Set and Relation

1. Set:
Collection of well defined objects which are distinct and distinguishable. A collection is said to be well defined if each
and every element of the collection has some definition.

Notation of a set: Sets are denoted by capital letters like A, B, C or { } and the entries within the bracket are known
as elements of set.

Generally, Element of a set is denoted by small letters.

Cardinal number of a set : Cardinal number of a set X is the number of elements of a set X and it is denoted by n(X)
e.g. X = {x1,x2,x3}  n(X) =3

2. Representation of Sets
Listing Method / Roster Method / List form:
In this method a set is described by listing all the elements, separated by commas, within braces { }

Ex. X = {1, 2, 3, 4}

Set builder Method / Set Rule Method / Property form:

In this method, a set is described by characterizing property P(x) of its elements x. In such case the set is described
by {x : P(x) holds} or {x | P(x) holds}, which is read as the set of all x such that P(x) holds. The symbol ‘|’ or ‘:’ is read
as such that.

Ex. X = {x: 0 < x < 5, x is positive integer}

3. Type of Sets:
(i) Finite set :
A set X is called a finite set if its element can be listed by counting or labeling with the help of natural
numbers and the process terminates at a certain natural number n. i.e. n(X) = finite no. eg (a) A set of English
Alphabets (b) Set of soldiers in Indian Army

(ii) Infinite set :

A set whose elements cannot be listed counted by the natural numbers (1, 2, 3.......n) for any number n, is
called a infinite set. e.g.

(a) A set of all points in a plane

(b) X = {x : x  R, 0 < x < 0.0001}

(c) X = {x : x  Q, 0  x  0.0001}

(iii) Singleton set :

A set consisting of a single element is called a singleton set. i.e. n (X) = 1,

e.g. {x : x  N, 1 < x < 3}, {{}} : Set of null set, {  } is a set containing alphabet .

(iv) Null set / Void set / Empty Set :

A set is said to be empty, void or null set if it has no element in it, and it is denoted by  . i.e. X is a null set if
n(X) = 0. e.g. : {x : x  R and x2 + 2 = 0}, {x : x > 1 but x < 1/2}, {x : x  R, x2 < 0}
(v) Equivalent Set :
 Two finite sets A and B are equivalent if their cardinal numbers are same i.e. n(A) = n(B).
(vi) Equal Set :
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element of A is a member of B and every element of B
is a member of A. i.e. A = B, if A and B are equal and A  B, if they are not equal.
(vii) Complementary set:
Complementary set of a set A is a set containing all those elements of universal set which are not in A. It is
denoted by A , AC or A’. So AC = {x : x  U but x  A}.
e.g. If set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and universal set U = {1, 2, 3, 4,.......50} then A = {6, 7, .......50}
NOTE : All disjoint sets are not complementary sets but all complementary sets are disjoint.
(viii) Subset:
A set A is said to be a subset of B if all the elements of A are present in B and is denoted by A  B
(read as A is subset of B) and symbolically written as : x  A  x  B iff A  B.
Number of subsets : Consider a set X containing ‘n’ elements as {x1, x2, ......., xn} then the total number of subsets of
X = 2n.
Proof : Number of subsets of above set is equal to the number of selections of elements taking any number of them
at a time out of the total n elements and it is equal to 2n
 n
C0 + nC1 + nC2 + ...... + nCn = (1 + 1 )n = 2n
Types of Subsets :
Proper subset: A set A is said to be a proper subset of a set B if every element of A is an element of B and B has at
least one element which is not an element of A and is denoted by A  B. empty set is also proper subset.
Improper subset: The set A itself is known as improper subset and is denoted as A  B.
e.g. If X = {x1, x2, .....,xn} then total number of proper sets = 2n – 1 (excluding itself).
(ix) Super Set: The statement A  B can be written as B  A, then B is called the super set of A.
(x) Universal Set:
It is a set which includes all the sets under considerations i.e. it is a super set of each of the given set. Thus, a
set that contains all sets in a given context is called the universal set. It is denoted by U. e.g. If
A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {2, 4, 5, 6} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7}, then U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} can be taken as the universal set.
(xi) Disjoint Set:
Sets A and B are said to be disjoint iff A and B have no common element or A  B =  . If A  B  then A
and B are said to be intersecting or overlapping sets.
e.g. : (i) If A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {4, 5, 6} and C = {4, 7, 9} then A and B are disjoint set where B and C are intersecting
sets.
(ii) Set of even natural numbers and odd natural numbers are disjoint sets.
(4) Power Set:
The collection of all subsets of set A is called the power set of A and is denoted by P(A)
n
i.e. P(A) = {x : x is a subset of A}. If X = {x1, x2, x3, ..........xn} then n(P(X)) = 2n ; n(P(P(x))) = 2 2 .
Recursive definition of a set
Recursive definition of a set S consists of three clauses
1. Basis clause explicitly lists atleast one element in S.
2. Recursive clause provides rules used to generate new elements of the set S from the known elements.
3. Terminal clause ensures that the first two clauses are the only means to determine the elements of S.
Ex. Let X be defined recursively by 3  X ; a  b  X if a  X and b  X . Show that X be the set of positive
integers divisible by 3.
Proof: Given 3  X , i.e. Basis clause is satisfied.
Also given, if a  X and b  X then a  b  X .
Let a  3 and b  3 then 3  3  6  X
Now if a  3 and b  6 then 3  6  9  X
Now if a  3 and b  9 then 3  9  12  X
In this way we have , X = {3, 6, 9, 12, ……}
i.e. X = {3, 2*3, 3*3, 4*3, ……}
i.e. every element of X is multiple of 3.
i.e. every element of X is divisible by 3.
(5) Venn (Euler) Diagrams
The diagrams drawn to represent sets are called Venn diagram or Euler-Venn diagrams. Here we represents
the universal U as set of all points within rectangle and the subset A of the set U is represented by the interior of a
circle. If a set A is a subset of a set B, then the circle representing A is drawn inside the circle representing B. If A and
B are not equal but they have some common elements, then to represent A and B by two intersecting circles.
e.g. If A is subset of B then it is represented diagrammatically in fig.
U

A
B

e.g. If A is a set then the complement of A is represented in fig.

