V.

Logic

Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct from incorrect reasoning. Using the
methods and techniques of logic—one can distinguish reliably between sound and faulty reasoning.

Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and commands. For
instance, “Is the test today?” is a question.
“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Denver is the capital of Colorado” is a statement of fact.

A statement is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,

but not both true and false.

You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it is false, and that
it is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.

Example:
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.
a. Florida is a state in the United States.
b. How are you?
c. 99 + 2 is a prime number.
d. �� + 1 = 5.
Solution:
a. Florida is one of the 50 states in the United States, so this sentence is true and it is a statement. b. The
sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus, it is not a statement. c. You
may not know whether 99 + 2 is a prime number; however, you do know that it is a whole number
larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime number. The sentence is either true or it
is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a statement.
d. �� + 1 = 5 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 4, and it is false for any
other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.

EXERCISE

Determine whether each sentence is a statement or not, then explain why or why not.

1. The Dark Knight is the greatest movie of all time.

2. Open the door.

3. The area code for Lucban is 3003.

4. January 1, 2021 will be a Sunday.

5. 7055 is a large number.

Simple Statements and Compound Statements

A simple statement is a statement that conveys a single idea. A compound statement is a statement that conveys
two or more ideas. Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if . . . then, and if and
only if creates a compound statement.
We will use symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and the symbols ∧, ∨, ∼, →
������ ↔ to represent connectives as shown in the table below.

Example 1: (Negation)
Write the negation of each statement.
a. Bill Gates has a yacht.
b. Avatar was not selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.
Solution
a. Bill Gates does not have a yacht.
b. Avatar was selected as best picture at the 82nd Academy Awards ceremony.

Example 2: (Conjunction)
Determine whether each statement is true or false.
a. 5 is a whole number and 5 is an even number.
b. 2 is a prime number and 2 is an even number.
Solution:
a. This is a false statement because 5 is not an even number.
b. This is a true statement because each simple statement is true.

In any conditional statement represented by “If ��, then ��” or by “If ��, ��” the �� statement is
called the antecedent and the q statement is called the consequent.

The conditional �� → �� is false if �� is true and �� is false. It is true in all other cases. The conditional
statement, “If ��, then ��,” can be written using the arrow notation �� → ��, read as “if p, then q” or
as “p implies q.”
Example 3: (Conditional)
Identify the antecedent and consequent in the following statements.
a. If our school was this nice, I would go there more than once a week.
b. If you don’t stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it.
c. If you strike me down, I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.
Solution
a. Antecedent: our school was this nice
Consequent: I would go there more than once a week
b. Antecedent: you don’t stop and look around once in a while
Consequent: you could miss it
c. Antecedent: you strike me down
Consequent: I shall become more powerful than you can possibly imagine.

Example 4: (Conditional)
Determine the truth value of each of the following.
a. If 2 is an integer, then 2 is a rational number.
b. If 3 is a negative number, then 5 > 7.
c. If 5 > 3, then 2 + 7 = 4.
Solution:
a. Because the consequent is true, this is a true statement.
b. Because the antecedent is false, this is a true statement.
c. Because the antecedent is true and the consequent is false, this is a false statement.

Example 5: (Biconditional)
State whether each biconditional is true or false.
a. �� + 4 = 7 if and only if �� = 3.
b. ��2 = 36 if and only if �� = 6.
Solution:
a. Both equations are true when �� = 3, and both are false when �� ≠ 3. Both equations have
the same truth value for any value of x, so this is a true statement.
b. If �� = −6, the first equation is true and the second equation is false. Thus, this is a false
statement. Example 6: (Translating Compound Statements)
Let p, q, and r represent the following simple statements:
p: You get a promotion.
q: You complete the training.
r: You will receive a bonus.
a. Write (p ∧ q) → r as an English sentence.
b. Write “If you do not complete the training, then you will not get a promotion and you will not receive
a bonus.” in symbolic form.
Solution:
a. Because the p and the q statements both appear in parentheses in the symbolic form, they are placed
to the left of the comma in the English sentence.
Thus, the translation is:
“If you get a promotion and complete the training, then you will receive a bonus.”
b. Because the not p and the not r statements are both to the right of the comma in the English
sentence, they are grouped together in parentheses in the symbolic form.
Thus, the translation is: ~q → (~p ∧∼r)

In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one are called existential quantifiers.
Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes to assert the existence of something.

