Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Sustainable energy from waste organic matters via efficient

microbial processes
Rajesh K. Srivastava a, Nagaraj P. Shetti b,⁎, Kakarla Raghava Reddy c, Tejraj M. Aminabhavi d,⁎
a
Department of Biotechnology, Gitam Institute of Technology and Management (Deemed to be University), A.P. 530045, India
b
Center for Electrochemical Science and Materials, Department of Chemistry, K.L.E. Institute of Technology, Gokul, Hubballi 580030, Karnataka, India
c
School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
d
Pharmaceutical Engineering, SET's College of Pharmacy, Dharwad 580 002, Karnataka, India

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Presence of waste matters in various

parts of environment is discussed.
• Emphasized on approaches for waste to
energy conversion via waste matter re-
duction
• Approaches for degradation of waste
matters for biofuel energy
• Bioenergy mitigates climate changes,
toxic gases and particle generation.
• Information on sustainable fuel energy
development is discussed.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This review emphasizes utilization of waste organic matters from water bodies and soil sources for sustainable
Received 24 November 2019 energy development. These organic waste matters (including microplastics) from a variety of environmental
Received in revised form 22 February 2020 sources have created a big challenge to utilize them for energy development for human needs, maintaining a
Accepted 12 March 2020
cleaner environment and thereby, producing useful bioproducts (sustainable bioenergy or other primary metab-
Available online 14 March 2020
olites). Anaerobic digestions as well as other effective wastewater treatment approaches are discussed. From the
Keywords:
water bodies, waste organic matter reduction can be achieved by a reduction of chemical oxygen demand and
Sustainable bioenergy biological oxygen demand after the waste treatment. Other forms of organic waste matter are available in the
Microbial processes form of agro wastes or residues (stalk of wheat or rice, maize, corn etc.) due to crop cultivation, which are gen-
Organic waste matter erally burnt into ashes. Such wastes can be utilized for bioenergy energy production, which would help for the
Agrowaste reduction of climate changes or other toxic gases. Hydrogen, bioelectricity, ethanol, butanol, methane and algal
Clean energy diesel or other types of fuel sources would help to provide sustainable source of bioenergy that can be produced
Waste treatment from these wastes via degradation by the biological processes. This review will discuss in depths about the sus-
tainable nature of organic matters to produce clean energy via application of efficient biological methods to main-
tain a clean environment, thereby providing alternative options to fossil energy fuels.
© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

