAR VERBS
Base Form Simple Past Tense Past Participle
awake awoke awoken
be was, were been
bear bore born
beat beat beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
beset beset beset
bet bet bet
bid bid/bade bid/bidden
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
burn burned/burnt burned/burnt
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast

144
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dive dived/dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
drive drove driven
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fit fit fit
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown

145
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forego (forgo) forewent foregone
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
kneel knelt knelt
knit knit knit
know knew know
lay laid laid
lead led led
leap leaped/lept leaped/lept
learn learned/learnt learned/learnt

146
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lighted/lit lighted
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
misspell misspelled/misspelt misspelled/misspelt
mistake mistook mistaken
mow mowed mowed/mown
overcome overcame overcome
overdo overdid overdone
overtake overtook overtaken
overthrow overthrew overthrown
pay paid paid
plead pled pled
prove proved proved/proven
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung

147
rise rose risen
run ran run
saw sawed sawed/sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewed/sewn
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved/shaven
shear shore shorn
shed shed shed
shine shone shone
shoe shoed shoed/shod
shoot shot shot
show showed showed/shown
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slay slew slain

148
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slit slit slit
smite smote smitten
sow sowed sowed/sown
speak spoke spoken
speed sped sped
spend spent spent
spill spilled/spilt spilled/spilt
spin spun spun
spit spit/spat spit
split split split
spread spread spread
spring sprang/sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stank stunk
stride strode stridden
strike struck struck
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept

149
swell swelled swelled/swollen
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
thrive thrived/throve thrived
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden
understand understood understood
uphold upheld upheld
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave weaved/wove weaved/woven
wed wed wed
weep wept wept
wind wound wound
win won won
withhold withheld withheld

150
 withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

IRREGULAR VERBS WITH SIMILAR ENDINGS

Verbs ‘ought’
Base Form Simple Past Tense Past Participle
bring brought brought
buy bought bought
fight fought fought
seek sought sought
think thought thought
Verbs ‘aught’
catch caught caught
teach taught taught
Verbs ‘ent’
bend bent bent
go went went
lend lent lent
send sent sent
spend spent spent
Verbs ‘ang’
ring rang rang
sing sang sang
spring sprang sprang

151
Verbs ‘ove’
dive dove dove
drive drove drove
strive strove striven
weave wove Woven
Verbs ‘ew’
blow blew blown
draw drew drawn
fly flew flown
grow grew grown
know knew knew
overthrow overthrew Overthrown
slay slew slain
throw threw thrown
Verbs ‘ame’
become became Become
come came Come
overcome overcame Overcome
Verbs ‘oke’
awake awoke awoken
break broke broken
lead led led
plead pled pled
shed shed Shed
speed sped sped
wed wed Wed

152
Verbs ‘aid’
lay laid laid
pay paid paid
say said Said
Verbs ‘id’
bid bid bid
do did done
hide hid Hidden
rid rid Rid
slide slid Slid
Verbs ‘ot’
forget forgot forgotten
get got gotten
shoot shot Shot
Verbs ‘ook’
forsake forsook Forsaken
mistake mistook mistaken
overtake overtook overtaken
shake shook shaken
take took Taken
Verbs ‘ore’
bear bore born
shear shore shorn
swear swore sworn
tear tore torn
wear wore worn

153
 OTHER SIMILAR IRREGULAR VERBS
Here you find irregular verbs listed according to there similarities and
differences.
ALL 3 FORMS ARE SIMILAR
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
bet* bet bet
burst burst burst
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
read read read
set set set
shut shut shut

INFINITIVE AND SIMPLE PAST ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

beat beat beaten

INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

come came come
run ran run
become became become

154
 SIMPLE PAST AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
bring brought brought
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
deal dealt dealt
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
get got got
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hold held held
keep kept kept
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
light* lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant

155
meet met met
pay paid paid
say said said
sell sold sold
send sent sent
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
stick stuck stuck
sweep swept swept
swing swung swung
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
understand understood understood
win won won

156
ALL 3 FORMS ARE DIFFERENT
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE
be was/were been
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
choose chose chosen
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
freeze froze frozen
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hide hid hidden
know knew known
lie lay lain
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen

157
see saw seen
shake shook shaken
show* showed shown
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
speak spoke spoken
spring sprang sprung
steal stole stolen
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
write wrote written

158
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