BACKGROUND OF COUNSELLING THEORIES

COUNSELLING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY

Historical Background of counseling and psychosocial services

Historical writings of different scholars use different starting points of the history of counseling
and psychotherapy. A psychologist J.M Fuster (1988) indicated that, since the beginning of
human history, counseling has been there and it is not a new phenomenon. Throughout human
history parents, teachers, friends and elders were offering counseling to people who needed it.
Towards the turn of the 19th century medicine was not so specialized as it is today and a family
doctor was not in hurry. People used to receive medical attention from medical practitioners or a
family doctor who could sit by the bedside of the patient and patiently listen to what the sick
person had to say. It was by such conversations that one family doctor was faced with problems
which were not the usual ones of fever and aches that needed medical attention. The new
identified problems were in form of worry, fear, anxiety, depression and other inner struggles.
The doctor could not do much with them, but felt that there could be some underlying pathology
of the brain or the nervous system being responsible for those problems that were labeled as
“mental problems.”
By the end of the 19th century, this discovery brought on board a number of great thinkers and
scientists who included: Griesinger, Kraepelin, Golgi, Ramony and others to study the nature of
mental illness and mental disorder, and they basically had an organic view of the problem. Their
contributions at the initial stage led to exciting biological discoveries of diseases that caused
personality disorders and needed clinical solutions which put surgery into consideration.
However, further research indicated that, still in many pathological patients, the cause of mental
disorders was not organic and was not easily detected, but some scientists discovered that certain
types of mental illness were caused by psychological factors, where a patient could fail to cope
with his inner frustrations and conflict and adopt unhealthy responses.
Looking at the origin of professional counseling, the psychological point of view became
important in the use of hypnosis (causing a state of relaxation) to treat hysteria (violent
emotional outbreaks) in patients. A significant contribution in this approach was made by
Sigmund Freud, who came to be recognized as “the father of psychoanalysis” while treating
patients with psychological and mental disorders. He showed great respect and understanding of
his patients. He allowed free expression to hysteric patients. A person could be able to release
his disturbing emotions as psychological healing was taking place. Sigmund Freud also came to
be known as the first to create conditions that were favorable for a patient to relax and
communicate freely his or her thoughts and feelings. Different scholars refer to him as one who
discovered what goes today by the name of psychotherapy and counseling. This field was
evolved by Freud’s followers who included: Carl Jung, Alfred Edler, Eric Erickson and other
psychologists who also came up with their own counseling theories and new approaches, JM
Fuster (1988) and Margaret Hough (2002). In developed countries like US and in Europe
counseling is not a new phenomenon, it has existed for long and has helped to address
psychosocial problems.

According to Babra Engler, in Hough Margaret 2002, of all the giants of intellectual history of
counseling theories, Sigmund Freud emerged as an un questionable leader who did a lot in
helping other theorists to understand human nature. From his contributions many people in the
world believed that he did a great job to enhance self understanding.

Freud’s achievements were highly significant. Many other theorists we will learn about
developed from his efforts. Some emerged to elaborate, modify, substitute and or refute Freud’s
concepts. That is why contemporary theories of personality cannot be studied without prior
understanding of Freud Sigmund’s contribution.

Although Freud had a group of loyal followers, some of his original followers became
dissatisfied with the orthodox psychoanalysis, left the movement and founded their own schools
of thought. Those included: CarlJung, Alfred Edler Erich Fromm and others.

Each of those reacted in a different way against Freud‘s psychoanalytic theory and developed
another, which could stand by itself.

2
 FREUD SIGMUND’S BIOGRAPHY
(HIS BACKGROUND)

According to Hough Margaret 2002, Freud Sigmund was born in 1856 in Monorovia –
Czechoslovakia, where he lived with his family until they moved to Vienna four years later. As
student, Freud had a deep curiocity and was more interested in science and scientific research
than anything else.

In later years, Freud’s deep involvement in the work of hypnosis (by relaxing persons with
hypnosis), laid a foundation for his future work in psychoanalysis.

He had encountered patients in his practice who suffered physical symptoms of a disease, which
seemed to have no organic cause.

He observed that the symptoms were related to the phenomenon of hysteria (a state of losing
one’s emotional control and begins to shout).

Since his patients had no knowledge of the cause of their illness or disease, he observed that the
cause was laid in their unconscious minds. So, he wanted to understand it fully, by developing
some specific techniques. These included: Free association (for release of the repressed
material), interpretation of client’s words, dream interpretation as well as clinical interviews.

This method of psycho-analysis pioneered by Freud was the starting point of all the future work
that was carried out in the field of psychotherapy.

3
 FREUD SIGMUND’S STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY
The Id, Ego and Super ego

Freud’s analysis of his patients led him to the understand the elements which make the structure
of personality. They include the following:

The Id
Characteristics of the Idi
 It is present from birth and necessary for survival.
 It operates on pleasure principle.
 It is responsible for securing food, comfort and pleasure.
 It operates unconsciously and individuals may not make decision of what to do.
 It is uncontrollable – when it says I want, it really wants.
 It may act like a spoilt child
 It includes all our genetic inheritance.
 It gives us the capacity to respond.
 It initiates actions done by the individual.
 It seeks pleasure and immediate release of tension.
 When it says I want, it wants immediate action to take place.

Example of Idi reflexes;

sneezing, yawning and brinking etc. Those are un learned responses. They take place without
conscious thought or without much effort. Those responses help to ward off danger in our
environment.

Also with those Idi reflexes, a new born baby can turn the head to locate the nipple for survival
purposes. In this case, if a baby is frustrated with breast feeding, tension will build up and the
baby will suffer both short term and long term psychological effects.

The Ego
Ego characteristics
 This is the second element of personality to develop.
 It operates according to realistic principle.
 It operates consciously.
 It controls the Idi actions.
 It postpones the Id’s demands until the appropriate object is obtained.
 It uses realistic thinking.
 It seeks to satisfy the Idi’s demands or wishes with realistic means.
 It is referred to as the faithful servant.

The Super-ego
The super ego Characteristic
 This is the third element of personality to develop.
 It operates according to the moral principle.

4
 It operates consciously.
 It makes the individual act according to internalized values, rules and moral standards.
 It seeks perfection.
 It makes the individual feel guilty when moral standards, values and rules are not observed.

Freud believed that there should be a balance between the three elements of human personality
and the three have to work together in harmony. When the Idi, Ego and Super ego fail to agree,
the individual experiences tension and conflict.