⁎ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: dr.npshetti@gmail.com (N.P. Shetti), aminabhavit@gmail.com (T.M. Aminabhavi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137927
0048-9697/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
2 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927
1. Introduction
Plants of different species show photosynthetic abilities for the pro-
duction of different forms of waste organic matters or materials (com-
plex forms) by the utilization of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water
(H2O) with the capturing ability of solar or radiation energy. The maxi-
mum quantity of produced organic matter can to enter into the soil en-
vironment from their roots as a waste product (Reddy et al., 2020). In
soil environment, naturally originated electrochemically active bacteria
have the capability to break-down these organic matters by producing
electrons, which can be utilized for electricity power generation via
plant-based technological approaches (Nitisoravut and Regmi, 2017).
The power of plants is reported with living plant species that have
the ability of capturing solar energy from natural sources via generating
electric power for the entire periods (24 h/day), and these are different
from the artificial or synthetic solar panels. The plants use natural solar
power, which promotes for the utilization of plant species involved in
the microbial fuel cell (P-MFC). P-MFC is reported as a new and promis-
ing bioenergy source with clean energy technology for sustainable en-
ergy development across the world (Gurram and Kothapalli, 2017;
Nitisoravut and Regmi, 2017). Biogas production can therefore provide
sustainable alternative fuel energy via utilization of agricultural organic
wastes, which requires proper recovery with high percentage of humid-
ity content. Methanization processes can produce the positive energy
balance via stabilizing the organic matter in the soil. This process
helps to mineralize nitrogen and phosphorus for assimilation by the
plants with a reduction of load by the pathogenic microorganisms
(Wang et al., 2018). Further, this process can reduce odors in addition
to other advantages such as effective reduction of greenhouse gas emis-
sions (GHG) in the environment. Cultivation of microalgal species can
help for more energy recovery via reduction in CO2 emissions from
the biomethanization process (Tilche and Galatola, 2008; Shetti et al.,
2020). In biomethanization process, fermentation is carried out via uti-
lization of biodegradable organic matter or materials in the absence of
oxygen (O2) as well as decomposition or degradation of organic matter,
which is found in biogas production by the bacteria (contains different
ratio of methane and carbon dioxide). It utilizes different sources of or-
ganic matter from the dump sites, purifiers, organic wastes fraction
from municipal sites, agro-industrial organic wastes or crops (Wang
et al., 2018; Gupta and Mittal, 2019; Shetti et al., 2019a).
Factors related to economic, social and cultural aspect, can affect the
optimal technical uses of different types of organic wastes that are
found in different components of the environment, and these are de-
pendent on the availability of resources, generated from food prepara-
tion and energy synthesis and hence, their waste products are
disposed into the water sources. From a domestic view-point, organic
wastes from kitchen sources can be used to produce biogas. This re-
quires new capital expenditure for increasing the credit by minimizing
the risk for household organic waste as well as increasing the sustain-
able energy security (Shetti et al., 2019b). However, the best relation-
ship required between social or gender levels within households or
communities is the necessity to adopt new technologies for minimum
labor needs or requirements for water or wood collection. Biogas pro-
duction is produced from the cattle dung via reducing the national
wood fuel demand (21%) and also reducing the trend of current defor-
estation (20%) in order to fulfill the fuel demand for wood (Abraham
et al., 2020; Shetti et al., 2019b).
Sustainable nature of bioenergy development has been reported via
application of waste-to-energy conversion processes and such attempts
have represented as an important opportunity for total healthy environ-
ment components. The availability of waste organic matters is found at
low cost for their collection and treatment. Promotion of waste-to-
energy conversion can be done via organic waste methanization pro-
cesses by evaluating the potential of renewable energy generation and
CO2 sequestration as shown in Fig. 1 (Maria et al., 2019; Shetti et al.,
2019c).
Various types of waste organic matters are reported from the urban
solid organic waste sources (8.5 million tons per year), but sewage
sludge organic matter has quantified N3.38 × 104 tons per year, while
cow dung organic matter is estimated to be around 3.3 × 104 tons per
year that is widely available in urban and rural areas at increased quan-
tity. Energetic valorization of the above-mentioned wastes can be used
to produce biogas production (1.7 million·m3) and electricity genera-
tion (3.57 TWh). These approaches may lead to sequestration of CO2
(2.05 million tons) without greenhouse gas emission via organic wastes
degradation in public dump sites (Triyono et al., 2019; Shetti et al.,
2019d).
Anaerobic treatment has been applied for two types of dairy efflu-
ents (i.e., pure whey~PW and loss in dairy product~LDP), generated by
the milk cooperative industry (from Morocco) for methane production.
Physicochemical characterization study was done for promoting the
richness of organic matters from these effluents (97% for LDP and 87%
for PW). Microbiological analysis reports are also done for these efflu-
ents that contain several microorganisms (total germs and lactic acid
bacteria) with total coliforms present only in LDP and the sulfate-
reducing bacteria in both substrates (Shetti et al., 2019e). Biochemical
Methane Potential (BMP) was used for getting the information on
three organic loads (100% of 120 mL, 50% of 60 mL and 25% of 30 mL
of substrate) at 38 °C. Low loads of organic matter (25% and 50%) had
produced good CH4 yields for two substrates (25.5 mL STP/g·VS from
PW: and 79.1 mL STP/g·VS from LDP) with a reduction of volatile
solid (VS) or total solid (TS~80%) contents as well as decreased organic
pollution level from the water bodies (Lhanafi et al., 2017).
Biofuels can play a crucial role for the minimization of our depen-
dency on fossil fuels to help for the mitigation of environmental prob-
lems. For the development of biofuels sector, we need to exploit
microalgal biomass utility without compromising the crops lands used
for food crop cultivation (N.L. Reddy et al., 2019; C.V. Reddy et al.,
2019). However, Life Cycle Assessment (LCAs) can be done for biofuel
production from the microalgae and byproducts containing water
streams used for algal biomass production. Wastewater organic matter
or waste carbon monooxide (CO) recovered products from the flue gas
would help in the reduction of environmental impact by recovering
more quantity of biofuels (Hossain et al., 2019).
LCA compared six alternative scenarios with the potential benefits
for environment conditions. Using carbon oxide substrates from differ-
ent sources (i.e., commercial CO liquid, CO recovered from flue gas) and
wastewater can be utilized for microalgae cultivation would help for the
production of biofuels. Flue gases are generated from fossil fuel-based
electricity generating units, which is a mixture of carbon dioxide, acidic
gases, particulates or heavy metals generated from direct (incineration)
or indirect oxidation (pyrolysis or gasification) of derived fuels or inter-
mediate syngas. However, open microalgal cultivation is found in pol-
luted ponds located in Kingston, Canada and these sources of CO
richness are found to be consumed for algal biomasses for algal biodiesel
production (Reddy et al., 2019a). These approaches can utilize for the
direct injection of flue gases as substrates into algal pod systems in
order to and help for wastewater purification (Collotta et al., 2018).
This review emphasizes recent efforts on waste organic matters and
their utilization via applications of modern technologies for sustainable
bioenergy development to seek alternative options to fossil fuel energy.
We will also discuss various strategies used in the reduction of concen-
tration of waste organic matters with mitigation of toxics gases to min-
imize climatic changes for maintaining a healthy environment.
2. Impact of waste organic matters from different sources
Municipal solid organic wastes (MSW) are reported in various forms
such as garbage, refuse, sludge and other discarded organic materials
coming from industry, commercial places, mining location, agricultural
operation tasks or community activities. Biodegradable product packag-
ing, clothing, food scraps, and newspapers are found as garbage organic
 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927
materials, obtained from homes, schools, and business sectors. These
waste residues can be effectively converted into many types of reusable
materials, energy, and other value added products and these are shown
in Fig. 1. Energy recovery can be done from the organic wastes (lignocel-
lulosic matter) utilization via having some limitation of high investment
and operating costs (Salgado et al., 2019; Rao et al., 2019).
For the availability of waste organic matters, a particulate matter
source study has been performed for most of the polluted cities, such
as for example, Tuscany, Italy. It was found that old waste matter com-
bustion equipment plants were used to burn these organic matters. Due
to combustion of waste lignocellulosic matter, generation of high PM
was reported and an extensive field campaign program for PM10 level
has been done by the regional governments and these efforts have
helped to identify PM sources with quantifications of their contributions
in the environment (Reddy et al., 2019c).
For this campaign, daily PM10 samples were collected for one year
period and analyzed by different techniques for their complete chemical
characterization (Krishna et al., 2018). These analyses are reported with
fine (N2.5 μm) or coarse particles sizes containing (2.5–10 μm) aerosol
samples. Positive Matrix Factorization (PMF) analysis was used to iden-
tify ten main sources of particulate matters from which six sources of
PM are reported due to anthropogenic activity (via biomass burning
~30%, traffic activity~18%, secondary nitrates formation ~14%, secondary
sulfates, incinerator plants or heavy oil combustion tasks), two PM
sourced from natural sources (Saharan dust or fresh sea salt activity)
and two PM sources from mixed sources activities (local dust or aged
sea salt) (Lucarelli et al., 2019). Life cycle assessment (LCA) applied as
an effective techniques for evaluating the performance of wastewater
treatment plants (WWTPs), which was beneficial to evaluate the per-
formance of wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) via comparing dif-
ferent particles sizes in the upgrading options. Investigation of the
environmental impact was also done for upgrading options for a prelim-
inary analysis of WWTPs in Istanbul, Turkey (Das et al., 2018).
Mechanical treatment units reported for various types of upgrading
options (i.e., primary treatment plants or high rate of activated sludge
system ~HRAS) with a comparison to the addition of various food
wastes to wastewater sites. A baseline scenario (S0) criterion has
shown the worse performance compared to the entire future scenario
(S1–3). Adding food waste types to wastewater (S3) sources have
shown the best performance in climatic changes with the information
on terrestrial acidification or eco-toxicity and fossil depletion. Increased
addition of food wastes has shown sensitivity with major improve-
ments in climatic change or terrestrial eco-toxicity effect (Guven et al.,
2018).
Fig. 1. Graphical abstract for sustainable energy from waste organic matter of different sites of environment.
3
Dissolved organic matter (DOM) in leachate sites can improve the
leachate treatment efficiency by making the waste stabilization pro-
cesses by performing proper waste management. Molecular-level anal-
ysis information for DOM in twenty-two leachate sites samples were
collected by using the analytical techniques such as ultra-performance
liquid chromatography coupled with hybrid quadrupole Orbitrap mass
spectrometry (UPLC-Orbitrap-MS). These analyses are found to be the
base for two dimensions of retention time and mass to charge ratio.
These DOM data were evaluated by unique mass peaks analysis in
N20% of the detected mass peaks in each leachate site (Shrivastava
et al., 2018).
Molecular-level information for DOM component analysis can be ap-
plied for making the design of waste landfills that can help to minimize
of environmental issues. Wastage compositions are reported in unique
DOM detection processes that were found to increase almost double
with a decrease of H/C ratio and wastage. Artificial matters (N-
butylbenzene sulfonamide) are found to correlate with wastage by
performing multiple tests or non-target screening processes. The finger-
prints of waste leachate could help in environmental monitoring analy-
sis (tracing landfill leakage) (Qiu et al., 2019).
The highest fraction of POM size particles (i.e. 0.05–0.25 mm) was
observed and occasionally with the size smaller than 1.0 mm of POM
fraction with a lowest fraction of size of 0.25 to 0.5 mm of POM. Enrich-
ment coefficient with mass loads of heavy metals was Cu, Pb, Zn and Cd
elements in sizes of 0.05 to 0.25 mm of POM having in high quantity. It
was found that mass loading capacities of heavy metals in POM de-
creased in the order from copper to lead (Cu N Cd N Zn N Pb). The surface
of POM is reported as smooth in coarse size and rough-in smaller size
particle fraction, found in large specific areas of site. The POM fractions
with different patterns of distribution of heavy metals are reported in
the revegetated waste slag due to phytostabilization processes under
the influence of speciation of heavy metals at the phytoremediation
sites (Luo et al., 2019).
Highly variable isotope ratios are found between the changes in sea-
sonal climatic and hydrological cycles in Pearl River subtropical estuary.
Wet seasons have reported the depletion of isotope δ13C values due to
dominance species of terrestrial or freshwater algae from POM contain-
ing sources. Marine phytoplankton species contribution is found to be
around 16 to 59% with the further increase during dry seasons. The
δ15N isotope has shown a sharp increase up to 18% at low saline condi-
tion (0–5%) during high flow seasons (Ido et al., 2019).
Due to high NO− 3 concentrations, phytoplankton and bacteria spe-
cies assimilations are found at δ15N to enrich the NO− 3 particles as well
as notable isotope fractionation during the microbial mineralization
4 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927
processes. Annual variability in δ13C isotope is found to small over two
years of time, but the particulate nitrogen (PN) is reported to exhibit a
lower concentration in the year 2014. Temperature controlled biological
processes for particulate organic nitrogen is found in lesser quantity due
to different biogeochemical reactions or responses occurred the year
2014 and also strong E1 Nino in the year 2015 (Xu et al., 2020; Ye
et al., 2017).
Application of solid-state 13C isotope in cross-polarization and magic
angle spinning (CP-MAS), in solution form or state 1H, 13C heteronuclear
single quantum coherence (HSQC) or nuclear magnetic resonance
(NMR) spectroscopy analysis can be done for the estimation of different
types of POM. A comparison of different types of POM with respect to
structural or compositional analysis was reported for each AD plants
(Soucémarianadin et al., 2017). These analyses have shown with the en-
richment of protein structures relative to carbohydrates in majority
cases and these imply preferential degradation of carbohydrates com-
ponents over that of protein. This has resulted to increase the microbial
biomasses in AD plants containing agricultural or food wastes (Pandey
et al., 2019). Municipal solid waste (MSW) is a good source of garbage
matter that can be used for the production of energy from waste-to-
energy at different landfills sites in many countries including the United
State. MSW is a good source of biological origin biomass waste including
plants and animal and waste papers, cardboards, food wastes. Grass
clipping parts, plant leaves, wood or leather products are also the
main components of MSW (Soucémarianadin et al., 2017).
The structures of labile recalcitrant components of POM were sub-
jected to different AD plants as identified by NMR spectra of the sub-
strates or digestate of POM analysis. It was shown that labile POM
fraction in food or agriproducts as well as solid wastes are the lipids or
starch-like carbohydrates. In recalcitrant POM portion, alkyl and aro-
matic subunits are found in amino acids, lignin or polysaccharides
with β-glycosidic linkages. Optimization to improve AD efficiency
with improved biogases formation was reported to understand the
fate of organic matters in the digestate (Yekta et al., 2019;
Soucémarianadin et al., 2017).
Thermal conversions of phytoremediation are reported for biochar
synthesis as a safe approach or technique for waste organic matter re-
duction. Phytoremediation plant (Silphium perfoliatum L) was used for
the synthesis of biochar at temperatures of 350–750 °C range with the
mitigation of leakage risk of potentially toxic metals (PTMs) to offer a
maximum of biochar oxidation resistance. PTMs in the biochar synthe-
sis can be transformed it into more stable or less toxic forms of PMs at
higher pyrolysis temperature (750 °C). Synthesis of biochar at the ele-
vated temperature has shown lesser carbon loss with strong oxidation
resistance preventing the release of metals with binding to the organic
matters (Du et al., 2019).
2.1. Effective reduction of organic wastes via microbial or other processes
Effects of short term periods of soil nature amendment processes
have been reported with the compost formation rate having solid
olive mill waste (OMW) that are found by applying two-phase treat-
ment strategy for humid OMW composition and its compost products
(Ye et al., 2017). In the treatment for soil water, extractable organic mat-
ters with effective soil microbiota species have been analyzed for the
performance of 120 days long field experiments. It was reported that
water-extractable organic carbon (WEOC) is rich in reducing the sugars
concentration and total phenol compounds in all the amended soils.
Humid OMW fraction has shown the highest concentration of WEOC
with the total phenol compounds and this trend is found to increase
to lesser extent of their contents in the amended soil due to rapid utili-
zation of these particular organic matters by the microbial activities
(Abbasnia et al., 2018).
The soil amendments were been induced with the rapid modifica-
tion of both fungal and bacterial communities. It was observed that bac-
terial communities restored their initial state to the end state of the
process due to their resilience capacity, whereas the fungal community
was changing the nature until 120 days. All the organic materials were
tested in the amended soils and it was noticed that microbial communi-
ties have positive and significant impact with better soil chemical struc-
tures (Federici et al., 2017). The cost reduction was achieved by the
skilled operators as well as support from the public or stakeholders for
bioenergy development. Producing free amino acids fraction or concen-
trate was reported from composting rate of organic matter fraction from
the municipal soil waste that was found to contain 76% of total nitrogen
sources that were hydrolyzed and utilized for lactic acid biosynthesis
(9–11 g·L−1) due to involvement of L. fermentum ATCC and L. plantarum
NCIMB 8826 strains (Kayode et al., 2018). These nitrogen sources are re-
sponsible for enzymatic hydrolysis or digestion (i.e., combined action of
endoprotease (from Alcalase strain 1.5 MG) and exoprotease (from
Flavourzyme strain 500 MG)) (Izaguirre et al., 2019; Kumar and Shetti,
2018).
Distribution of heavy metals in the contaminated soil or water is re-
ported to have a good source of particulate organic matter (POM) and
these heavy metals in POM are due to situ aided phytostabilization pro-
cesses containing waste slag in the environment. Zinc metal deposition
in PMO is found from zinc (Zn) smelting process for waste slag after a
decade of time due to the occurrence of situ-aided phytostabilization
processes. During this process, decomposed residues of four plants
(i.e. Arundo donax, Broussonetia papyrifera, Cryptomeria fortune or
Robinia pseudoacacia) were found from the different compositions
with different POM size fractions (Ye et al., 2017).
Up-flow mode of anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) reactor was used for
the reduction of organic waste matter by the synthesis of sustainable
biogases that can be achieved by inoculating the methanogenic gran-
ules. This UASB was found to operate for nine months via the removal
of total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) content with the anaerobic ammo-
nium oxidation reaction (Anaammox) pathway via utilization of exter-
nal nitrite sources (NH3:NO2 ~0.99) (Gao et al., 2019). Bioreactor
operation was completed at enhanced TAN concentration (330 mL/L)
and total chemical oxygen demand (t-COD~2.9 × 103) via utilization
of diluted chicken waste digestate for periods of 120 to 274 days with
57 to 80% of their organic matter reduction. Planctomycetes (Anaammox
bacteria) as the response of a microbial culture was found in influent
containing TAN and tCOD fractions as investigated by a high throughput
sequencing technique. Here, denitrifying bacteria played important or
critical role in nitrogen compound removal via activity of Anaammox
bacteria with the other microbial strains present in abundance
(Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes phyla). Later, sharp a decrease in
Planctomycetes is reported with the change of predominant phylum
(from Proteobacteria to Fircutes). Euryarchaeota was reported to be con-
stantly present in the degraded nitrogenous or organic matters as the
important components of bacterial community structure (Pekyavas
and Yangin-Gomec, 2019).
Molecular level particulate organic matter (POM) analysis was done
for agriculture or food waste digester plants to elucidate the molecular
property of the recalcitrant POM portion coming from the digestate
after completion of the AD process. Properties of POM from the influent
and effluent portions was characterized at the molecular level for seven
different types of full-scale AD Plants (three different POM from agricul-
tural wastes types and four different types of POM from food waste di-
gesters) with a comparison their different detection or analysis
methods (Svensson et al., 2018). During the process of compost forma-
tion, different types of DOM are utilized for the supply of energy sub-
strates for microbial growth or survival. The microbial activity can be
maintained by transferring and distributing the heavy metals in DOM
fraction. Dynamic nature of humic acids (HA), fulvic acids (FA), hydro-
phobic neutrals (HoN) or hydrophilic (Hi) organic matter fraction was
reported as derived from the DOM by the utilization of transformation
of different DOM subfractions with the distribution of heavy metals.
These DOMs have originated from different food wastes (Nádudvari
et al., 2018).
 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927 5