U
A
A

(6) Operations on Sets:

(i) Union of sets :
If A and B are two sets then union (  ) of A and B is the set of all those elements which belong either to A or
to B or to both A and B. It is also defined as A  B = {x : x  A or x  B}.
It is represented through Venn diagram in fig.1 & fig.2

U U

A B A B

Fig. (1) Fig. (2)

(ii) Intersection of sets :
If A and B are two sets then intersection (  ) of A and B is the set of all those elements which belong to both
A and B. It is also defined as A  B = {x : x  A and x  B} represented in Venn diagram (see fig.)

A B

(iii) Difference of two sets :

If A and B are two sets then the difference of A and B, is the set of all those elements of A which do not
belong to B.
 U

A B

A–B

Thus, A – B = {x : x  A and x  B} or A – B = {x  A ; x  B}
Clearly x  A – B  x  A and x  B
It is represented through the Venn diagrams.
(iv) Symmetric difference of two sets :
Set of those elements which are obtained by taking the union of the difference of A & B
is (A – B) & the difference of B & A is (B – A), is known as the symmetric difference of two sets
A & B and it is denoted by (A  B).
Thus A  B = (A – B)  (B – A)
Representation through the venn diagram is given in the fig.

A B

AB

(v) Idempotent Law :

For any set A, we have
(i) A  A = A and (ii) A  A = A
Proof :
(i) A  A = {x : x  A or x  A} = {x : x  A}=A
(ii) A  A = {x : x  A & x  A} = {x : x  A}=A
(vi) Identity Law :
For any set A, we have
(i) A  = A and
(ii) A  U = A i.e.  and U are identity elements for union and intersection respectively.

Proof :
(i) A   = {x : x  A or x  } = {x : x  A} =A
(ii) A  U = {x : x  A and x  U} = {x : x  A} =A
(vii) Commutative Law :
For any set A and B, we have
(i) A  B = B  A and (ii) A  B = B  A
i.e. union and intersection are commutative.
(viii) Associative Law :

If A, B and C are any three sets then

(i) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C) (ii) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
i.e. union and intersection are associative.
(ix) Distributive operation :

If A, B and C are any three sets then

(i) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C) (ii) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  (A  C)
 i.e. union and intersection are distributive over intersection and union respectively.
(x) De-Morgan’s Principle :

If A and B are any two sets, then

(i) (A  B)’ = A’  B’ (ii) (A  B)’ = A’  B’
Proof : (i) Let x be an arbitrary element of (A  B)’ . Then x  (A  B)’  x  (A  B)
 x  A and x  B  x  A’  B’
Again let y be an arbitrary element of A’  B’. Then
y  A’  B’
 y  A’ and y  B’  y  A or y  B
 y  (A  B)  y  (A  B)’
So, A’  B’  (A  B)’.
Hence (A  B)’ = A’  B’
Similarly (ii) can be proved.
Inclusion - exclusion
Note: if A and B are two disjoint sets then n A  B   n A  n B  .

Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion: Let A, B are two arbitrary sets then n A  B   n A  n B   n A  B  .
Proof: Using Venn Diagram

U
A  B’
A’  B

AB
It is clear that
|𝐴 ∪ 𝐵| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵|
= |𝐴| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| + |𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵|
= |𝐴| + |𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵|

Q. In general prove that n A  B  C   n A  n B   nC   n A  B   n B  C   nC  A  n A  B  C  .

Proof: Using Venn Diagram

A B

It is clear that
|𝐴| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
Similarly |𝐵| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
|𝐶| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
Now,
|𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′|
+|𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶|
+|𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|

|𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|

+|𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|+| 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶|
+|𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′|

|𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐶| + | 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′|

+|𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′|

|𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐶| − | 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| = |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶′| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′|

+|𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|
+|𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′ ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶′|

|𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐶| − | 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| = |𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶|

|𝐴| + |𝐵| + |𝐶| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵| − |𝐴 ∩ 𝐶| − | 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| + |𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶| = |𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 ∪ 𝐶|

i.e.
n A  B  C   n A  n B   nC   n A  B   n B  C   nC  A  n A  B  C 
Questions of inclusion - exclusion
1. In a class containing 50 students, 15 play Tennis, 20 play Cricket and 20 play Hockey, 3 play Tennis and
Cricket, 6 play Cricket and Hockey and 5 play Tennis and Hockey. 7 play no game at all. How many play
Cricket, Tennis and Hockey.

2. A computer company must hire 25 programmers to handle systems programming jobs and 40 for the
application programming. Of the hired persons, 10 will have to do the jobs of both types. Find how many
programmers must be hired?

3. In a survey of 60 people it was found that 25 read News week, 26 read Time and 26 read the magazine
Fortune. Also 9 read both News week and Fortune, 11 read News week and Time and 8 read both Time and
Fortune. If 8 read none of the three magazines, determine the number of people who read exactly on
magazine.

4. A survey on a sample of 25 new cars being sold at a local auto dealer was conducted to see which of three
popular options, air conditioning (A), radio (R) and power window (W), were already installed in a car. The
survey found 15 had air conditioning (A), 12 had radio (R), 11 had power windows (W), 5 had both air
conditioning (A) and power windows (W), 4 had R and W, 9 had A and R, 3 had all the three A, R and W.
find the number of cars that had
a. Only power windows (W)
b. Only air conditioning (A)
c. Only radio (R)
d. R and W
e. A and R but not W
f. Only one option
g. At least on option
h. None of the three

 
Partition of set: Let S be a set then the collection E1, E2 ,.....,En is called partition of a set S if
(i) E1  E2  ..... En  S i.e. union of all subset is S and
(ii) Ei  E j  , i, j  1,2,.......,n i.e. the intersection of every pair of distinct subsets is the empty set.

