Notes Energy Conservation Audit

Energy Conservation
and Audit
Final Year
B.Tech. Electrical Engg
DKTE Society's Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji
(An Autonomous Institute)
____________________________________________________________________________
Final Year B.Tech. Electrical Engineering.

EEL402: Energy Conservation and Auditing
Teaching Scheme Evaluation Scheme

Lectures 4 Hrs. /Week MSE 25
Total Credits 4 ISE 15
SEE 60
Total 100
Pre-Requisites: Renewable Energy
Course Objectives
1. Understand the policies of energy conservation in country
2. Implement techniques of energy conservation in various electrical machines
3. Apply techniques of energy conservation in various electrical installaions
4. Apply Energy auditing and appropriate tariff to reduce energy bill
Course Outcomes
After successful completion of course students should be familiar with and able to
1. Interpret policies of energy conservation in country
2. Implement techniques of energy conservation in various electrical machines
3. Apply techniques of energy conservation in various electrical installaions
4. Apply Energy auditing and appropriate tariff to reduce energy bill
Course Contents
Unit 1. Energy Conservation Basics 6 Hrs.
Energy Scenario: Primary and Secondary Energy, Energy Demand and
Supply, National Scenario; Energy Conservation and Energy Audit:
Concepts and Difference. Energy Conservation Act 2001: Relevant Clauses
of Energy Conservation. BEE and its Role. MEDA and its Role. Star
Labelling; Need and its benefits.
Unit 2. Energy Conservation in Electrical Machines 8 Hrs.
Need for Energy Conservation, Energy Conservation Techniques in
Induction Motor, Transformer; Energy Conservation Equipment, Energy
Efficient Motor, Energy Efficient Transformers
Unit 3. Energy Losses in Power System 6 Hrs.
Aggregated Technical and Commercial Losses (ATC); Power system at
State, Regional. National and Global Level. Technical Losses: Causes and
Measures to reduce. Commercial Loses.
Unit 4. Energy Conservation in Electrical Installation System 8 Hrs.
Energy Conservation Equipment, Energy Conservation in Lighting System,
Energy Conservation Techniques in Fans. Electronic Regulators
DKTE Society's Textile and Engineering Institute, Ichalkaranji
(An Autonomous Institute)
____________________________________________________________________________
Unit 5. Energy Conservation Through Co-Generation and Tariff 8 Hrs.

Co-generation and Tariff: Concept. Significance for energy conservation,
Tariff, Application of tariff system to reduce energy bill
Unit 6. Energy Audit of Electrical Systems 6 Hrs.

Energy Audit, Energy Audit Instruments and their use. Questionnaire for
Energy Audit Projects. Energy Flow Diagram. Simple Payback Period.
Energy Audit Procedure (Walk Through Audit and Detailed Audit). Energy
Audit Report Format.
Recommended Books
1. Energy Management and Conservation, by Sharma K.V; Venkataseshaiah P. IK
Publishing House.
2. Energy Management, by Singh, Sanjeey, Rathire, Unmesh, SK Kataria and sons New
Delhi
Reference Books
1. Energy Management, by Murphy W.R. Butterworth-Heinemann Publishing
2. Efficient use and Management of Electricity in Industry, by Desai B.G, Rana J.S.
A.Dinesh, Paraman R. Devki Energy consultancy pvt. Ltd.
Class: Final Year Electrical
Sub: Energy Conservation and Audit Unit -1. Energy Conservation Basics
Unit No 1.
Energy Conservation Basics
Energy Scenario: Primary and Secondary Energy, Commercial and Non-commercial