Co-composting can be assessed by excitation-emission matrix fluo-
rescence (EEM) and inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS). Such analysis reported for the HA transformation from poly-
cyclic aromatic humic acids to polycarboxylic humic acid-like mole-
cules. FA compound got changed from soluble microbial products
(SMP) to humic acid-like molecules. Further, Hi or HoN is composed
of mainly SMP substances (Svensson et al., 2018). FA has the abundance
of humic acid-like or tryptophan. Toxic heavy metals such as arsenic,
cadmium, chromium copper, mercury, nickel, lead or zinc are present
in the thermophilic phase of the compost formation. Composting of
DOM has shown the effect on germination index (GI), biomass, roots,
shoot length, or healthy index of Chinese cabbage seedling processes
with an indication of dynamic composition profiles and characteristics
of DOM sub fractions, hereby metals are distributed pattern in the com-
post formation processes (Shan et al., 2019).
2.2. Microplastic degradation
In oceans, microplatics (M.Ps) are present as the new pollutants in
other water bodies. The sequencing approach was applied to investigate
the successional stages of microbial communities attached during
microplastics degradation (e.g. polypropylene or polyvinylchloride) in
one year time in coastal areas of China. The composition of plastispheres
covered with microbial communities was found to vary remarkably
across the geographical location and exposure time.
Alphaproteobacteria class (Rhodobacteraceae) bacteria were domi-
nated in the plastispheres zones as confirmed by SEM with the signs
of degradation. These organisms showed the best adaption for the met-
abolic pathway including greater xenobiotics degradation and meta-
bolic reactions (Xu et al., 2019).
Microplastics (MPs) are found in various aquatic systems that are re-
ported as house wastewater or global aquatic bodies or sources. This
waste has become a potential challenge for marine life as well as
human bodies. For effective control of MPs, advanced technologies
such as integrated carboxylic oxidation and hydrothermal (HT) hydro-
lysis can be applied using the magnetic N-doped (spring-like carbon)
nanotubes to observe hydrolysis of MPs pollutants in the water bodies.
This approach has activated peroxymonosulfate compound for reactive
radical formation to decompose MPs. The process involves MPs degra-
dation via generating the intermediate organic matters that can support
best algal biodiesel development (Kang et al., 2019). A comprehensive
study was done for the evaluation of MPs present in surface water sys-
tems. In this study, samples containing different MPs were collected
from different sites in the Persian Gulf. These MPs with their different
sizes, shapes or color were identified by the ATR-FTIR methods with
their compositions. The collected samples from different locations,
have the varying densities from 1.5 × 103 particles km−2 to 4.6 × 10-
4
particles km−2 with the fixed mean density (1.8 × 103 particles km−2).