Examples: 1. Squares of chess board

2. S = {1,2,….10} and E1 ={1,5,10}, E2 ={2,6,8,9}, E3 ={3,4,7}.

Q. Define the cross partition and prove that cross partition is a partition.
Sol.    
Cross Partition: Let X be a set and Pn  A1, A2 ,.....,An and Pm  B1, B2 ,.....,Bm be partitions of set X. then
 
the collection P  Ai  B j , i  1,2,...,n; j  1,2,....,m  
of sets is called cross partition of X.
Now let, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, then by definition of partition
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵𝑗 for some i and j
i.e. 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐵𝑗
Thus ∪ 𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐵𝑗 = 𝑋
𝑖,𝑗
Now, we have to show that 𝐴𝑝 ∩ 𝐵𝑞 and 𝐴𝑝′ ∩ 𝐵𝑞′ are disjoint.
We will show this by contradiction. If possible, let they are not disjoint.
And 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴𝑝 ∩ 𝐵𝑞 ) ∩ (𝐴𝑝′ ∩ 𝐵𝑞′ )
⇒ 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴𝑝 ∩ 𝐵𝑞 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ (𝐴𝑝′ ∩ 𝐵𝑞′ )
⇒ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝑝′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝑞′
⇒ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝑝′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝑞′
⇒ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴𝑝 ∩ 𝐴𝑝′ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵𝑞 ∩ 𝐵𝑞′
But by definition of partition 𝐴𝑝 ∩ 𝐴𝑝′ = 𝛷 and 𝐵𝑞 ∩ 𝐵𝑞′ = 𝛷
So, our assumption is wrong. And 𝐴𝑝 ∩ 𝐵𝑞 and 𝐴𝑝′ ∩ 𝐵𝑞′ are disjoint.
 
i.e. P  Ai  B j , i  1,2,...,n; j  1,2,....,m   is a prtition.
 Relation
Ordered pair: If two elements ‘ a ’ and ‘b’ are written in specific order then collection is called ordered pair.

Ex. Find the numbers x and y if the ordered pairs (2x – 1, -5) and (x, y + 1) are equal.
Sol. As given, (2x – 1, -5) = (x, y + 1) ⇒ 2x – 1 = x and -5 = y + 1
⇒ x = 1 and y = -6

Cartesian product: The Cartesian product of two non empty sets A and B is the set of all ordered pairs ( a , b), where
a  A, b  B and is denoted by A B . Thus
A  B  a, b  | a  A, b  B .
Ex. If 𝐴 = {1,2,3} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5,6} then
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6)}
And
𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3)}
Observe that (1,3) ∈ 𝐴 × 𝐵 and (1,3) ∉ 𝐵 × 𝐴
i.e. 𝐴×𝐵 ≠𝐵×𝐴
Properties:
(i) A  B  C    A  B    A  C 
Proof: Let,  x, y   A   B  C 
 x  A and y  B  C
 x  A and y  B or y  C
 x  A and y  B or x  A and y  C
  x, y   A  B or  x, y   A  C
  x, y    A  B    A  C 
i.e. A  B  C    A  B    A  C 
(ii) A   B  C    A  B    A  C 
(iii) A   B  C    A  B    A  C 
(iv)  A  B   C  D    A  C    B  D 
(v) A  B and C  D  A C  B  D
Proof: Let,  x, y   A  C
 x  A and y  C
 x  A  B and y  C  D
 x  B and y  D
  x, y   B  D
i.e. if A  B and C  D  A C  B  D

Definition of relation: Let A and B be two sets. Then every subset of A B is a relation from A to B. i.e. the Relation
R  A B .
Ex. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and ‘R’ means “divide” then find the relation.
Sol. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and aRb iff a divide b.
Since, 2 divide 2, 2 divide 6, 3 divide 3. 3 divide 6, 5 divide 5, 6 divide 6.
i.e. 2R2,2R6, 3R3, 3R6, 5R5, 6R6
i.e. 𝑅 = {(2,2), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (5,5), (6,6)}

Domain: Let R be the relation from set A to set B. Then the set of all first elements of the all ordered pair of R is
called domain of relation R. i.e.
Domain R = x;  x, y   R

Range: Let R be the relation from set A to set B. Then the set of all second elements of the all ordered pair of R is
called range of relation R. i.e.
Range R = y;  x, y   R

Ex. If 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5} and a relation is defined from A to B by xRy iff x < y.
Sol. As given,
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5)}
 And 𝑅 = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)}
Domain of R = {1,2,3,4}
Range of R = {3,4,5}

Ex. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and ‘R’ means “divide” then find the relation.
Sol. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and aRb iff a divide b.
i.e. 𝑅 = {(2,2), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (5,5), (6,6)}
Domain of R = {2,3,5,6}
Range of R = {2,3,5,6}

Empty Relation: The null set  or   is called empty relation from set A to set B.

Universal Relation: The set A B is called universal relation from set A to set B.

Relation in a Set: Let A be any non-void set then any subset of A A is relation on a set A.

Identity Relation: Let A be any non-void set. Then the relation I A  a, a ; a  A on set A is called the identity
relation on set A. i.e. if every element of set A is related to itself only then the relation is called identity relation.

Ex. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and ‘R’ means “equal” then find the relation.
Sol. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and aRb iff a equal b.
i.e. 𝑅 = {(2,2), (3,3), (5,5), (6,6)} is identity relation.

Inverse Relation: Let A, B be two sets and let R be a relation from a set A to B. Then the inverse of R, denoted by
R–1, is a relation from B to A and is defined by R–1 = {(b, a): (a, b)  R},
Clearly, (a, b)  R  (b, a)  R–1
Also, Dom of R = Range of R–1
And Range of R = Dom of R–1
Ex. If 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4} and 𝐵 = {3,4,5} and a relation is defined from A to B by xRy iff x < y.
Sol. As given,
𝐴 × 𝐵 = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5)}
And 𝑅 = {(1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (3,4), (3,5), (4,5)}
Domain of R = {1,2,3,4}
Range of R = {3,4,5}
Now, 𝐵 × 𝐴 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (3,2), (4,2), (5,2), (3,3), (4,3), (5,3), (3,4), (4,4), (5,4)}
−1
And 𝑅 = {(3,1), (4,1), (5,1), (3,2), (4,2), (5,2), (4,3), (5,3), (5,4)}
Domain of 𝑅 −1 = {3,4,5}
Range of 𝑅 −1 = {1,2,3,4}

Reflexive Relation: R : X  Y is said to be reflexive iff x R x  x  X. i.e. every element in set X, must be a related
to itself therefore  x  X; (x, x)  R then relation R is called as reflexive relation.
Note : All identity relations are reflexive but all reflexive relations are not identity.