In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal quantifiers. The universal quantifiers none
and no deny the existence of something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every are used to assert that
every element of a given set satisfies some condition.

Examples:
There exists a real number whose multiplicative inverse is itself.
All elements of the set of integers are elements of the set of rationals.

Equivalent Forms of the Conditional Statement

Every conditional statement can be stated in many equivalent forms. The table below lists some of the
various forms that may be used to write a conditional statement denoted by �� → ��:

If ��, then ��. �� only if ��. Not �� or ��. ��, if ��. �� is a necessary condition for

��. If ��, ��. �� implies ��. Every �� is a ��. ��, provided that ��. �� is a

sufficient condition for ��.

Example 1:
Write each of the following in “If p, then q” form.
a The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by
b Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday.
Solution:
a. The statement, “The number is an even number provided that it is divisible by 2,” is in “q provided that
p” form. The antecedent is “it is divisible by 2,” and the consequent is “the number is an even
number.” Thus its “If p, then q” form is “If it is divisible by 2, then the number is an even number.”
b. The statement, “Today is Friday, only if yesterday was Thursday,” is in “ p only if q” form. The
antecedent is “today is Friday.” The consequent is “yesterday was Thursday.” Its “If p, then q” form
is “If today is Friday, then yesterday was Thursday.”
 Statements Related to the Conditional Statement
The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is ∼p → ∼q.
The contrapositive of p → q is ∼q →∼p.
Example 2:
Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the statement “If I get the job, then I will rent the apartment.”

Solution:
Converse: If I rent the apartment, then I get the job.
Inverse: If I do not get the job, then I will not rent the apartment.
Contrapositive: If I do not rent the
apartment, then I did not get the job.

Module 3
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

“Every problem has a solution. You just have to be creative enough to find it.”
- Travis Kalanick

INTRODUCTION

Problems are inevitable. And because of that, one must learn the necessary skills to arrive at solutions to
different types of problems encountered. It is imperative that we study different approaches and strategies in
problem solving. This module presents the fundamental principles of problem solving along with some specific
processes that can be applied to certain types of problems. Its main goal is to develop students’ skills in pattern
recognition, critical and logical thinking, and creativity. This also aims to help students become better problem
solvers, develop interest in problem solving and consider it as an enjoyable experience.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, students should be able to:
1. Explain Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy;
2. Apply Polya’s four-step problem solving strategy in solving certain problems;
3. Distinguish inductive reasoning from deductive reasoning;
4. Give examples of inductive and deductive processes of inference; and
5. Use either the inductive or deductive reasoning to solve practical problems; and
6. Solve problems using different approaches and strategies.

DISCUSSION
I. Polya’s Strategy

George Polya, known as the father of modern problem solving, created his famous four-step process for problem
solving. The steps are:

Understan d the Review the Solution

Problem •Have a clear understanding of the problem.

Device a Plan •Enumerate the steps to be taken to solve the problem: List
down the given information, use variables to represent
unknowns, translate to mathematical sentences, draw, create a
Carry out the Plan table, etc.
•Carry out the plan carefully and accurately, taking note all the •Ensure the solution is consistent with the facts of the
attempts. problem, interpret the solution in the context of the problem,
review the details, and check the validity of the final answer.
Example 1:
A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could they have two wins
and two losses in four games?

Solution:
Understand the Problem – There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight games and lost
the last two (��������) or they may have lost in the first two games and won the last two
(��������). Of course there are other possibilities, such as ��������.