Organic waste to energy

conversion technology

Physical methods Thermal method Biological methods

™It is done mechanically to ™Combustion: It needs incinerator ™Fermentation: It

separates the pellets, wood at temperature of more than 260 °C completes at aerobic
chips, and wood briquettes with per ton of waste organic to form and anaerobic condition
or others organic waste 550 kilowatt hours (kWh) of energy via biodegradable municipal
fraction from municipal ™Pyrolysis ( at 400- 8000C): MSW waste (BMW) containing
(MSW), industrial or pyrolysis reactor forms flue gas, green waste, food wastes,
commercial waste. It biodiesel and refuse-derived fuel (RDF) bio-degradable plastic or
contains biodegradable ™Thermal gasification: (800- 4000C): It paper wastes with effective
plastic, rubber or papers generates a gaseous, fuel-rich product and digestion
steam energy for power generation.
™Anaerobic digestion: It
™ Plasma arc gasification: (2700- 4400
0C):It forms syngas product at lower forms biogases at anerobic
™Refuse derived fuel heating value (LHV)
condition from food wastes
or green fuel
™Electricity
™Syngas, tar with ash ™Methane, biohydrogen
™Syngas with vitrified glass ™methanol, or others
™Syngas, oil or char with ash alcoholic fuels
™Stream and electricity

Fig. 2. Different conversion methods for bioenergy synthesis from solid organic matter from municipal sources.
6 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927

It was thus found that MPs (44.1%) fibers (76%) of polyethylene or poly- Table 1
propylene having white or blue color were present (Kor and Mehdinia, Waste organic matter conversion for valuable bioproducts or reduction of concentration in
environments.
2020).
Oceanic MPs mitigation can be achieved by reduction in inland input Organic matter types Bioprocesses involved for conversion References
quantity and degradation of MPs can be done by photocatalyis pro- Wheat bran (WB) in Enzymatic pretreatment produced Mlaik
cesses. The authors studied the high density polyethylene (HDPF) deg- municipal solid waste 40.6% to 50% fermentable sugars and et al.,
radation extracted from the facial scrub. Photocatalyis was used by AD reduced 34.6–37.1% COD value 2019
Lipid (10.1%) and protein Organic nutrient in compost used for Chew
semiconductors based on N-TiO2. The mass losses of HDPE during the
(2.0%) in food waste in higher (11.1%) biomass (Chlorella et al.,
degradation were confirmed by SEM or FTIR (Ariza-Tarazona et al., compost mixture vulgaris) cultivation at reduced cost 2018
2019). In fact, MPs pollution in aquaculture has faced more challenges that generates electricity power or
due to the unwanted disposing of MPs. These MPs were assessed for biofuel
their abundance with their various characteristics (sizes, composition) Vermiculite prolonged the In composting, 10% vermiculite He et al.,
thermophilic phase decreased the NH3 loss (26.39%) via 2018
in the sediments or fishes such as bivalves, or shrimp in the aquaculture electrical power generation
site. Starch and cellulose were used for the synthesis of biodegradable Value added products from Huge amount of spent coffee grounds Atabani
plastics because these degrade in limited time periods in the soils with spent coffee grounds (SCGs) waste utilized for biodiesel, et al.,
the help of soil microbial systems. biogas, bioethanol, bio-oil or fuel 2019
pellets synthesis
MPs (51–58 items/kg dry weight) was reported having with fibers
Gypsum suppressed 560 mg-SO4/kg-gypsum (CaSO4) Blázquez
(b94%) shaped with the sizes of 500–2000 μm. The MPs components hydrogen sulfide (H2S) added to inert solid waste at landfill et al.,
have the cellulose (60–88%) as biodegradable component followed by reduced 50% H2S formation 2017
polypropylene. Shrimp (Parapenaeopsis hardwickii) has lower quantity Humification helped in water Humification, water-soluble carbon, Tang et al.,
of MPs accumulation than the other species and these MPs have the lim- extraction organic matter humification degree, aromatic carbon 2019
(WEOM) or protein-like influenced by
ited ability for recognition on the compositions of MPs during the inges-
dynamic Lactobacillus or A. fumigatus
tion by the species (Wu et al., 2019). respectively
Organic waste for lipid-based Oleaginous bacteria strain KM15 Qadeer
3. Technologies for the conversion of waste organic matters into sus- biofuels grown on food waste with et al.,
accumulated lipids (41.5%) and 2018
tainable bioenergy
removed the volatile solids (38.5%)
and COD (48.9%)
In various types of waste matters, lower calorific values of MSW are Dissolved organic matters 8.0–17.9 mg/L suspended Wu et al.,
reported for high moisture content with high organic matter contents (DOMs) extraction from multi-walled carbon nanotubes 2020
and waste mineral contents (ash, construction or demolished matters). SDOM and MDOM extracted DOMs (50–200 mg/L) from
cow manure (MDOM) or wheat
Changing the consumption during festival periods or seasons or sea-
straw (SDOM)
sonal crop cultivation may change in their waste compositions. For var- Landfill leachate water Picochlorum oculatum in wastewater Dogaris
ious types waste matters, limited practice of waste segregation is nutrients for algal biofuels helped in water remediation and et al.,
reported at the source, which is the pre-condition for anaerobic diges- high cell density (1.7–10 cells/mL) 2019
with dry biomass (1.9 g/L) for biofuel
tion processes. Various operation models have been reported for the uti-
Heat pretreatment affected Pretreatment at temperature Zhang
lization of organic matters for energy production (Hijazi et al., 2020). waste sludge hydrolysis (121 °C) for time (30 min), et al.,
Fig. 2 emphasizes the energy waste approaches. However, there is hydrolyzed carbohydrate or protein 2017
much information on the lack of knowledge for the operation and main- as a dissolved organic matters of
taining waste to energy conversion (WtE) plants and Table 1 shows or- waste sludge
Coal fly ash with wheat straw Coal fly ash (1–5 wt%) mixed with Gao and
ganic treatment for the valuable products. Sometimes, lack of
used for heterogeneous wheat straw and biochars at lowered Goldfarb,
monitoring or weak enforcement for environment standards may lead sorbents temperature helped in CO2, CH4 and 2019
to public health issues (Hijazi et al., 2020; Collotta et al., 2018). The an- C2H4 synthesis in waste-to-product
aerobic membrane-based bioreactor is suitable for such sustainable en- concept
ergy synthesis.