Ex. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and ‘R’ means “divide” then find the relation.
Sol. If 𝐴 = {2,3,5,6} and aRb iff a divide b.
i.e. 𝑅 = {(2,2), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (5,5), (6,6)} is not identity relation but it is reflexive relation.

Symmetric Relation: R : X  Y is said to be symmetric iff (x, y)  R  (y, x)  R for all (x, y)  R i.e. x R y
 y R x for all (x, y)  R.
e.g. perpendicularity of lines in a plane is symmetric relation.
Set of parallel lines with relation of parallel line relation. It is also symmetric.

Ex. If A be the set of members of a family and R means “is the brother of” and xRy means that x is brother of y
then xRy does not imply yRx, as y may be sister of x. Hence R is not symmetric.
Transitive Relation: R : X  Y is transitive iff (x, y)  R and (y, z)  R  (x, z)  R for all (x, y) and (y, z)  R.
i.e. x R y and y R z  x R z. e.g. The relation “being sister of ” among the members of a family is always
transitive.
Ex. The relation ‘ > ’ defined on the set of natural numbers N is transitive because for x, y, z ∈ N,
If x > y and y > z then x > z
i.e. xRy and yRz  xRz
Ex. The relation R of parallelism in the set of straight lines in a plane is a transitive relation because
x || y and y || z  x || z
i.e. xRy and yRz  xRz , x,y,z ∈ N

Note :
i. Every null relation is a symmetric and transitive relation.
ii. Every singleton relation is a transitive relation.
iii. Universal and identity relations are reflexive, symmetric as well as transitive.
iv. Relations >, <, || are transitive relations.

Equivalence Relation: A relation R from a set X to set Y (R : X  Y) is said to be an equivalence relation iff it is
reflexive, symmetric as well as transitive. The equivalence relation is denoted by ~ .
e.g. Relation “is equal to” Equality, Similarity and congruence of triangles, parallelism of lines are equivalence
relation.

Ex. If R and S be two equivalence relations in a set A, then prove that 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is also an equivalence relation in A.
also prove  R  S 1  R 1  S 1
Sol. Given, R and S be two equivalence relations in a set A
i.e. 𝑅 ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐴 and 𝑆 ⊂ 𝐴 × 𝐴
⟹𝑅∩𝑆 ⊂𝐴×𝐴
⟹ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is also a relation in A.
Now, we will prove that it is equivalence relation.
Reflexive: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 then
(𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 and (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑆, as R, S are reflexive
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
⇒ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is reflexive.
Symmetric: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑆
⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑆 as R, S are symmetric
⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is symmetric relation.
Transitive: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑆, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑆
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑆, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑆
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑆 as R, S are transitive
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆
⇒ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is transitive relation.
Hence, 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆 is equivalence relation.
To prove, (𝑅 ∩ 𝑆)−1 = 𝑅 −1 ∩ 𝑆 −1
Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ (𝑅 ∩ 𝑆)−1
⇔ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅 ∩ 𝑆
⇔ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑆
⇔ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 −1 , (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑆 −1
⇔ (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅 −1 ∩ 𝑆 −1
Hence, (𝑅 ∩ 𝑆)−1 = 𝑅 −1 ∩ 𝑆 −1
Ex. Union of two equivalence relations is not necessarily an equivalence relation.
Sol. we will prove it by counter example
Let set 𝐴 = {1,2,3,4}
Suppose that 𝑅 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (3,4), (4,3), (1,2), (2,1)}
𝑆 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (4,2)}
Since, R, S are reflexive, symmetric, transitive relations i.e. equivalence relations.
Now, 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆 = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3), (4,4), (3,4), (4,3), (1,2), (2,1)(2,3), (2,4), (3,2), (4,2)}
Where, (1,2) ∈ 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆, (2,3) ∈ 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆 but (1,3) ∉ 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆
∴ 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆 is not transitive relation.
and 𝑅 ∪ 𝑆 is not equivalence relation.

Ex. Let a relation R in the set of real number be defined as

a R b iff 1 + ab > 0
show that this relation is reflexive and symmetric but not transitive.
Sol. (i) Reflexive: Let A be the set of real numbers and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
Since, 1 + 𝑎𝑎 = 1 + 𝑎2 > 0
i.e. (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐴
so, R is reflexive.
(ii) Symmetric: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 1 + 𝑎𝑏 > 0
⇒ 1 + 𝑏𝑎 > 0
⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑅 is symmetric relation
(iii) Transitive: R is not transitive because we have
1 1
(1, 2) ∈ 𝑅 and (2 , −1) ∈ 𝑅 but (1, −1) ∉ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑅 is not transitive relation.

Addition Modulo m:
If a and b are any two integers and m is a fixed positive integer then for mod m,
𝑎 + 𝑏 ≅ 𝑟(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚
Where, r is the least non-negative remainder obtained on dividing 𝑎 + 𝑏 by m, 𝑎 + 𝑏 is the ordinary sum of a
and b. i.e. 𝑎 +𝑚 𝑏 = 𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚
Ex. we know that 2 + 4 = 6 but 2 +6 4 = 0
And 1+4=5 but 1 +6 4 = 5
And 2+5=7 but 2 +6 5 = 1
And 3+6=9 but 3 +6 6 = 3

Multiplication Modulo m:
If a and b are any two integers and m is a fixed positive integer then for mod m,
𝑎 × 𝑏 ≅ 𝑟(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚
Where, r is the least non-negative remainder obtained on dividing 𝑎 × 𝑏 by m, 𝑎 × 𝑏 is the ordinary product of
a and b. i.e. 𝑎 ×𝑚 𝑏 = 𝑟, 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 𝑚
Ex. we know that 2 × 4 = 8 but 2 ×6 4 = 2
And 1×4=4 but 1 ×6 4 = 4
And 2 × 5 = 10 but 2 ×6 5 = 4
And 3 × 6 = 18 but 3 ×6 6 = 0

Q. If I be set of integers and aRb  a  b is divisible by 2 {𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎 ≅ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)} or {𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⇔

𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑟𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)}. Prove that R is equivalence relation.
Sol. (i) Reflexive: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼
Since, 𝑎 − 𝑎 = 0 = 0.2 is divisible by 2
i.e. (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼
so, R is reflexive.
(ii) Symmetric: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 ≅ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 2. 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 2. (−𝑘), − 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑅 is symmetric relation
 (iii) Transitive: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 ≅ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2), 𝑏 ≅ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2)
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 2. 𝑘, 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 2. 𝑝, 𝑘, 𝑝 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 2. 𝑘 + 2𝑝
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑐 = 2. (𝑘 + 𝑝) = 2𝑞, 𝑞 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑅 is transitive relation.
Hence, 𝑅 is equivalence relation.