Devise a Plan – We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a list that is produced
using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once and only once.

Carry Out the Plan – Each entry in our list must contain two ��s and two ��s. We will use a strategy that
makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to always write a �� unless
doing so will produce too many ��s or a duplicate of one of the previous orders. If it is not possible to write a
��, then and only then do we write an ��. This strategy produces the six different orders shown below.
1. �������� (Start with two wins)
2. �������� (Start with one win)
3. ��������
4. �������� (Start with one loss)
5. ��������
6. �������� (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution – We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list considers all
possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a baseball team can win exactly two
out of four games.

Example 2:
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same age. What are the
ages of the teenagers?

Solution:
Understand the Problem – We need to determine three distinct counting numbers, from the list 13, 14, 15, 16,
17, 18, and 19, that have a product of 4590.

Devise a Plan – If we represent the ages by ��, ��, and ��, then ������ = 4590. We are unable to
solve this equation, but we notice that 4590 ends in a zero. Hence, 4590 has a factor of 2 and a factor of 5,
which means that at least one of the numbers we seek must be an even number and at least one number must
have 5 as a factor. The only number in our list that has 5 as a factor is 15. Thus 15 is one of the numbers, and at
least one of the other numbers must be an even number. At this point we try to solve by guessing and checking.

Carry Out the Plan –

15 ∗ 16 ∗ 18 = 4320 → No, this product is too small.
15 ∗ 16 ∗ 19 = 4560 → No, this product is too small.
15 ∗ 17 ∗ 18 = 4590 → Yes, this is the correct product.
The ages of the teenagers are 15, 17, and 18.

Review the Solution – Because 15 ∗ 17 ∗ 18 = 4590, and each of the ages represents the age of a teenager, we
know our solution is correct. None of the numbers 13, 14, 16, and 19 is a factor (divisor) of 4590, so there are no
other solutions.
II. Problem Solving Strategies

1. Guess and test (Trial and error) – this is the most common method that students tend to use when solving
a given problem. This includes trying different possible answers to the question and checking if it is
correct and if not, then try another guess.

Example:
 Place the digits 8, 9, 10, 12, & 13 in the circles so that the sum across and vertically equal to 31.

It is possible to systematically answer this problem,

but since we are dealing with just 5 numbers and
addition is the only operation, it will be faster and
easier to just simply guess it. Few trials will be
enough to correctly answer the problem. (Try it!)

2. Picture/Diagram/Experiment – this method is used by most people because it is much easier to solve a
problem if you can draw or picture it, or try it out yourselves, instead of just imagining things.

Example:
Using only a 5L and an 11L can, how can you have exactly 7L of water?

5L 11L during our group activities. And solving this easily would
This is one of the problems that were presented in class involve actually experimenting on it, or drawing
scenarios or steps. (Try it!)

3. Working backwards – this is when we are given a problem wherein a final output is given, and we are
asked to find something at the beginning or somewhere at the middle. Since the final output is
provided, the best way is to start from there, then work backwards, reversing all actions.

Example:
Mary is thinking of a number. If you double it, and subtract 7 you obtain 11. What is the number?

Solution:
Since we are given the final answer which is 11, it is best to start from there, and then go backwards. First, we
see that 11 is obtained after subtracting 7 to the previous number. Since we work backwards, instead of
subtracting, we add. Thus, the previous number is 11 + 7 = 18. From 18, we see that it is obtained by doubling
the previous number. Thus, the previous number is 182= 9. Therefore, 9 is Mary’s number. We can check it by
substituting 9 to the problem. We have 9, if we double it, we get 18, and subtracting 7 from 18, we get 11. So
our answer is correct.

4. Looking for patterns – this is used when we can find a pattern in a given problem or sequence. (More
examples are presented in Section IV.)

Example:
Fill the missing the number in the sequence 1, 4, 9, 16, ___, 36, 49, 64, 81, 100, …

Solution:
In this sequence, we can observe that the given numbers are actually perfect squares, 1 = 12, 4 = 22, 9 = 32, 16
= 42and so as the others. Thus, we can conclude that the missing number is actually 52 which is equal to 25.