3.1. Anaerobic membrane bioreactors
Anaerobic membrane bioreactors with sludge filtration facility have
shown their impact of nitrogen contents on biological performance pro-
cesses by using two lab-scale experiments. Cross flow anaerobic mem-
brane bioreactor was applied to study the impact of cheese whey
waste matter addition to water that were checked for different COD
and total Kjeldahl nitrogen content (COD~50:TKN~190 ratio) in influent
fractions. It was observed that nitrogen deprivation adversely affected
the biological treatment performance and bioreactor stability. Volatile
fatty acid quantity accumulation was also affected the bioreactor perfor-
mance (Collotta et al., 2018).
Nitrogen (urea) supplementation has reduced the sludge median
particle sizes with decreased sludge filterability. Burning of MSW was
carried out in waste to energy treatment plants via using heat from
the fire. These have created better options for making stream energy
and later it was used for electricity or heat energy generation for the
buildings. During the year 2016, around 71 U.S. power plants were in-
volved for the generation of 14 billion k·Wh of electricity by burning
of around 30 million tons of combustible MSW and these sources
were reported to contain 64% biomass of the total weight of combustible
MSW that helped in the production of 51% of electric power. Other com-
bustible MSW was non-biomass in nature, which has shown as combus-
tible material like plastics. Many large-sized landfills were utilized for
generation of electric power via methane gas application. Methane pro-
duction was also reported from the decomposition of biomasses in land-
fill sites (Gao et al., 2019).
Standard filtration capability parameters are reported and these are
capillary suction time or specific resistance value to filtration task. These
parameters in filtration processes are found to effect in nitrogen supple-
mented reactor. The rapid deterioration of sludge filtration ability is re-
ported under nitrogen supplemented conditions due to abundant
growth of dispersed biomass and bioconversion processes. However,
this has reduced the filtration performance in anaerobic condition oper-
ated membrane bioreactor (Dereli et al., 2018).
In another study, the influence of temperature or salinities was re-
ported for an anaerobic mode membrane distillation bioreactor
(AnMDBR) performance for the potential recovery of bioresources and
bioprocesses for the reduction of dissolved organic matter (see Fig. 3).
Lab-scale AnMBR process was applied with the utilization of submerged
hollow fiber membranes. The hybrid bioreactor system was found to
contain membrane distillation facility and the anaerobic bioreactor
 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927
Fig. 3. Reduction strategies for waste organic matters in an aquatic system with biogas synthesis that disposed of municipal sites.
was used for inorganic salt rejection (up to 10%) at optimal temperature
(45–65 °C) to attain high initial flux (2 to 4 m−2 h−1). After seven days
periods operation, the flux value dropped (16–20%) and was found to be
proportional to the bioreactor temperature. Bioreactor temperature was
a critical parameter for permeation performance and fouling behavior
without the effect of salt concentration (Atabani et al., 2019) as shown
in Table 1. The compact and nonporous fouling layer was found on
membrane surface operated at the bioreactor temperature (65 °C). At
low bioreactor temperature (45 °C), few depositions were reported on
the membrane surface at the optimal AnMDBR temperature with the
balanced amount of biogas production and better membrane perme-
ation performance due to less fouling formation. A good biogas yield
(0.14 L/g COD removal) was reported with the better quantity of meth-
ane recovery (42%) in the biogas. The amount of recovered volatile fatty
acids was also reported in AnMDBR as an economically efficient system
and also its lower cost operation at smaller footprint of on-site waste-
water treatment system (Yao et al., 2019).
Volatile fatty acid (VFA) components in an anaerobic membrane dis-
tillation bioreactor (AnMBR) have produced with the treatment of low
strength synthetic wastewater and this waste didn't show any selective
inhibition during methane production. This process was used as solvent
extraction method for the extraction of VFA components. In solvent ex-
traction process, acetic acid (1.4 millimoles per liter) and propionic acid
(0.52 millimole per liter) were reported as predominant components of
VFA at pH 7.0 and 6.0. At pH value of 12.0, isobutyric acid (0.71 millimole
7
per liter) was reported to apply in higher concentration of obtaining
VFA with its major components and this has caused the highest VFA
yield (48.7 mg VFA per 100 mg of COD feed) at pH 7.0 value suggesting
that AnMBR has a good performance. Various steps in AD plants were
shown in Fig. 4. This bioreactor capacity was evaluated in terms of
COD or nutrient removal as well as faster membrane fouling rate at dif-
ferent pH values (acidic or alkaline conditions). The slowest rate of foul-
ing is found at pH 7.0 (Khan et al., 2019).
Continuous hydrogen (H2) production was reported by the applica-
tion of different types of enzymes (Stonezyme~IH or Celluclast
viscozyme~BH) for an enzymatic hydrolysis of agave bagasse. Continu-
ous stirred tank reactor (CSIR) or trickling bed reactor (TBR) was ap-
plied for the utilization of hydrolyzed form of agave bagasse for
hydrogen production. In CSIR fermentation, different volumetric hydro-
gen (H2) production rates (VHPR) were analyzed for the substrate of
agave bagasse, which hydrolyzed by BH (13 L·H2/L·d) and IH
(2.25 L·H2/L·d) mediated processes (Khan et al., 2019; Yao et al., 2019).
Smaller quantity of VHPR of 13 L·H2/L·d, 5.76 L·H2/L·d for BH and
13 L H2/L·d, 2.0 L·H2/L·d for IH in the TBR was reported and little differ-
ences of VHPR concentration between the reactors were observed due
to substrate availability. Substrate availability can be an intrinsic prop-
erty of microbial growth in each reactor due to change in configuration.
The difference in VHPR concentration can be found between the compo-
sition changes of enzymatic hydrolysates. Homo-acetogenesis can influ-
ence the H2 production and substrate transfer rate conditions. VHPR
8 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927
Hydrolysis
Carbohydrates
Sugar , amino acids and
protein and
fatty acids is found as
fats as a fatty acids as acid
soluble organic
substrates used
compounds in digester
™ C6H10O5 + H2O → C6H12O6
Complex substrates Simple substrates
™CH3COOH → CH4 +CO2
™CO2 +4H2 → CH4 +3H2O
Biogas : 50–75% of methane (CH4) ), 25–50% of carbon
dioxide (CO2) , 1–2% of hydrogen sulphides (H2S),
hydrogen (H2), ammonia (NH3) with traces quantity of
oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2)
Fig. 4. Steps in anaerobic digestion of waste organic matter for biogases synthesis via suitable microbial system.
concentration, yield or cost of hydrolysis of agave bagasse was analyzed
for the binary enzyme agent (celluclast viscozyme~BH) that was re-
ported as the most promising and alternative hydrolyzing technique,
which showed the scale-up potential for the production of biofuel en-
ergy (including hydrogen production) (Montoya-Rosales et al., 2019).
Degradation of organic waste fraction could occur due to the dispo-
sition to the landfill that could induce release of greenhouse gases with
leachating properties. Collection or treatment process of organic waste
matter can reduce or decrease environmental pollution via improving
the recycling rates. Flexibility and economically viable system could
also help to process all the residual municipal solid waste (RMSW)
and the organic fraction of municipal solid waste (DFMSW) coming
from the selective collection (SC) with low recycling rates (Khan et al.,
2019).
Dynamic systems of organic waste management comply with future
options due to increase in the efficiency of SC system and in this regard,
anaerobic mode batch reactors can be applied for the treatment of
RMSW and OFMSW components with improved of SC system
(i.e., from 10%, 25%, 50% or 75% SC rate). Up to 21% biogas production
is potentially found via improving the SC rate (10% to 75%) with the gen-
eration of electric energy and heating by making the system more prof-
itable under energetic benefits conditions. Quantity of electric energy
can be around 6.31 × 105 k·Wh for 10% SC rate and 4.42 × 105 k·Wh
for 75% SC rate per year via utilization of anaerobic digestion system
in many other countries also (Ragazzi et al., 2017).
Food wastage and its accumulation are the critical problems at the
global level and this trend is continuously increasing in quantity due
to increasing world population. In recent decades, there is an exponen-
tial growth in food waste with the creation of threatening issues to our
societies (i.e., environmental pollution, health risks or scarcity of
Acidogenesis
Alcohols , carbonic
acid and volatile
formation
Acetogenesis
Acetic acid formation shows acetic
acid (CH3COOH), ammonia (NH3),
hydrogen, (H2) with CO2, NH4, H2S
Methanogenesis
Biogases
as CH4
and CO2
dumping land or sites). To solve these issues, we need to develop appro-
priate strategies for the reduction of food burden by adopting standard
management practices. Various approaches have been used in food
waste processing or management tasks with their societal benefits
(Islami and Assareh, 2020). Anaerobic digestion treatment approach
has been applied as the most eco-friendly and most promising solution
for the reduction of food waste quantities with the production of energy
or nutrients. These approaches may help to fulfill the world's ever-
increasing energy requirement, wherein anaerobic biodegradation ap-
proaches would help in the utilization of food waste with an evaluation
of the effect of co-substrates, environmental factors, microbial popula-
tion contribution or available computational resources required to con-
tinue research efforts on food waste management (Paritosh et al., 2017).
Aquatic weed (Lemma minor) as waste organic matters has been re-
ported for its potential as well as to utilize them as feedstock for gaseous
fuel production (biohythane) via application of integrated hydrolysis
system or strategy. In this regard, three approaches of hydrolysis or di-
gestion such as acidogenic fermentation (HAF), electrohydrogensis
(HMEH) and methanogenesis (MAD) are applied for gaseous biofuel syn-
thesis. These processes have been evaluated for their performance capa-
bility from single stage, two stage or three stage basis. Single-stage as
well as two stages (HAF → HMEC, HAF → MAD) or three stages process
(HAF → HMEC → MAD or HAF → MAD → HMEC) can be shown to tap maxi-
mum feasible sustainable bioenergy as shown in Fig. 5. The three-stage
operation has produced a higher quantity of biogas (H2 + CH4) yield via
reduction of total organic carbon (TOC) compared to single or two-stage
operations (Islami and Assareh, 2020).
In the biogas production integration sequence, HAF in the first stage
is reported for harnessing higher energy via accumulation of volatile
fatty acids (VFA) along with hydrogen (H2). Integration of MAD in
 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927
‰ Households
‰ Shops and
markets Restaurants
‰ Institutions
‰ Others
Aerobic treatment,
and composting
(Low to medium and high cost)
Organic waste
Anaerobic digestion
for bioenergy (Medium to high cost)
Organic matter: Landfill gas extraction
Food, vegetables,
fruits, plant
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF)
residues, paper,
wood waste (Low to medium cost)
Fig. 5. Various forms of energy synthesized from waste organic utilization with surplus energy for various countries.
second stage has the capacity to trap higher amount of energy than hy-
drogen production due to high quantity of carbon loss and CO content,
which is coupled to more hydrogen quantity in total biogas production
(Grimes et al., 2019). In the three-stage integration processes, high yield
of biomass and energy recovery have been reported. In three stage pro-
cess, for HAF → MAD → HMEC processes with 38.8 mol biogas/kg TOCR or
2.5 × 104 kJ/kg TOCR bioenergy production was found to be higher in
quantity compared to other integration sequences such as
HAF → HMEC → MAD processes with 37.8 mol i.e., Biogas/kg TOCR;
1.5 × 104 kJ/kg TOCR. In this integrated approach, efficient conversion
with organic flow has exhibited for the best substrate degradation in
three-stage intergradation system (73–81%) compared to the second
stage (66–70%) or first stage (40–57%) (Kaur et al., 2019).
Syntheses of advanced biofuels (bioethanol or biodiesel) have been
reported by the utilization of renewable waste organic matters and
are shown in Fig. 5. It is a very critical step for the management of
earth sustainable waste material to mitigate global climate change ef-
fects as well as helping in partial replacement of gasoline or diesel in
the transport sector. Aquatic microorganisms are thus reported as di-
verse group and algae or micro-algae species are found as the most
prominent resources on the planet and also distributer in many aquatic
systems. These have been utilized as potential sources of bioenergy, bio-
mass or secondary metabolites. Production of microalgae-based biofuel
is now widely accepted food fuel sources and better energy efficiency
(Choi et al., 2019).
A comprehensive literature survey on novel approaches for the utili-
zation of microalgal species biomasses has been reported for their si-
multaneous cultivation. This algal cultivation helped for the utilization
of high nutrients in wastewater during bioremediation process that
can help in water purification task. Merits or demerits of different
existing conventional approaches for microalgae culturing in reactor,
harvesting of biomasses, oil recovery, use of different catalysts for
transesterification reactors or other product recovery tasks were also
discussed. These challenges have been discussed and compared with
9
oBangladesh (81)
oIndia (580)
($ million oNepal (11)
In values) oSrilanka (32)
Compost All countries
India (574), Nepal (11), and
Biogas
Electricity
Sri Lanka (38)(limited scale)
Bangladesh (80),
India (2730), Nepal
Biofuel to Electricity (50), Sri Lanka (180)
Bangladesh (380)
India (55), Nepal (1),
Briquettes (limited scale)
Bangladesh (8)
the membrane-based systems, as the best optimal condition for higher
biomass cultivation as well as lipid yield (Bücker et al., 2020). Tailor-
made membrane inappropriate modules have been used for processes
of upstream and downstream tasks during the algal-based biofuels pro-
duction. Tailor based membrane containing integrated system has
shown the potential of low cost or eco-friendly separation, purification
or concentration to enrich the algal biodiesel. Also, it helped with other
valuable algal byproducts with the scope of high degree of intensifica-
tion for scale-up at the industrial level (Pal et al., 2018).
3.2. Hydrogen fuel biosynthesis
Innumerable techniques have been employed for the conversion of
biomass into energy and biomasses synthesis via the utilization of
light energy sources which can be later converted into diesel fuel and
hydrogen. Hydrogen fuel generation can be a clean energy source via
using solar power and sustainable carbon sources available in various
forms on the Earth's surface (Kaur et al., 2018). Various types of bio-
masses are available as a renewable energy source in the form of
wood, animal manure, agricultural crops and other waste organic mate-
rials. Biomass is a good candidate for the replacement of petrochemical
products (petroleum or fossil fuels) via providing abundance and sus-
tainable derivative products and photocatalytic water splitting phe-
nomena used to split the biomass for higher yields and rates of
hydrogen production. Developments in technologies could help in
merging hydrogen synthesis and biomass conversion into value-added
chemicals or fuel sources (Kumar and Shetti, 2018). Hydrogen produc-
tion can be achieved via thermochemical conversion of biomass, a
promising technology including pyrolysis, gasification or stream
reforming with or without chemical looping technology (Kaur et al.,
2018; Dou et al., 2019).
Biohydrogen production from the electrolysis of biomass for
Miscanthus sinensis was the model approach due to its abundance and
ease of cultivation in Japan. Electrochemical performance and hydrogen
10 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927