Q. If I be set of integers and aRb  a congruent to bmod n , n  N . Prove that R is equivalence relation.
Sol. (i) Reflexive: Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐼
Since, 𝑎 − 𝑎 = 0 = 0. 𝑛 is divisible by n
i.e. (𝑎, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅, ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝐼
so, R is reflexive.
(ii) Symmetric: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 ≅ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛. 𝑘, 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑏 − 𝑎 = 𝑛. (−𝑘), − 𝑘 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ (𝑏, 𝑎) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑅 is symmetric relation
(iii) Transitive: Let (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅, (𝑏, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑎 ≅ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛), 𝑏 ≅ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑛)
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 = 𝑛. 𝑘, 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑛. 𝑝, 𝑘, 𝑝 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑏 − 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑘 + 𝑛𝑝
⇒ 𝑎 − 𝑐 = 𝑛(𝑘 + 𝑝) = 2𝑞, 𝑞 ∈ 𝐼
⇒ (𝑎, 𝑐) ∈ 𝑅
⇒ 𝑅 is transitive relation.
Hence, 𝑅 is equivalence relation.

Q. In the set of all triangles, show that the relation of congruency is and equivalence relation.
Q. If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, then prove that R-1 is also an equivalence relation on A.

Equivalence class: Let X be a set and R be an equivalence relation on set X, then the set of all those members y  X ,
for which x R y, is called equivalence class of x and is denoted by [x] = y | x, y  X , xRy .

Q. Let A be a set and R be an equivalence relation on set A. Let x and y be arbitrary elements in A. then
(i) x   x
(ii) If y  x then  y   x
(iii)  y    x    x, y   R
(iv)  y   x or  y   x   i.e. two equivalence classes are disjoint or identical.

Theorem: The equivalence relation R in an non empty set S determines a partition of S.

Composition of Relations: Let R be a relation from A to B and S be a relation from B to C then R and S give rise to a
relation SoR from A to C, called composition of relation.
Thus SoR  a, c  | a, b   R and b, c   S
Connectivity relation: Let R be a relation on a set A. A path of length n in R from a to b is a finite sequence
a, x1, x2 ,...,xn 1, b is a path involving n edges with n+1 elements of set A. s.t. a R x1 R x2 R......R xn 1 R b .

If n is a fixed positive integer, we can define a relation R n on A as a R n b it implies that there is a path of length
n from a to b .
If set A has n elements then we can define a relation R = R  R  R  ...... R . This relation shows all pair
2 3 n
of elements which are related with any length of path.
Ex. Let A  1,2,3,4 and R  1,1, 2,2, 2,3, 3,2, 4,2, 4,4 then find R2 and R.
Graph of relation: The relation R can be sketched on a coordinate diagram.
Adjacency matrix of relation: Let A  a1, a2 ,.....,am  and B  b1, b2 ,.....,bn R be the relation from set A to set B. then it

    1, if ai , b j  R
, where mij  
can be represented by m  n matrix M R  mij
mn   

0, if ai , b j  R
.

Note: Adjacency matrix for Reflexive, symmetric, transitive relations.

Ex. Let 𝑋 = {1,2,3} , 𝑌 = {1,2} and 𝑅 = {(2,1), (3,1), (3,2)} then MR is a 3 × 2 matrix, whose elements
𝑚21 , 𝑚31 , 𝑚32 are each equal to unity and other elements are all zero,
0 0
𝑀𝑅 = [1 0]
1 1
Ex. find the relation R, when
0 1 0 0 0
𝑀𝑅 = [1 0 1 1 0]
1 0 1 0 1
be a matrix of the relation R from X to Y, where 𝑋 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 } and 𝑌 = {𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , 𝑦3 , 𝑦4 , 𝑦5 }
Sol. The relation is
𝑅 = {(𝑥1 , 𝑦2 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦3 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦4 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ), (𝑥3 , 𝑦5 ), }
Q. consider a set A  a, b, c, d , e, f  and a relation R on set A is given by R  a, a , a, b , b, a , b, b , c, c , d , d ,
d , e , d , f , e, d , e, e , e, f ,  f , d ,  f , e ,  f , f  . Write the matrix representation M R of the relation and hence
prove that it is an equivalence relation.
Pictorial representation of relation: Let R be a relation on a finite set A then R can be represented pictorially. In this
representation each element of the set is represented by a point and each ordered pair a, b  is represented by an
arc. Or in this way

Diagraph of a relation: Let R be a relation on a finite set A then R can be represented pictorially. In this representation
each element of the set is represented by a point and each ordered pair a, b  is represented by an arc directed
from a to b . Such representation is called diagraph or directed graph.
An edge a, a  is arc from a to a itself is called loop.
Indegree of a Vertex: If R be a relation on a set A and v  A then indegree of v is the number of edges directed towards
v.
Outdegree of a vertex: If R be a relation on a set A and v  A then outdegree of v is the number of edges going away
from v.
Anti symmetric relation: Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is said to be an antisymmetric relation iff (a, b)  R
and (b, a)  R  a = b for all a, b  A e.g. Relations “being subset of ”; “is greater than or equal to” and “identity
relation on any set A” are antisymmetric relations.
Ex. Let N be set of natural numbers and let R be the relation defined by “a divides b”, ∀𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑁. Then R is an anti-
symmetric relation as a divides b and b divides a  a = b.
Ex. Let P be a family of sets, then the relation R on P defined by “A is a subset of B” is antisymmetric because ARB
and BRA  𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴
 𝐴=𝐵
The necessary and sufficient condition that R is anti-symmetric is
𝑅 ∩ 𝑅 −1 = 𝜙.
Asymmetric relation: Let A be any set. A relation R on set A is said to be an asymmetric relation
if (a, b)  R then (b, a)  R.
Ex. The relation x < y is an asymmetric relation as if x < y, then y is not less than x.
Partial ordered relation and POSET
A relation R on a set A is partial ordered relation in A if R is reflexive, anti-symmetric, transitive. Then
structure (R, A) is called partial ordered set (POSET). This relation can present by the symbol ‘  ’.
Comparability of two elements:
Two elements a and b are said to be comparable if either a  b or b  a otherwise incomparable.
Ex. Division relation
Total order relation or linear order relation: A relation R defined on a set A is said to be a total order relation in A if R
is partial order relation and every pair of elements of A is comparable.
Hasse diagram
A partial ordering relation ‘  ’ on a set P can be represented by a diagram known as Hasse diagram or a
partially ordered set diagram of  P,   . In this diagram vertices are given by dots. This diagram is without loop
on vertices and without edges to preset transitive relation. We do not present arrows on edges but direction is
towards upside.