energy, Renewable and Non-Renewable energy. Energy Demand and Supply,
National Scenario. Energy Conservation and Energy Audit: Concepts and
Difference, Need of Energy Conservation, Energy Conservation Act 2001: Relevant
Clauses of Energy Conservation. BEE and its Role. MEDA and its Role. Star
Labelling; Need and its benefits.
• Energy Scenario
Energy is one of the major inputs for the economic development of any
country. In the case of developing countries, the energy sector assumes a critical
importance in view of the ever-increasing energy needs requiring huge investments
to meet them, India's per capita energy and electricity consumptions are less than
one tenth of developed countries’ per capita consumption.
The disparities in urban versus rural; southern, western and northern region
versus eastern and north eastern region; and higher income versus lower income
households are very high. Unfortunately, the regions where large fossil and
renewable energy sources are available have lower per capita energy consumption
for sustainable and equitable socio-economic development, such a situation needs
to change. Given the country's over dependence on coal, large scale import of oil
and gas, difficulty in meeting the financial burden of import environmental
consequences of large scale energy production, transformation, transportation and
use, it is not wise to strive to achieve the developed country level of energy
consumption.
To improve the quality of life of Indian citizens, there is no doubt that per
capita energy consumption has to increase. Through judicious approach, higher
quality of life can be achieved with moderate increase in energy consumption. The
country needs to make timely change of our emphasis on non-renewable energy.
Such a change in strategy calls for a shift in our development approach, i.e. from an
unsustainable growth oriented economic development to an environmentally friendly
equitable development.
Since three most serious environment related problems (Global warming, acid
rain and ozone layer depletion) owe their origin to energy, it is in our national and
global interest that we minimise 'energy want' without sacrificing the 'energy need'
for a decent quality of life.
A time bound plan is essential to move to ‘renewable energy dominant
decentralised system’ from the existing 'non-renewable energy focused, fossil fuel
centric centralised system'. Energy is essential for every activity of life. There is a
strong positive correlation between energy use and the quality of life.
At global level, per capita income of a country is directly proportional to the

per capita energy consumption. Energy can be classified into several types based
on the following criteria :
a. Primary and Secondary energy.
b. Commercial and Non-commercial energy.
c. Renewable and Non-Renewable energy.
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1. Primary and Secondary Energy
Primary Energy: Primary energy sources are those that are either found or
stored in nature, Primary energy can also be used directly. Common primary
energy sources are coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass (such as wood). Other
primary energy sources available include nuclear energy from radioactive
substances, thermal energy stored in earth’s interior and potential energy due to
earth’s gravity.
Secondary Energy: Secondary energy sources are mostly derived from the
primary energy sources by converting it in industrial utilities. for example, coal,
oil or gas converted into steam and electricity.
Example: coal or natural gas can be used as a feedstock in fertilizer plants.
2. Commercial Energy and Non-commercial Energy
Commercial Energy: The energy sources that are available in the market for a
definite price are known as commercial energy. By far the most important forms
of commercial energy are electricity, coal and refined petroleum products.
Commercial energy forms the basis of industrial, Agricultural, transport and
commercial development in the modern world. In industrialized countries,
commercialized fuels are predominant source not only for economic production,
but also for many household tasks of general population.
Examples : Electricity, lignite, coal, oil, natural gas, etc.
Non-commercial Energy: The energy sources that are not available in the
commercial market for a price are classified as non-commercial energy.
Noncommercial energy sources include fuels such as firewood, cattle dung and
agricultural wastes, which are traditionally gathered, and not bought at a price
used especially in rural households. These are also called traditional fuels.
Noncommercial energy is often ignored in energy accounting.
Example: Firewood, agro waste in rural areas; solar energy for water heating,
electricity generation for drying grain, fish and fruits: animal power for transport,
threshing, lifting water for irrigation, crushing sugarcane; wind energy for lifting
water and electricity generation.
3. Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy.
Renewable Energy: The energy acquired from never ending sources of energy
available in nature are called as Renewable energy. The main feature of this
type of energy is that, it can be extracted without causing pollution.
Example: Solar energy, Wind energy, geothermal energy etc.
Non-Renewable Energy: Non-renewable energy is the energy obtained from

the conventional fuels which are exhaustible with time.
Example: Coal, Oil, Gas etc
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• Energy Demand and Supply
Energy Demand: Energy demand is the term used to describe the consumption
of energy by human activity. It drives the whole energy system, influencing the
total amount of energy used; the location of and types of fuel used in the energy
supply system and the characteristics of the end use technologies that consume
energy.
Energy Supply: Energy supply is the delivery of fuels or transformed fuels to

point of consumption, it potentially encompasses the extraction, transmission,
generation, distribution and storage of fuels. It is also sometimes called energy
flow.
• National Scenario [India’s Global Energy Scenario]