synthesis properties of electrolysis cells have been the source for 3.3. Biogas production
biohydrogen formation at intermediate temperature to achieve the
electrolysis of biomass of Miscanthus sinensis, contains holocellulose, Energy conservation with the economic viability and social accep-
cellulose, lignin, and extractives as main components. Biomass of tance can be the most suitable technology and a number of hostel build-
Miscanthus sinensis was studied to understand the reactions of electrol- ings are reported to generate huge quantity of kitchen wastes or sewage
ysis processes as the biohydrogen was formed and evolved continu- organic matter per day that requires proper characterization of kitchen
ously at 0.1 A·cm−2 for 3000 s (Ito et al., 2018). Several novel wastes from several kitchens or canteens with their potential for the
technologies were used for the production of hydrogen from the renew- production of biogas. (Yue et al., 2019; Grimes et al., 2019). The gener-
able organic sources (waste biomasses). Various pathways for the pro- ated waste source from the kitchen or sewage sites is found to be the
duction of hydrogen have been discussed including those of steam suitable feedstock for the production of biogas per day (600 m3 biogas
reforming, electrolysis and biomass gasification for improved yield per day) with cow dung as inoculums of microbial source and its
and the cost of hydrogen biosynthesis (Albashabsheh and Stamm, byproduct. Methane (CH4) gas is the main component generated from
2019). the biogas plants with its purification for electric power generation
Steam reforming has been reported as a very cheap method of the and two biogas engine generators with their capacities of 30 kVA and
production of hydrogen (1.75$/kg), but it is not an ideal process for 50 kVA were applied for the generation of power for hotel or road light-
the future. One can adopt gasification processes as the most competitive ing with kVA of 1000 volt-amps. Generation of biogas production with
approach due to high yield, but it requires relatively high initial and an- its usage for power production can consume large quantum of sewage
nual expenditure. During biomass gasification, energy efficiency is or kitchen wastes, generated from various buildings via treatment of ef-
found to be lower than steam reforming with a high mass yield as it fluents from the biogas plant (Zamanzadeh et al., 2017).
demonstrates feasibility of hydrogen production. Biomass gasification Biomass generation can also be a good wealth sources for agriculture
processes require proper selection of correct feedstock maximising its protecting the environment. Conversion of wastes to energy approaches
yield (up to 82.5%) from corn stover fed gasification (Kang et al., has helped the world to boost the energy supply via reduction of envi-
2017). More examples of hydrogen production are listed in Table 2. ronmental pollution. Good amount of biogas yields can be achieved
from co-digestion processes of cattle drug with sunflowers leaves, paw-
Table 2 paw (Asimina triloba) leaves, or potato peels at different compositions in
Hydrogen biofuel production from microbial or waste organic matters. four biogas digesters. In this approach, substrates were mixed with
water (1:2 ratios) and left for 40 days retention time to complete the
Quantity of hydrogen Bioprocesses/sources References
biogas production. The substrate concentration, volume or quantities
H2 yield Pre-hydrolysis via enzyme Giang et al., of biogas have been reported via the analysis of variance with the anal-
(172 mL·H2 g·VS−1) mixture (in FPU) of amylase, 2019
and productivity cellulase and glucoamylase, used
ysis of effect of time or temperature over that of biogas yield. The total %
(2.4 mL·H2 g-VS−1 h−1) for biomass hydrolysis of Chlorella volume of biogas and methane content from the digester was reported
sp. for H2 to be 40–46 m3 with 53 to 72% (Olojede et al., 2018).
Enhanced 22.8% H2 yield Photo-fermentative hydrogen Feng et al., Sawdust generation is reported by various sawmill sites situated
with 20% production rate (yield~4.6 × 103 m·L/L; 2019; Kumar
along the rivers and this has created many problems to aquatic life.
from engineered strain productivity~92.4 m·L/L·h) from and Shetti, 2018
engineered Rh. capsulatus ZYDM9 The utility of sawdust is found to co-digest with cow dung and water
High H2 yield with high H2 production (yield~9.0 mol Elkahlout et al., hyacinth for biogas generation. Different amounts of sawdust waste
productivity from R. H2/mol. glucose; 2019; Kumar have complemented with fixed amount of cow dung and water hya-
capsulatus strain productivity~0.57–0.81 m·mol/h) and Shetti, 2018 cinth that are anaerobically fermented in batch led digesters. Biogas at
by engineered Rh. capsulatus JP91
in continuous modes
the time of 64 days was reported to synthesize at an average ambient
H2 synthesis from lactate Biological reformation of 1 mol of Hitit et al., 2017 temperature of 30 °C. Efficient biogas production rate was found around
by photosynthetic R. lactate to 2 mol of H2 by R. 0.046 L/TS fed with11.58 g of sawdust waste and fixed amount of cow
palustris CGA009 palustris, optimized by RSM dung and water hyacinth (each 7 g). A total solid contents (8 to 9.6%)
technique
in the anaerobic digester were found to be the optimum condition for
Cellulosic H2 production H2 production Zhang et al.,
from CMC (5.0 g·L−1) (5.419 m·mol H2·g−1 CMC) and 2019 biogas production (Madu and Onwuamaeze, 2018; Ahmed et al.,
and cassava residues (4.08 m mol H2·g−1 cassava 2019). A few examples of biogas production are shown in Table 3.
residues) by C. lentocellum
Cel10 at 37 °C and pH: 7.0 at 72 h
Highest H2 yield Sugar beet pulp (SBP), sugar beet Cieciura-Włoch
(280 dm3 H2/kg VS) leaves (SBL), sugar beet stillage and Borowski,
3.4. Alcoholic biofuels or biodiesel production
from fruit and vegetable (SBS), maize silage (MS), utilized 2019
waste in dark fermentation Scientists around the world have put more efforts in the production
H2 formation rate Inoculum (5% v/v) produced high Argun and Dao, of alternative fuel from more available resources on a large scale. Biodie-
(35.6 mLH2/h) with best quantity of H2 from (200 g/L) 2017
sel can be a reliable energy source, due to its production from the com-
TOC removal waste peach pulp via removal
(25.2%) total organic carbon monly accustomed plant wastes (rapeseed, sunflower, soybean or
H2 production The flat-plate collectors assisted in Erden et al., palm) and can be a competitor to non-renewable petroleum products.
(rate~2.25 kg/day) in solar pond enhanced electrical 2017 Non-edible oil, obtained from Pongamia, Jatropha, Mahua, Moringa
water electrolysis energy with H2 production in seeds can be used to raise the standards of these oils (Ahmed et al.,
organic Rankine cycle (ORC)
2019). These have proven as the best resources for biodiesel production
H2 production (770 mL/L) H2 production from pretreated Kumar et al.,
from de-oiled jatropha jatropha wastes and immobilized 2017 both technically and economically. The impact of higher alcohols is
microorganisms at hydraulic shown via using different raw materials for biodiesel production. Vari-
retention times (48 to 72 h) ous production technologies are used for the production of biodiesel
33.1% H2 yield (53.8 H2/kg Two-stage co-production of H2 Benito et al.,
with better yields to investigate the effect of higher alcohols on biodiesel
VS) in first reactor and methane from maize silage in 2017
CSIR with 65% methane yield yield and its properties. Oxidation stability is dependent on the
(133.9 CH4/kgVS) in the second unsaturation nature of lipids, mainly linoleic and linolenic acid. Moringa
reactor oleifera, Moroccan frying oils, Schleichera oleosa L. oil, Moringa peregrina
CMC: carboxymethylcellulose; VS: volatile solid; R: Rhodopseudomonas; Rh: Rhodobacter; are the prospective oils as per oxidative stability characteristic (Xiong
CSIR: continuous stirred tank reactor. et al., 2019).
 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927 11