Q. Draw the Hasse diagram of poset 2,4,5,10,12,20,25, /  .

Upper bound: Let  P,   be a poset and a, b  P . Then an element c  P is called upper bound of a, b if a  c and
bc.
Least upper bound (supremum): Let  P,   be a poset and a, b  P . Then an element l  P is called least upper bound
of a, b if
(i) a  l and b  l i.e. l is upper bound of a, b  P and
(ii) there exist an element l  s. t. a  l  and b  l  then l  l  i.e. another upper bound l  of a, b  P is also upper
bound of l .
Lower bound: Let  P,   be a poset and a, b  P . Then an element d  P is called lower bound of a, b if d  a and
d b .
Greatest lower bound (infimum): Let  P,   be a poset and a, b  P . Then an element g  P is called greatest lower
bound of a, b if
(i) g  a and g  b i.e. g is lower bound of a, b  P and
(ii) there exist an element g  s. t. g   a and g   b then g   g i.e. another lower bound g  of a, b  P is also
lower bound of g .
Maximal element: an element a in the poset  P,   is said to be maximal element if there is no element b  P such
that a  b .
Minimal element: an element a in the poset  P,   is said to be manimal element if there is no element b  P such
that b  a .
Greatest element: an element a in the poset  P,   is said to be Greatest element if b  a, b  P . The greatest element
is unique if it exist.
Least element: an element a in the poset  P,   is said to be least element if a  b, b  P . The least element is unique
if it exist.
Q. Which elements of the poset 2,4,5,10,12,20,25, /  are maximal and minimal?
Q. Find the greatest and least element in the following Hasse diagrams-

Q. Answer the following questions concerning the poset 2,4,6,9,12,18,27,36,48,60,72, /  .

(i) Find maximal and minimal elements.
(ii) Find the greatest and least element.
(iii) Find lub of {2,9}.
(iv) Find glb of {60,72}.
Q. Let X = {1,3,5,7,15,21,35,105} and R be relation of division on the set X then X is the poset. Determine
following
(i) lub of 3 and 7
(ii) glb of 15 and 35
(iii) greatest and least element of X
Lattices: A lattice is a poset  L,   in which every pair of elements a, b L has a greatest lower bound and least
upper bound.

Note:
(1) lub {a, b} = a v b it is called “a join b”, glb {a, b} = a  b it is called “a meet b”.
(2) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 and 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 is upper bound (ub) of 𝑎 & 𝑏.
(3) 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎 and 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 is lower bound (lb) of 𝑎 & 𝑏.
(4) If 𝑎 ≤ 𝑐, 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐 then 𝑐 is upper bound of 𝑎, 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, as 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 is lub.
(5) If 𝑐 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 then 𝑐 is lower bound of 𝑎, 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏, as 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 is glb.
(6) from above, we have 𝑙𝑏 ≤ 𝑔𝑙𝑏 ≤ 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 ≤ 𝑙𝑢𝑏 ≤ 𝑢𝑏

Q. Let N be the set of positive integers. A relation R is defined by x R y iff x divides y. Prove that (N, R) is a lattice
where meet  and join  are respectively defined by x  y = HCF (x, y) and x  y = LCM (x, y).

Q. The following are the Hasse diagrams of some posets, explain which are lattice or not?

All POSET in first row are lattices.

All POSET in second row are not lattices as 𝑔 ∨ 𝑓 not exist in first, 𝑏 ∨ 𝑐 not exist in second, 𝑐 ∧ 𝑑 not exist in
third POSET in second row.

Theorem on lattices(JPH Book 86)

Q.1 If  L,  is a lattice with binary operation V and  then for elements a, b, c, d  L
(i) 𝑎 ≤𝑏 ⇔𝑎∧𝑏 =𝑎
(ii) 𝑎 ≤𝑏 ⇔𝑎∨𝑏 =𝑏
(iii) 𝑎∧𝑏=𝑎 ⇔𝑎∨𝑏 =𝑏
(iv) 𝑎 ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) = 𝑎 and 𝑎 ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) = 𝑎 (Absorption law)
(v) 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∧ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∧ 𝑐 (Associative law)
(vi) 𝑎 ∨ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) ∨ 𝑐 (Associative law)
(vii) 𝑎 ∧ 𝑎 = 𝑎 and 𝑎 ∨ 𝑎 = 𝑎 (Idempotent law)
(viii) 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∧ 𝑎 and 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∨ 𝑎 (commutative law)
(ix) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 ∧ 𝑑
(x) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑎 ∨ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 ∨ 𝑑
(xi) (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐) ≤ 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐)
(xii) 𝑎 ∨ (𝑏 ∧ 𝑐) ≤ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑐)

Proof: (i) Let given

𝑎≤𝑏
Since,
𝑎 ≤ 𝑎 (reflexive)
⇒ 𝑎 is lower bound of 𝑎, 𝑏 and we know 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 is glb
⇒ 𝑎 ≤𝑎∧𝑏 (lb ≤ glb) …(1)
Since,
𝑎∧𝑏 ≤𝑎 (glb ≤ elments) …(2)
 Form (1), (2)
𝑎∧𝑏 =𝑎
Conversely, Let given
𝑎∧𝑏 =𝑎
Since,
𝑎∧𝑏 ≤𝑏 (glb ≤ elments) …(3)
⇒ 𝑎≤𝑏 (using given in (3))
Hence,
𝑎 ≤𝑏 ⇔𝑎∧𝑏 =𝑎