Our nation ‘India’ has a huge amount of coal reserves upto 60,000/million
tonnes. This is sufficient for our country upto further 200 to 220 years. If compared
with other countries in the world, it is 6 to 7% of the world’s reserve. How long this
reserve will be available is indicated by the ratio of Reserves to Production. In the
world, our country stand 4th in the producer of coal and lignite. Coal mines are in the
different parts of our country : (1) Bihar, (2) Madhya Pradesh, (3) Maharashtra. (4)
Uttar Pradesh, (5) Orissa. (6) West Bengal, (7) Jharkhand. The other countries in the
world which has largest proved reserves are: (1) China, (2) US, (3) Russia. As oil is
concerned in the current scenario. Total worlds proved oil reserves are 1500 billion
barrels upto 2017, World’s proved natural gas reserves are 185 trillion cubic meters
(tcm). In rising use of coal, India’s CO2 emission is 5.5% of the world’s emission.
• Energy Conservation and Energy Audit : Concepts and Difference
❖ Energy Conservation
Energy conservation is an effort made to reduce the consumption of
energy by using less of an energy service. This can be achieved either by
using energy more efficiently or by reducing the amount of service used.
Energy conservation reduces the need for energy services and can result in
increased environmental quality, national security, personal financial security and
higher savings. Energy can be conserved by reducing wastage and losses,
improving efficiency through technological upgrades and improved operation and
maintenance. On a global level energy use can also be reduced by the stabilisation
of population growth. In the case of fossil fuels the conservation also can include
finding new ways to tap into the Earth’s supply so that the commonly used oil fields
are not drained completely. The goal with energy conservation techniques is to
reduce demand, protect and replenish supplies, develop and use alternative energy
sources.
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❖ Need of Energy Conservation
Following are the reasons for which Energy conservation becomes more
important in day-to-day life-
1. The gap between demand and supply of energy is increasing day by day due to
increased usage of electricity due to increase in population, standard of living,
Industries, transport etc.
2. The energy reserves of fossil fuels that is coal, oil and gas are depleting at a fast
rate. The increase in demand of energy and depleting energy sources all over the
world is resulting in to inflation.
3. If the available resources are wasted without paying attention towards energy
conservation, we will run out of renewable energy to use.
4. Increase in cost of energy is affecting individual, social and national life, at the
same time economy of the nation.
5. Less use of energy gives more benefits in terms of incentives
6. The per capita energy consumption in India is very low as compared to that in
advanced countries.
Hence, energy saving is essential in developed as well as developing

countries The energy saving or conservation plan should eliminate wastage of
energy without affecting productivity and growth rate.
❖ Practical Methods of Energy Conservation (Energy Conservation

Techniques)
Following are the ten energy conservation techniques that can help you to reduce
your overall carbon footprint and save money in the long run.
1. Install CFL/LED Lights :

Try replacing incandescent bulbs in your home with CFL or LED bulbs. CFL or LED
bulbs cost more upfront but last longer than regular incandescent bulbs. CFL or LED
bulbs will not only save energy but over time you end up saving money.
2. Lower the Room Temperature :

Even a slight decrease in room temperature let’s say by only a degree or two can
result in big energy savings. The more the difference between indoor and outdoor
temperatures, the more energy it consumes to maintain room temperature.
3. Fix Air Leaks :

Proper insulation will fix air leaks that could be costing you during winter months,
you could be letting out a lot of heat if you do not have a proper insulation.
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4. Use Maximum Daylight :
Turn off lights during day and use daylight as much as possible. This will reduce the
burden on the local power grid and save you good amount of money in the long run.
5. Get Energy Audit Done :