Table 3
Biogas synthesis from waste organic matter via biological processes utilization.

Biogases quantity Source of organic matter Processes involved References

CH4 in biogas (4.07 × 103 mL/g·DOC and DOC from municipal solid waste leachate (MSWL) AD decreased the COD value Baccot et al., 2017
2.37 × 103 mL/g·DOC)
Biogas yield (0.14 L/g CODremoval) with (CH4~42%) In wastewater reclamation, 99.9% inorganic salt AnMDBR recovered volatile fatty acid Yao et al., 2019
recovery rejection occurred with CH4 at 45 °C
Acetic acid (1.4 mmol/L), or propionic acid At pH 7.0, VFA yield (48.7 mg VFA/100 mg COD) AnMDBR at low strength wastewater Khan et al., 2019
(0.52 m·mol/L) as VFA with isobutyric acid with reduced COD
Biogas (37.08 million m3) from citrus waste (CW) CW contained soluble and insoluble carbohydrates In fermentation, CW utilized for Taghizadeh-Alisaraei
(4.3 × 106 ton) used for ethanol and biogas bioenergy synthesis et al., 2017
CH4 yields (0.38, 0.42 or 0.34 m3 CH4/kg–VS) from VOC (22–38; 15–20 and 7–12 μg/kg VSadd) from Batch fermentation from farm digester Calbry-Muzyk et al.,
plant wastes grass, grass silage or maize waste mesophilic strain 2019
Net biomethane production (2.9 × 103 Mm3) with Manure and crop residues in HYSOL technology for Hybridization of Concentrated Solar Murugaperumal et al.,
100 MWe 55% electric power from CH4 Power used AD 2020
Increased biogas from total household waste (1.1% Cattle forage 1.3% in 2008 to 86.2% in 2015 that Biogas in AD utilized biomass residue Wu et al., 2018.
62.3%) increased biogas production
Higher CH4 yield (26%~480 mL/g VS) in MDi and With CH4, acetate (93 and 172 mg/L) from food MDi and McoDi utilizes food; or food Zamanzadeh et al.,
McoDi waste or food and cow manure waste and manure 2017
Specific biogas production (0.15 m3/kg VS) with 74% From human organic waste (HOW), CH4 Digesters convert HOW into biogas at Regattieri et al., 2018
CH4 synthesized used for cooking or lighting anaerobic conditions
Electric power (1 MWh) from consumption of 457 m3 Biogas from agricultural waste (potato pulp, corn Biogas from a plant residues produced Wiater and Horysz,
of biogas silage and manure) the heat with electricity 2017
CH4 (189.2 mL gVS−1 to 607–672 mL gVS−1) from Enzyme load, reaction time and agitation Fermentation with Aspergillus niger on Mlaik et al., 2019
wheat bran and OFMSW hydrolyzed wheat bran (WB) or OFMSW WB and OFMSW
Biogas (2100 mL) at optimal retention time from Ash, moisture contents or C/N ratio, for maize chaff, Co-digestion of food wastes via AD Igbum et al., 2019
complex substrates watermelon, cassava peels generate energy

VOC: volatile organic compound; AnMDBR: anaerobic mode membrane distillation bioreactor; COD: chemical oxygen demand; MDi: mesophilic digester; McoDi: mesophilic digester with
cow manure; DOC: dissolved organic matter; AD: anaerobic digestion; VFA: volatile fatty acid; BOD: biological oxygen demand; MWe: mega watts; HYSOL: HYbrid SOLar; OFMSW: organic
fraction of municipal solid waste.