(ii) To prove 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 = 𝑏
Let given
𝑎≤𝑏
Since,
𝑏 ≤ 𝑏 (reflexive)
⇒ 𝑏 is upper bound of 𝑎, 𝑏 and we know 𝑎 ∨ 𝑏 is lub
⇒ 𝑎∨𝑏 ≤𝑏 (lub ≤ ub) …(1)
Since,
𝑏 ≤𝑎∨𝑏 (elments ≤ lub) …(2)
Form (1), (2)
𝑎∨𝑏 =𝑏
Conversely, Let given
𝑎∨𝑏 =𝑏
Since,
𝑎 ≤𝑎∨𝑏 (elments ≤ lub) …(3)
⇒ 𝑎≤𝑏 (using given in (3))
Hence,
𝑎 ≤𝑏 ⇔𝑎∨𝑏 =𝑏

(iii) Follows from (i) and (ii).

(iv) 𝑎 ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) = 𝑎 and 𝑎 ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) = 𝑎 (Absorption law)

Proof: (1) since,
𝑎 ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) ≤ 𝑎, (glb ≤ elments 𝑎, (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏))
Since,
𝑎 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑎 ≤ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) (elments a ≤ lub of a and other element b )
⇒ 𝑎 is lb of 𝑎, (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎 ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) (lb ≤ glb)
Hence,
𝑎 ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) = 𝑎

(2) since,
𝑎 ≤ 𝑎 ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) (elments 𝑎 ≤ 𝑙𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑎, (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏))
Since,
𝑎 ≤ 𝑎, (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ≤ 𝑎 (lub of a and other element b ≤ elments a )
⇒ 𝑎 is ub of 𝑎, (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏)
⇒ 𝑎 ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ≤ 𝑎 (lub ≤ ub)
Hence,
𝑎 ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) = 𝑎
(ix) 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 and 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 ⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑏 ∧ 𝑑
Proof: Given,
𝑎 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑
Since,
𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏 (glb ≤ elments)
⇒𝑎∧𝑐 ≤𝑏 (Trasitivity) …(1)
Since,
𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑐, 𝑐 ≤ 𝑑 (glb ≤ elments)
⇒𝑎∧𝑐 ≤𝑑 (Trasitivity) …(2)
From (1), (2)
𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 is lb of 𝑏, 𝑑
 ⇒𝑎∧𝑐 ≤𝑏∧𝑑 (lb ≤ glb)

(xi) (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐) ≤ 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐)
Proof: Since,
𝑎∧𝑏 ≤𝑎 (glb ≤ elments) …(1)
And
𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑏, 𝑏 ≤ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) (elments b ≤ lub of b and other element c )
⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 ≤ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) (Transitivity) …(2)
From (1), (2)
𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 is lb of two elements 𝑎, (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐)
⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏 ≤ 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) …(3)
Similarly,
𝑎∧𝑐 ≤𝑎 (glb ≤ elments) …(4)
And
𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑐, 𝑐 ≤ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) (elments c ≤ lub of c and other element b )
⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) (Transitivity) …(5)
From (1), (2)
𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 is lb of tow elements 𝑎, (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐)
⇒ 𝑎 ∧ 𝑐 ≤ 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) …(6)
From (3), (6)
𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) is ub of 𝑎 ∧ 𝑏, 𝑎 ∧ 𝑐
⇒ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐) ≤ 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) (lub ≤ ub)

Q.2 Dual of a lattice is also a lattice.

Bounded lattices: Let  L,  be a lattice. An element 1 is upper bound of L i.e. a  1, a  L . Similarly an element 0 is
lower bound of L i.e. 0  a, a  L . If such elements 1, 0 are exist in L then L is called bounded lattice. Where
1 is greatest and 0 is least element of lattice.

Ex. Structure (𝑃(𝑋), ≤) is a bounded lattice, where X is a finite set. Its greatest element is X and least element is
Φ. Where ≤ 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 ⊆.

Ex. The Lattice (𝑍 + , /) is not bounded as 1 (greatest element) does not exist.

Ex. The Lattice (𝑍, ≤) is not bounded as 1 (greatest element) and 0 (least element) does not exist.

Ex. If 𝐿 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … . . 𝑎𝑛 } be a finite lattice then L is bounded as its upper bound or

greatest element 1 = 𝑎1 ∨ 𝑎2 ∨ 𝑎3 ∨ … . .∨ 𝑎𝑛 and lower bound or least element 0 = 𝑎1 ∧ 𝑎2 ∧ 𝑎3 ∧ … . .∧ 𝑎𝑛 .

Theorem 2.21.5: Let  L,  be a lattice with 0 and 1 as lower and upper bounds, then a  L
(i) a  1 = 1 and a  1 = a
(ii) a  0 = a and a  0 = 0
Proof: (i) Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐿 and 1 is upper bound of L
Then
𝑎∨1≤1 …(1)
Also,
1≤𝑎∨1 (element ≤ lub) …(2)
From (1), (2)
𝑎∨1=1 H.P.
Again, since
𝑎∧1≤𝑎 (lub ≤ element) …(3)
We know
𝑎≤𝑎 (reflexive) …(4)
And
𝑎≤1 (1 is ub of L) …(5)
Form (4), (5)
a is lb of a , 1
⇒𝑎 ≤𝑎∧1 ( lb ≤ glb ) …(6)
From (3), (6)
 𝑎∧1=𝑎 H.P.