5. Listing/tabular – this is often used when we are asked to answer problems where we need to list down
possibilities so we can look at it properly. Of course we can just use a scratch paper and write things
randomly but this is more organized and easier to look at.
Example:
Let ��(��) denote the ����ℎ term in the Fibonacci Sequence where ��(1) = 1, ��(2) = 1,
��(3) = 2 and so on. Find the least value of �� such that ��(��) > 500.

Solution:
In this problem, we are asked to find the smallest �� so that ��(��) is greater than 500. One way to do it
is to make a table and list down the terms of the Fibonacci sequence with the corresponding ��.
 �� 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

�� 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 89 144 233 377 610 987 1597

(�
�)

In this table, all we do is to find the smallest �� so that ��(��) > 500. We see that 610, 987, 1597 are all
greater than 500. Therefore, the possible values of �� that will give us these values are 15, 16, 17, and even
greater. But, we are only asked to find the smallest. And the smallest here is 15. So the answer is 15.

6. Algebraic equations – this method is used when it is not enough to simply look at the problems, draw it, or
guess. This happens when the given problem is too complex and there are way too many possible
answers, or the values are too big.

Example:
The sum of the two digits of a 2-digit number is 11. Reversing the digits increase the number by 45. What is the
number?

Solution:
We use Polya’s strategy in solving this problem We enumerate the steps as follows:

Understand the problem – In this problem, we are asked to find a two digit number. It says that if we add the two
digits of this number, we get 11. (For example, 65 is possible because 6 + 5 = 11, but that’s not the only
possible combination.) Next, it tells us that if reverse the numbers, meaning if we interchange their positions,
then the resulting number is 45 more than the original (Well, if we reversed 65, it will be 56, so definitely it’s not
the answer).

Translate – After understanding the problem, we now try to translate it to mathematical sentences. First, how do
we translate “The sum of the two digits of a 2-digit number is 11”? Since we are dealing with two unknown
values, we can use two variables to represent them, say �� is the first and �� is the second. Therefore,

�� + �� = 11. (Equation 1)

But what is the number? Is it ����? No. Because if it is ����, you will be multiplying the two digits, and
that is not right (It is different when we are dealing with variables already). For example, if you have 65, we
know that to get 65 out of the digits 6 and 5, we have to multiply the tens digit with 10 and add the ones digit.
So 10(6) + 5 = 60 + 5 = 65.

Now, if we have the �� and �� as variables, then the number that we are looking for is

10�� + �� (The unknown number)

But since we have two variables to solve, it is not enough that we only have one equation (The second one is not
an equation). Thus, we need another one. Going back to the problem, it tells us that if we reversed the digits, we
get a number that is 45 more than the original one. So we are saying that if we have 10�� + �� (we
interchanged �� and ��), then this will be equal to 45 + (10�� + ��). Thus we have the second
equation

10�� + �� = 45 + 10�� + �� (Equation 2)

Solve – Since we have enough equations to solve for the unknown values, we can already solve it.
�� + �� = 11 → �� = 11 − �� 9(11 − ��) − 9�� = 45

99 − 9�� − 9�� = 45

10�� + �� = 45 + 10�� + �� 10�� − �� 99 − 18�� = 45

+ �� − 10�� = 45 9�� − 9�� = 45 −18�� = 45 − 99

−18�� = −54 Since �� = 11 − �� from Equation 1, substitute 11
− �� to �� in Equation 2. Solve for ��.
−18��
−18 =−54
−18

�� = ��

�� = 11 − 3

�� = ��
Rewrite Equation 1.

Simplify Equation 2 by combining like terms and leaving Solve for �� using the computed value of �� and
the variables in one side and the constant in the other Equation 1.
side of the equation.

Therefore, we have �� = 3 and �� = 8, so our number is 38.