A novel solid catalyst was derived from gasified straw slag, utilized
for the production of biodiesel via using simple pulverization or sieving
methods. This catalyst has exhibited high stability, low leaching, or good
catalytic activity at high temperature, for melting in the biomass gas-
ifier. Slag has shown a broad range of pore distribution with two pore
diameter ranges (5–15 nm and 45–75 nm). This catalyst also exhibited
high catalytic activity or stability for fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) con-
version (up to 95%) via transesterification at 200 °C for 8 h. In this pro-
cess, catalyst (dose 20%) was used with methanol oil molar ration
(12:1). The FAME conversion rate was N85% even after reusing the cat-
alyst for three reactions without any appreciable loss of catalytic activ-
ity. Demonstration of gasified straw slag has shown the promise for
biodiesel production and small amount of K and Mg (b10 ppm) were
leached into products from this catalyst (Wang et al., 2017a, 2017b).
Yeast isolates were found to be more suitable microbial strains for the
production of bioethanol from cellulosic vegetable wastes as substrate.
It has shown efficient bioconversion of lignocellulosic biomass into eth-
anol via involvement of action of cellulolytic bacteria (from Bacillus
subtilis) (Wang et al., 2017a, 2017b).
Stress tolerance capacities (i.e., thermo, ethanol, pH, osmo or sugar
content) were found to be critical physicochemical parameters for the
optimization of ethanol production by yeast SC1 isolate. Very cheap
and easily available raw materials (vegetable peels) were used as fer-
mentative media by maintaining optimal temperature, reducing sugar
concentration and pH (6.0) for a maximum yield of ethanol (14.2%)
after 48 h incubation compared to untreated media (ethanol
yield~6.2%) (Yamada et al., 2017). It was identified as the members of
ethanol-producing Saccharomyces species after tolerance studies and
biochemical characterization. The strain of Bacillus subtilis increased
the alcohol production rate from cellulosic materials (Promon et al.,
2018).
Production of ethanol in efficient ways was reported by the addition
of kitchen organic wastes (utilizes as carbon or nutrient sources and
acid regulator) to waste papers. For these waste matters, hydrolysis
can proceed with successive liquefaction, pre-saccharification, and fer-
mentation (known as L + PSSF). Another process involved is individual
saccharification performance for waste paper and kitchen wastes,
which are found not to influence their mixture. In this case, kitchen
waste matter liquefaction can be heated at 90 °C, prior to pre-
saccharification and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
(known as PSSF) (Choi et al., 2019). This PSSF approach was efficient
for ethanol production (up to 44 to 47 g·L−1) without pH adjustment
or the addition of extra-nutrient. At pilot scale fermentation process
after 48 h showed similar amount of ethanol (46 g·L−1). The kitchen
wastes matter was utilized as carbon source with potential feedstock.
Kitchen waste or its mixture with paper wastes were also the excellent
nutrient sources with acid formation regulator during fermentation
processes for ethanol production (Nishimura et al., 2017) and more ex-
amples of alcoholic biofuels are given in Table 4.
4. Conclusions and future prospects
This paper emphasizes on the sustainable nature of energy produc-
tion from the utilization of cheap resources and easily available waste
matters or its resources. Such bioenergy production approach can help
in fulfilling the ever demanding energy needs of the world via helping
to mitigate environmental issues (pollution, BOD or COD, nutrient re-
moval or climatic changes). Different types of wastes (originated from
various sites or sources) with their components and concentrations in
different sources including microplastics can pollute aquatic bodies. Dif-
ferent sizes of particulate matters from organic wastes resource can be
minimized via following different approaches such as
phytoremediation (for biochar formation, sawdust utility or others) or
conversion into valuable products to create clean environment. Differ-
ent types of treatment plants for the degradation of wastes are de-
scribed of which anaerobic digester plants are found to be more
suitable for biogas production containing methane as the major constit-
uent. Different approaches (co-digestion or fermentation) are discussed
for the utilization of various types of organic matters (individual or mix-
tures) for the production of different quantities of hydrogen, ethanol,
and biogases in various biological processes. For the hydrolysis of
waste matters, different types of pretreatment approaches have been
discussed with the fermentation and saccharification processes and
these are reported for different yields or concentrations or
12 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927

Table 4 Anaammox anaerobic ammonium oxidation reaction

Alcoholic biofuel production from biological waste or active organic matter. anMDBR anaerobic mode membrane distillation bioreactor
Alcoholic biofuels Bioprocesses and sources References BH celluclast viscozyme
Ethanol yield (0.85–1.0%) from Hydrolysis time, sulfuric acid or Jafarian
BMP Biochemical Methane Potential
microalgal carbohydrates fermentation time forms and BOD biological oxygen demands
fermenting algal sugar Tavasoli, Bad butyraldehyde dehydrogenase
(15.2 g/L), produced ethanol by 2018 CH4 methane
S. cerevisiae
−1 CMC carboxymethylcellulose
Ethanol (42.2 and 39.4 gL ) A consortium with immobilized Waghmare
from consortium or normal B. pumilus strain PgJ and normal et al., 2018 CO carbon oxide
phytoreactor with husks phytoreactor with S. cerevisiae CBP consolidated bioprocessing
KCTC 7296 with sorghum husks CO2 carbon dioxide
Bioethanol concentration S. cerevisiae and Pichia stipitis on Sahu and cimA citramalate
(18.74 g/L), productivity pretreated cotton gin waste Pramanik,
(2.25 g/L/h) and yield (41.75 g/L), released xylose 2018
CP-MAS cross polarization and magic angle spinning
(0.48 g/g) (126.05 g/g) and removed lignin C. cellulovorans Clostridium cellulovorans
(88%) CSIR continuous stirred tank reactor
Engineered strain C. Protein engineered C. Tian et al., CW citrus waste
thermocellum produced thermocellum, contained thiolase 2019
DFMSW organic fraction of municipal solid waste
n-butanol (0.36 g/L) hydroxybutyryl-CoA
dehydrogenase crotonase DOC dissolved organic matter
module, utilizes cellulose at DOM dissolved organic matter
120 h EEM excitation emission matrix fluorescence
Over-expressed rnf gene Engineered microbial Clostridium Lo et al., FA fulvic acids
increased (30%) ethanol thermocellum strain with NfnAB 2017
FAME fatty acid methyl ester
production from cellobiose and Rnf complexes grows on
cellobiose and avicel FVW fruit and vegetable waste
C. acetobutylicum reduced Thiolase engineering and amino Mukherjee g·L−1 gram per liter
CoA-SH sensitivity in acid substitutions improved et al., 2019 g·VS gram of volatile solid
ethanol~46% and butanol~18% butanol production from
GHG greenhouse gases emissions
engineered C. acetobutylicum
ATCC 824
GI germination index
Improved n-butanol yield Glucose or cellulose in basal Ou et al., HOW human organic waste
(N0.14 g/g); concentration media utilized by engineered C. 2017 h/day hour per day
(N3 g/L) with selectivity cellulovorans at pH 6.5 that H/C hydrogen and carbon ratio
(N3 g/g) comes from pretreated corn cob
H2 hydrogen
by CBP
Conversion of 2-ketobutyrate (2 Engineered S. cerevisiae strain Nishimura H2O water
KB) into 1-propanol YG5C4231 enhanced 1-propanol et al., 2018 HA humic acids
(500 mg/L) in yeast from constructed artificial 2 KB HAF acidogenic fermentation
biosynthetic pathway
HRTs hydraulic retention times
Microalgal derived biodiesel Algal biomass (3.81 gL−1 day−1) Polat et al.,
from lipid content (51%) of Au. with neutral lipid content at low 2020
Hi hydrophilic
protothecoides cost cultivation with less HYSOL HYbrid SOLar
particulate matter (CO or HC) HCSP Hybridization of Concentrated Solar Power
from this fuel HMEH electrohydrogensis
Enhanced Isobutanol production Engineered B. megaterium Boock
HoN hydrophobic neutrals
(40% yield) with co-production SCCO2-tolerant strain produced et al., 2019
of isopentanol branched alcohols coupled in situ HRAS activated sludge system
extraction HSQC heteronuclear single quantum coherence
Engineered strains of This engineered Synechocystis Miao et al., ICP-MS inductive coupled plasma mass spectrometry
Synechocystis PCC 6803 with strain produced isobutanol 2017
IH stonezyme
kivd and ADH genes (60.8 mgL−1), compared with
two heterologous and putative
k·Wh kilo watt hour
endogenous ADHs kg TOCR kilogram residual total organic carbon
2 KB 2–ketobutyrate
CBP: consolidated bioprocessing; Au: Auxenochlorella; HC: hydrocarbon; ADH: alcohol de-
hydrogenases; kivd: ketoisovalerate decarboxylase; SCCO2: super critical carbon dioxide. KJ kilo joule
KW kitchen waste
kVA kilo volt ampere
L H2/L·d liter hydrogen per liter per day
productivities. However, for bioenergy production using complex or- L. fermentum Lactobacillus fermentum
ganic matter degradation needs intriguing engineering approaches for L + PSSF liquefaction, pre-saccharification and fermentation
the optimization of biological processes that can utilize the available LCAs Life Cycle Assessment
abundant organic matters on the earth by maintaining a healthy envi- LDP loss in dairy product
ronment to various biotic components. MS maize silage
MSWL municipal solid waste leachate
Abbreviations MWh mega watt hour
MAD methanogenesis
$/kg US dollar per kilogram MDi mesophilic digester
δ13C delta thirteen carbon isotope McoDi Co-digestion of food waste and manure via mesophilic strain
δ15N delta thirteen nitrogen isotope mL/L milli liter per
Adh alcohol dehydrogenase MSW municipal solid wastes
A·cm−2 ampere per centimeter square NH3:NO2 ammonia nitrite ratio
AD anaerobic digester nm nanometer
ADH alcohol dehydrogenases NMR nuclear magnetic resonance
 R.K. Srivastava et al. / Science of the Total Environment 722 (2020) 137927 13

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