(ii) Let 𝑎 ∈ 𝐿 and 0 is lower bound of L

Then
0≤𝑎
And
𝑎≤𝑎
From above
a is ub of 0, a
⇒ 0 ∨ 𝑎 ≤ 𝑎 (lub ≤ ub ) …(1)
Also,
𝑎 ≤𝑎∨0 (element ≤ lub) …(2)
From (1), (2)
𝑎∨0=𝑎 H.P.
Again, since
𝑎∧0≤0 (lub ≤ element) …(3)
We know
0≤0 (reflexive) …(4)
And
0≤𝑎 (1 is ub of L) …(5)
Form (4), (5)
0 is lb of 0 , a
⇒0≤0∧𝑎 ( lb ≤ glb ) …(6)
From (3), (6)
𝑎∧1=𝑎 HP

Distributive lattices: A lattice  L,  is called distributive lattice if a, b, c  L

(i) abVc   ab V ac 
(ii) aV bc   aVbaVc 

Ex. Structure (𝑃(𝑋), ≤) is a distributive lattice as

(i) 𝑎 ∧ (𝑏 ∨ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∧ 𝑏) ∨ (𝑎 ∧ 𝑐)
(ii) 𝑎 ∨ (𝑏 ∧ 𝑐) = (𝑎 ∨ 𝑏) ∧ (𝑎 ∨ 𝑐)
Where ∨ = ∪ and ∧ = ∩.

Compliment of an element: Let  L,  be a bounded lattice, whose greatest and least elements are 1 and 0 respectively.
Then the element x is called compliment of an element a  L if
a  x  1 and a  x  0 .

Theorem2.21.6: Let  L,  be a bounded distributive lattice, if an element a  L has a compliment then it is unique.
Proof:

Complimented lattices: A bounded lattice  L,  is said to be complemented lattice if every element of L has at least
one compliment in L.

Theorem 2.21.7: Let  L,  be a complemented distributive lattice, then a, b  L

(i) aVb  ab
(ii) ab   aVb

Theorem 2.21.8: The dual of a complemented lattice is also a complemented lattice.

 Function
Definition of function
Let A and B be two given sets and if each element a  A is associated with a unique element b  B under a rule f , then
this relation is called function.
Here b, is called the image of a and a is called the pre- image of b under f.

Definition of function as subset of Cartesian product

The function is a subset of A B . Every element of A must be associated with a unique (one and only one) element of
B but any element of B can have two or more relations in A.

Doamin: if f : A  B is define then set A is called domain of f.

Codomain: if f : A  B is define then set A is called codomain of f.

Range: if f : A  B is define then set of elements of B which are associated to elements of A is called range.

Constant function: A function f : A  B is constant function if f(x) = c, x  A .

Identity function: A function f define on a set A is identity function if f(x) = x, x  A .

Equal function: Two functions f and g are said to be equal function iff
(i) domain of f = domain of g
(ii) codomain of f = codomain of g
(iii) f(x) = g(x), x  domain .

Find domain and range of functions which are defined on R.

x 1
(i) f x  (vii) f  x 
2 x 5
x 1
x (viii) f  x  x 2
(ii) f  x 
x 5 x
(ix) f  x 
(iii) f  x  x  4 1 x
(iv) f  x   ln x (x) f x  9  x 2
x2 2 x
(v) f  x  (xi) f  x 
x2 2 x

(vi) f x  4  x 2

Domain of f + g, fg
Let f : A  R and g : B  R be two functions. Then their sum f  g and product fg can be defined as
 f  g  x   f  x   g  x 
And  fg x   f  x .g  x 
Also dom f  g   dom fg  dom f   dom g 

Ex. Let f  x   x 2 , x   ,  and g  x  x 1, x  1,  . Then obtain the sum and product of f and g also find their
domains.

One one (injective function): A function f : A  B is called one-one if different elements of A has different images
in B. If x1  x2  f(x1)  f(x2) or f(x1) = f (x2)  x1 = x2 then function is one-one .
Ex. f  x   2 x, x  N
Many one function:
A function f : A  B is called many- one, if two or more different elements of A have the same f-image in B.

therefore f : A  B is many-one if x1  x2  f(x1) = f(x2) .

 Ex. f  x   x , x  Z

Into function: A function f : A  B is into if there exist atleast one element in B which is not the f-image of any element
in A. Therefore, atleast one element of B such that f –1 (y) =  then function is into. In other words
Range of f  co-domain of f

Onto function (Surjective function): A function f : A  B is onto if the each element of B has its pre- image in A.
Therefore if f–1 (y)  A,  y  B then function is onto.
In other words if Range of f = Co-domain of f.
Ex. f : I  set of even integers, f  x   2 x .

One one onto (Bijective function): A function f is said to be one-one onto if f is one-one and onto both.

Inverse of function: If f : A  B be a one-one onto (bijection) function, then the mapping f –1: B  A which associates
each element b  B with element a  A, such that f(a) = b, is called the inverse function of the function
f :A B.

f –1 : B  A, f –1(b) = a  f(a) = b.
In terms of ordered pairs inverse function is defined as - f –1 = {(b,a) | (a,b)  f}

Theo. If f is one one onto function then f-1 is also one one onto.

Theo. If f is one one onto then f-1 is unique.

Ex. If f : R  R , defined by f  x   ax  b, where a, b, x  R and a  0 . Show that, f is invertible.

Ex. Let f be a function defined from the set X to the set Y and let A, B be the subsets of Y, then
(i) f 1 A  B   f 1 A  f 1 B 
(ii) f 1 A  B   f 1 A  f 1 B 

Composition(Product) of function: Let f : A  B, g : B  C are two functions then composition of f, g denoted by gof
or gf is function from set A to set C.

Q. if f and g are two bijections f : A  B, g : B  C then the inverse of gof exists and  gof  1  f 1og 1 .
one one onto proof

Null set(empty set), Finite set, infinite set, cardinality of set, countable set, countable finite set, countable infinite set,
uncountable set

Set of even natural numbers is countable.

Set of odd natural numbers is countable.

Set of rational numbers is countable.

Show that the open interval (0, 1) is uncountable.

Show that set of real number is uncountable.

Pigeonhole principle, generalized pigeonhole principle

Q. Prove that if any six numbers from the set {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9} are chosen, then two of them will add to 10.
Q. if (n+1) integers are selected from the set {1,2,3, ……,2n}, then show that one of them divides another integer
that has been selected.
Proof techniques:
Mathematical induction:
Proof by contradiction:
Propositional logic:
Proposition
Operation: or, and, negation, nor, nand, exlusive or
Special functions:
Polynomial function: A function f : R  R of the form
f  x   an x n  an 1x n 1        a1x  a0
exponential function, Logarithmic function, Absolute value function, Floor function or Greatest integer function,
Celling function, Mod function, Div function, Characteristic function