Check – We now try to check if our answer is correct. If we have 38, then the sum of its digits, 3 and 8 is
obviously 11. Now, reversing the digits, we have 83. We can check that 83 = 38 + 45. Therefore, 38 is correct.

7. Logical Reasoning – this deals with the way we analyse things, and how we come up with solutions to our
problems. This can go with every other method that was discussed earlier, whichever is appropriate.
There are two types of reasoning which will be discussed in the next section.

III. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

1. Inductive Reasoning – the type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the examination of specific
examples.

Example 1:
During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums every other year. Last year, the tree did not produce plums,
so this year, the tree will produce plums.

We arrive at our answer based on our observation on what has been happening for the past years, thus, this
might not be that accurate, but, it is what is most likely to happen based on experience.

Example 2:
Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in the sequence 5, 10, 15, 20, ?

Solution:
Each successive number is 5 larger than the preceding number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 5 larger than 20, which is 25.
❖ The conclusion formed using inductive reasoning is often called a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.

Example 3:
The period of a pendulum is the time it takes for the pendulum to swing from left to right and back to its original
position. The following table shows some results obtained for pendulums of various lengths. (For the sake of
convenience, a length of 10 inches has been designated as 1 unit.) If a pendulum has a length of 49 units, what is
its period? If the length of a pendulum is quadrupled, what happens to its period?
Solution:
 Length of Period of 9 3
pendulum in units pendulum, in
heartbeats 16 4

1 1 25 5

4 2 36 6

In the table, each pendulum has a period that is the square root of its length. Thus we conjecture that a
pendulum with a length of 49 units will have a period of 7 heartbeats. To answer the second question, note that
a pendulum with a length of 4 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 1 unit. A
pendulum with a length of 16 units has a period that is twice that of a pendulum with a length of 4 units. It
appears that quadrupling the length of a pendulum doubles its period.

❖ A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all cases. If you can find one case for which a
statement is not true, called a counterexample, then the statement is a false statement.

Example 4:
Verify that each of the following statements is a false statement by finding a counterexample. For all numbers
��: a) |��| > 0 b) ��2 > ��
Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we need only fi nd one counterexample to verify that the
statement is false. For a), we can let �� = 0, so that |��| = 0 which is equal (not greater than) 0. Thus, this is
a false statement because we have found a counterexample. For b), we can let �� = 1, so that ��2 = 1,
which is again, equal to 1. We can also take �� =12, so ��2 =14, and 14<12, which is a contradiction to the
statement.

2. Deductive Reasoning – it is the process of reaching a conclusion by applying general principles and
procedure.

Example 1:
All home improvements cost more than the estimate. The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost P200,000.00. Thus, my home improvement will cost more than P200,000.00.

Here, it is already given as a fact that ALL home improvements cost more than the estimate. Therefore, if we are
given estimate, then we know that the actual cost will be bigger. It is not just based on observations, but with
given facts.

Example 2:
Use deductive reasoning to show that the following procedure produces a number that is three times the
original number.
Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 9, add 6 to the product, divide the sum by 3, and subtract 2.

Solution:
Let �� represent the original number.
9�� Add 6 to the product.
9�� + 6 Divide the sum by 3.
9�� + 6
3
Subtract 2.
9�� + 6
3− 2
9�� + 6 Simplify.

3− 2
3�� + 2 − 2 ���� We started with �� and ended with 3x. The procedure
Multiply the number by 9. given in this example produces a number that is three
times the original number.
 ❖ Logic puzzles can be solved by using deductive reasoning and a chart that helps us visualize the problem.

Example 3:
Each of four neighbors, Kristan, Michael, Luis, and Francis, has a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or
dentist). From the following clues, determine the occupation of each neighbor.

▪ Michael gets home from work after the banker but before the dentist.
▪ Luis, who is the last to get home from work, is not the editor.
▪ The dentist and Luis leave for work at the same time.
▪ The banker lives next door to Francis.