Getting energy audit done by hiring an energy audit expert for your home is an
energy conservation technique that can help you conserve energy and save good
amount of money every month. Home energy audit is nothing but a process that
helps you to identify areas in your home where it is losing energy and what steps
you can take to overcome them. Implement the tips and suggestions given by those
energy experts and you might see some drop in your monthly electricity bill.
6. Use Energy Efficient Appliances :

When planning to buy some electrical appliances, prefer to buy one with Energy Star
rating. Energy efficient appliances with Energy Star rating consume less energy and
save your money. They might cost you more in the beginning but it is much more of
an investment for you.
7. Drive Less, Walk More and Carpooling :

Yet another energy conservation technique is to drive less and walk more. This will
not only reduce your carbon footprint but will also keep you healthy as walking is a
good exercise. If you go to office by car and many of your colleagues stay nearby,
try doing carpooling with them. This will not only bring down your monthly bill you
spend on fuel but will also make you socially more active,
8. Switch Off Appliances when Not in Use :

Electrical appliances like coffee machine, idle printer, desktop computer keep on
using electricity even when not in use. Just switch them off if you don't need them
immediately.
9. Plant Shady Landscaping :

Shady landscaping outside your home will protect it from intense heat during hot and
sunny days and chilly winds during the winter season. This will keep your home cool
during summer season and will eventually turn to big savings when you calculate the
amount of energy saved at the end of the year.
10. Install Energy Efficient windows :

Some of the older windows installed at our homes are not energy efficient. Double
panel windows and other vinyl frames are much better than single pane windows.
Choosing correct blinds can save on your power bills.
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• Energy Audit
As per the Energy Conservation Act. 2001, Energy Audit is defined as-
"The verification, monitoring and analysis of use of energy including
submission of technical report containing recommendations for improving
energy efficiency with cost benefit analysis and an action plan to reduce
energy consumption”.
Energy Audit is the key to a systematic approach for decision making in the
area of energy management. It attempts to balance the total energy inputs with its
use, and serves to identify all the energy streams in a facility. It quantifies energy
usage according to its discrete functions. Industrial energy audit is an effective tool
in defining and pursuing comprehensive energy management programme.
Energy Audit will help to understand more about the ways energy and fuel are
used in any industry, and help in identifying the areas where waste can occur and
where scope for improvement exists. The Energy Audit would give a positive
orientation to the energy cost reduction, preventive maintenance and quality control
programmes which are vital for production and utility activities.
Such an audit programme will help to keep focus on variations which occur in
the energy costs, availability and reliability of supply of energy, decide on
appropriate energy mix, identify energy conservation technologies, retrofit for energy
conservation equipment etc.
In general, Energy Audit is the translation of conservation ideas into realities,
by lending technically feasible solutions with economic and other organizational
considerations within a specified time frame.
❖ Objectives of Energy Audit :

The primary objective of Energy Audit is to determine ways to reduce energy
consumption per unit of product output or to lower the operating costs. Energy Audit
provides a "bench-mark' (Reference point) for managing energy in the organization
and also provides the basis for planning a more effective use of energy throughout
the organization
❖ Energy Audit Procedure and Flow Chart
▪ A meeting is conducted amongst working personnel in the firm and in that

meeting planning of energy audit is decided.
▪ There are different processes in the industry, in this regard complete
information is collected.
▪ With the available data "primary audit" is exercised.
▪ Then detailed survey, measurements, experimentation, data collection are
carried out and meetings are held.
▪ Considering "payback" period, cost benefit analysis is done. For
implementation of strategy, a "broad report" is prepared.
▪ Then after this work: Action plans for each section are prepared. Approval of
the higher authority is taken.
▪ To judge the effectiveness of strategy, during implementation, feedbacks are
taken.
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• Energy Conservation Act 2001 (Important Features)
❖ Objectives of EC Act 2001

1. Provide a policy framework and direction to national energy conservation
activities.
2. Coordinate policies and programs on efficient use of energy with
stakeholders.
3. Establish systems and procedures to verify measure and monitor Energy
Efficiency improvements.
4. Leverage multilateral, bilateral and private sector support to implement the
EC Act.
5. Demonstrate Energy Efficiency delivery systems through public private
partnerships.
6. To promote energy efficiency in the country.
❖ Important features of Energy Conservation Act 2001 are :
1. Standards and Labelling :