Solution:
From the first clue, we can already tell that Michael is not the banker or the dentist. Thus, we can already mark it
x in our table. From the second clue, it is mentioned that Luis is not the editor, and the third clue is implying that
he is also not the dentist, so we mark it x. Finally, Francis is living next to the banker, so clearly, he is not the
banker. We mark it with x.
editor banker chef dentist

Kristan

Michael x x

Luis x x

Francis x

The table shows the initial information that we can get from the clues given. Now, to deduce more information,
we analyse further the clues. It was mentioned from the second clue that Luis is the last to get home from work,
therefore, from the first clue, we observe that he is not the banker, because clearly the banker is not the last one
to go home because Michael and the dentist goes home after him. We can mark it with x.
editor banker chef dentist

Kristan

Michael x x

Luis x x x

Francis x

From the table, we can observe that the only one who can possibly be the banker is Kristan. Thus, we can
already mark it with ❶. Obviously, Kristan can no longer have the other occupations so we can mark the entire
row with x.
editor banker chef dentist

Kristan x ❶ x x

Michael ❸ x x

Luis x x ❹ x

Francis x ❷

Continuing this fashion, we can conclude that Francis is the dentist, mark it ❷. Then Michael is the editor, mark
it ❸. Finally, Luis, is the chef, marked ❹.
 editor banker chef dentist

Kristan x ❶ x x

Michael ❸ x x x

Luis x x ❹ x

Francis x x x ❷

IV. Mathematical Problems Involving Patterns

❖ An ordered list of numbers such as 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, … is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence
are called terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, we call 6 as the first term, 12 the second
term, and so on.
❖ The ��th term of a sequence is denoted by ����.
❖ That is, a sequence consisting of �� terms is represented by ��1, ��2, ��3, … , ����.

By examining the given terms in the sequence, we can analyse and try to find the pattern so that we can identify
the next term. In the sequence above, we can observe that the next term is computed by adding 6 to the
preceding term. Thus, we can conclude that the term after 30 is 36, followed by 42, 48, and so on.

❖ In some cases, it is possible to predict or derive a formula, called the ������ term formula, which
can generate the terms of the given sequence.

Example 1:
Consider the sequence 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, … of even numbers. Observe that we can write the term 2 as 2(1), 4 as 2(2),
6 as 2(3), and so on. Generally, we can write the terms in the sequence in the form 2��, where �� is a
natural number. Thus, the formula for the ��th term of this sequence is:

���� = 2��

Example 2:
Consider the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the ��th term of the sequence, we have the formula
���� = 3��2 + ��. Thus, if we want to find the 20th term of the sequence, we simply substitute 20 to the
formula. ���� = 3��2 + ��
��20 = 3(202) + 20
��20 = 3(400) + 20
��20 = 1200 + 20
��20 = ��������

V. Recreational Problems using Mathematics

 KenKen® Puzzles

KenKen®is an arithmetic-based logic puzzle that was invented by the Japanese mathematics teacher Tetsuya
Miyamoto in 2004. The noun “ken” has “knowledge” and “awareness” as synonyms. Hence, KenKen translates as
knowledge squared, or awareness squared.

In recent years the popularity of KenKen has increased at a dramatic rate. More than a million KenKen puzzle
books have been sold, and KenKen puzzles now appear in many popular newspapers, including the New York
Times and the Boston Globe.

KenKen puzzles are similar to Sudoku puzzles, but they also require you to perform arithmetic to solve the
puzzle. Rules for Solving a KenKen Puzzle

For a 3 by 3 puzzle, fill in each box (square) of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, or
3. For a 4 by 4 puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3, or 4.
For a n by n puzzle, fill in each square of the grid with one of the numbers 1, 2, 3,..., n.
Grids range in size from a 3 by 3 up to a 9 by 9.
∙ Do not repeat a number in any row or column.
∙ The numbers in each heavily outlined set of squares, called cages, must combine (in some
order) to produce the target number in the top left corner of the cage using the
mathematical operation indicated.
∙ Cages with just one square should be fi lled in with the target number.
∙ A number can be repeated within a cage as long as it is not in the same row or column. Here is a

4 by 4 puzzle and its solution. Properly constructed puzzles have a unique solution. column 1

↓ column 2 ↓ column 3 ↓ column 4 ↓

row 1 → row 2 → row 3 → row 4 3 4 �� +

3 4
�� × ���� × �� − 1
→ �� × 1 �� ×

�� 4
1
�� 2
�� × �� + �� × 2 �� −
���� × 4 2 3
�� �� ×
��
1
3 2

A 4 x 4 puzzle with 8 cages The solution to the puzzles

Basic Puzzle Solution Strategies

Single-Square Cages – Fill cages that consist of a single square with the target number for that square. In the
puzzle above, the cell in row 4, column 3 is filled with 1.
Cages with Two Squares – Next examine the cages with exactly two squares. Many cages that cover two squares
will only have two digits that can be used to fill the cage. For instance, a 5 × cage can only be filled with 1 and 5.

Large or Small Target Numbers – Search for cages that have an unusually large or small target number. These
cages generally have only a few combinations of numbers that can be used to fill the cage. For example, in a 5 by
5 puzzle, a 60 × cage with exactly 3 squares can only be filled with 3, 4, and 5.

Duplicate Digit in a Cage – Consider the 4 + cage shown below. The digits 1, 1, and 2 produce a sum of 4;
however, we cannot place the two 1s in the same row or the same column. Thus the only way to fill the squares
is to place the 2 in the corner of the L-shaped cage as shown below. Remember: A digit can occur more than
once in a cage, provided that it does not appear in the same row or in the same column.
�� + 2
1

Remember the Following Rules – In an �� by �� puzzle, each row and column must contain every digit from
1 to ��. In a two-square cage that involves subtraction or division, the order of the numbers in the cage is not
important. For instance, a 3 − cage with two squares could be filled with 4 and 1 or with 1 and 4. A 3 ÷ cage
with two squares could be filled with 3 and 1 or with 1 and 3.

Make a List of Possible Digits – For each cage, make a list of digits, with no regard to order, that can be used to
fill the cage. It’s like having a list of possibilities for later use.

Guess and Check – In most puzzles you will reach a point where you will need to just guess, then try and see if it
works. Assume that the possible digits in a particular cage are arranged in a particular manner and then see
where your assumption takes you. If you find that the remaining part of a row or column cannot be filled in
correctly, then you can eliminate your assumption and proceed to check out one of the remaining possible
numerical arrangements for that particular cage.

A Famous Puzzle

The Tower of Hanoi is a puzzle invented by Edouard Lucas in 1883. The puzzle consists of three pegs and a
number of disks of distinct diameters stacked on one of the pegs such that the largest disk is on the bottom, the
next largest is placed on the largest disk, and so on as shown in the next figure. The object of the puzzle is to
transfer the tower to one of the other pegs. The rules require that only one disk be moved at a time and that a
larger disk may not be placed on a smaller disk. All pegs may be used. Determine the minimum number of
moves required to transfer all of the disks to another peg for each of the following situations.

There are many possible solutions of course. But what we need is to solve the problem with minimum number of
moves. First, label the pegs from left to right with A, B, and C. We follow the following steps:

1. Transfer the yellow disk to peg

A
2. Transfer the pink disk to peg C.

3. Transfer the yellow disk to peg

C.
4. Transfer the blue disk to peg A.

5. Transfer the yellow disk to peg

B.
6. Transfer the pink disk to peg A.
 7. Finally, transfer the yellow disk
to peg A.

The puzzle can be played with any number of disks, although many toy revisions have around 7 to 9 of them. The
minimal number of moves required to solve a Tower of Hanoi puzzle is 2�� − 1, where �� is the number of
disks.