Standards and Labelling (S and L) has been identified as a key activity for
energy efficiency improvement. The S and L program, when in place would
ensure that only energy efficient equipment and appliance would be made
available to the consumers.
The main provisions of EC act on Standards and Labelling are :
• Evolve minimum energy consumption and performance standards for notified
equipment and appliances.
• Prohibit manufacture, sale and import of such equipment, which does not
confirm to the standards.
• Introduce a mandatory labelling scheme for notified equipment appliances to
enable consumers to make informed choices.
• Disseminate information on the benefits to consumers.
2. Designated Consumers:
The main provisions of EC Act on designated consumers are:
• The government would notify energy intensive industries and other
establishments as designated consumers.
• Schedule to the Act provides list of designated consumers which covered
basically energy intensive industries, Railways, Port Trust, Transport Sector,
Power Stations, Transmission and Distribution Companies and Commercial
buildings or establishments.
• The designated consumer to get an energy audit conducted by an accredited
energy auditor.
• Energy managers with prescribed qualification are required to be appointed or
designated by the designated consumers.
• Designated consumers would comply with norms and standards of energy
consumption as prescribed by the central government.
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3. Certification of Energy Managers and Accreditation of Energy Auditing
Firms :
A cadre of professionally qualified energy managers and auditors with
expertise in policy analysis, project management, Financing and implementation
of energy efficiency projects would be developed through Certification and
Accreditation programme. Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) to design training
modules, and conduct a National level examination for certification of energy
managers and energy auditors.
4. Energy Conservation Building Codes:

The main provisions of EC Act on Energy Conservation Building Codes are:
• The BEE would prepare guidelines for Energy Conservation Building Codes
(ECBC).
• These would be notified to suit local climate conditions or other compelling
factors by the respective states for commercial buildings erected after the rules
relating to energy conservation building codes have been notified.
5. Central Energy Conservation Fund:

The EC Act provisions in this case are :
The fund would be set up at the centre to develop the delivery mechanism for
Iarge-scale adoption of energy efficiency services such as performance contracting
and promotion of energy service companies. The fund is expected to give a thrust to
R & D and demonstration in order to boost market penetration of efficient equipment
and appliances. It would support the creation of facilities for testing and development
and to promote consumer awareness
6. Role of Central and State Governments:

The following role of Central and State Government is envisaged in the Act
Central to notify rules and regulations under various provisions of the Act.
provide initial financial assistance to BEE and EC fund, coordinate with various State
Governments for notification, enforcement penalties and adjudication. State to
amend energy conservation building codes to suit the regional and local climatic
condition, to designate state level agency to coordinate, regulate and enforce
provisions of the Act and constitute a State Energy Conservation Fund for promotion
of energy efficiency.
7. Enforcement through Self-Regulation :

E.C. Act would require inspection of only two items. The following procedure
of self-regulation is proposed to be adopted for verifying areas that require
inspection of only two items that require inspection.
The certification of energy consumption norms and standards of production
process by the Accredited Energy Auditors is a way to enforce effective energy
efficiency in Designated Consumers.
For energy performance and standards, manufacturer’s declared values would be
checked in Accredited Laboratories by drawing sample from market. Any
manufacturer or consumer or consumer association can challenge the values of the
other manufacturer and bring to the notice at BEE. BEE can recognize for challenge
testing in disputed cases as a measure for self regulation.
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8. Penalties and Adjudication:
Penalty for each offence under the Act would be in monetary terms i.e. Rs.
10,000 for each offence and Rs. 1,000 for each day for continued noncompliance.
The initial phase of 5 years would be promotional and creating infrastructure for
implementation of Act. No penalties would be effective during this phase. The power
to adjudicate has been vested with state Electricity Regulatory Commission which
shall appoint any one of its member to be an adjudicating officer for holding an
enquiry in connection with the penalty imposed.
❖ Relevant Clauses of Energy Conservation Act 2001

The Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill was introduced in the Lok Sabha
on March 8, 2010. It amends the Energy Conservation Act, 2001. The Energy
Conservation Act empowers the government to specify norms and standards of
energy efficiency to be followed by different industries (who are specified in a
schedule to the Act) in their use of power. Norms and standards of energy efficiency
and conservation are also to be set for appliances and equipment, and the
construction of buildings. The Act empowers state governments to enforce its
various provisions.
The Act also establishes the Bureau of Energy Efficiency under the central
government to specify qualifications and certification procedures for energy auditors
and managers who shall audit the use of energy by industries.
The Bill expands the scope of energy conservation norms for buildings and
tightens the applicability of energy efficiency norms for appliances and equipment. It
provides a framework within which savings on energy use can be traded between
those industries who are energy efficient and those whose consumption of energy is
more than the maximum set by the government. The Bill increases penalties for
offences and provides let appeals to be heard by the Electricity Appellate Tribunal
set up under the Electricity Act, 2003.
Under the Act, the government could specify energy conservation building
codes tor commercial buildings with a connected load of more than 500 kW or
contract demand of 600 KVA. The Bill broadens the range of commercial buildings to
which such building codes apply to those with a connected load of more than 100
kw, or contracted demand of more than 120 kVA.
Under the Bill, the central government can issue energy savings certificates to
those industries whose energy consumption is less than the maximum allowed.
Such certificates can be sold to other consumers whose consumption is more than
the maximum allowable.
The Act empowers the government to specify energy consumption norms for
equipment or appliances. The government can also prohibit the manufacture, sale,
purchase or import of notified equipment unless they confirm to such norms.
However, this prohibition can only be issued two years after the norms have been
specified. The Bill reduces this time frame to six months, extendable by a further six
months.
The Bill increases the penalty specified for offences committed under the Act.
Each offence shall attract a penalty of Rs. 10 Iakh (Rs. 10,000 earlier), with an
additional penalty of Rs. 10,000 for each day that the offence remains (Rs. 1000
earlier). The additional penalty, for those industries who consume energy in excess
of norms, will be the value of the excess energy consumed.
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The Act provided for the setting up of an Appellate Tribunal for Energy
Conservation, which would hear appeals against orders of the central or state
government, The Bill does away with this provision and provides for appeals against
such orders to be heard by the appellate tribunal established under the Electricity
Act, 2003.
The Bill increases the term of office of the Director General of the Bureau of
Energy Efficiency from three to five years. It provides for the Bureau, rather than the
Central Government, to appoint its officers and staff.
• National Productivity Council (NPC)

Following are the functions of NPC:
1. Productivity publication.
2. Productivity research and data base.
3. Consultancy to organizations on productivity improvement
4. Training of staff at different levels.
5. Productivity information through workshops, seminars, conferences etc.
6. Productivity awards.
• Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) and its Role
❖ Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) :

Registered as a society under Societies Registration Act, 1860 (in 1985) and
Bombay Public Trust, 1950 (in 1987) Under the aegis of MNRE, GOI.
Assistance to state and central govt to promote and develop new and renewable
sources of energy and technologies and to promote and implement energy
conservation. Working as State Nodal Agency in renewable energy sector and state
designated agency in energy conservation sector
Committed to explore the resources such as Wind, Bagasse Cogeneration, Hydro,
Biomass, Geothermal, Wave which are clean and ecofriendly in nature.
❖ Role of MEDA:
MEDA shoulders imperative responsibility to conduct awareness, training and
capacity building for various stakeholders. Prime objective of such training programs
is for ease of implementation of ECBC Compliant buildings in Maharashtra. Beyond
the process of modification and enforcement of the codes in the State, the capacity
building training activity plays a key role in creating awareness of Energy
Conservation Building Code throughout the State.
❖ Responsibilities of MEDA :
1. To identify the type of Stakeholders for ECBC capacity Building Training
Workshops.
2. Identify potential locations for the Training Workshops.
3. Identify organizations who can organize the training programs.
4. All the financial help for such programs will be given by MEDA.
5. MEDA may also give Speakers for such programs.
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• Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA)
Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency (IREDA) is a profit making
public sector financing company under the administrative control of Ministry of Non-
conventional Energy Sources (MNES) and Ministry of Non-conventional Renewable
Energy sources (MNRE).
IREDA was promoted by government in 1987, mainly for promotion of
renewable energy sources link wind, hydro, Solar, Bio mass, Waste to energy etc.
Later it diversified into energy efficiency and conservation. Now IREDA extends
financial assistance for renewable energy, energy efficiency and conservation
projects with the motto ‘Energy forever’. lREDA’s financial assistance is available to
industries for their energy saving projects upto 75%, of the total project cost at a
concessional rate of interest on long term basis.
Now-a-days IREDA is running a regular media campaign for creating
awareness among the industrial units about the benefits of energy efficiency and its
financial assistance for the same. Its advertisement states ‘Energy Efficiency helps
in plugging revenue leakage”.
• Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and Its Role
❖ Bureau of Energy Efficiency

The mission of Bureau of Energy Efficiency is to institutionalize energy
efficiency services, enable delivery mechanisms in the country and provide
leadership to energy efficiency in all sectors of economy, The primary objective
would be to reduce energy intensity in the Indian Economy. The general
superintendence, directions and management of the affairs of the Bureau is vested
in the Governing Council with 26 members. The Council is headed by Union Minister
of Power and consists of members represented by Secretaries of various line
Ministries, the CEOs of technical agencies under the Ministries, members
representing equipment and appliance manufacturers, industry, architects,
consumers and have power regions representing the states. The Director General at
the Bureau shall be the ex-officio member-secretary of the Council.
The BEE will be initially supported by the Central Government by way of
grants through budget. It will however in a period of 5-7 years become self-sufficient.
It would be authorized to collect appropriate fee in discharge of its functions
assigned to it. The BEE will also use the Central Energy Conservation Fund and
other funds raised from various sources for innovative financing of energy efficiency
projects in order to promote energy efficient Investment.
❖ Role of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

The role of BEE would be to prepare standards and labels of appliances and
equipment, develop a list of Designated consumers, specify certification and
accreditation procedure, prepare building codes, maintain Central EC fund and
undertake promotional activities in coordination with center and state level agencies.
The role would include development of Energy service companies (ESCOs).
Transforming the market for energy efficiency and create awareness through
measures including clearing house.
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• Star Labelling : Need and its Benefits
The purchase of any electrical equipment is largely driven by cost of owing
the appliance (paid at the time of purchase) and we tend to overlook cost of using
the appliance (paid in installments in the electricity bill). This may at times land us in
purchasing something that might not be the best option for us. However, once
purchased, they are going to stay in our house almost till the life of the appliance,
say 8 to 10 years for expensive appliances like refrigerators, air conditioners or
washing machines. Hence, it makes a lot of sense to understand the services that
we want to derive from the appliance and our expectations from its performance.
An important factor that must be understood is how much electricity that the
appliance will consume once it is purchased. An understanding of how much extra
money we may need to pay for an appliance that consumes less energy will prove
useful in the long run. Research has also shown that once we are informed about
the future benefits, we take more rational decision. In order to provide us with this
information.
Government of India (Bureau of Energy Efficiency, Ministry of Power)
introduced the Standards and Labelling Program in May 2006. Under this program
the manufacturers are required to place a label showing how much electricity the
appliance will consume under certain conditions.
The objectives of Standards and Labelling Program is to provide the
consumer an informed choice about the energy saving and thereby the cost saving
potential of the marketed household and other equipment. This is expected to impact
the energy savings in the medium and long run while at the same time it will position
domestic industry to compete in such markets where norms for energy efficiency are
mandatory.
The grade of energy efficiency displayed on the label of the product based on
the energy consumption standard notified to denote the energy efficiency of the
product. The Star Rating is a measure of energy efficiency of an appliance, it is a
live points scale where higher the rating lower is the energy consumption and hence
better savings.
Usually, you can find a BEE Star Label on heavy electrical home appliances
like air conditioners, refrigerators and washing machines etc. with a number of stars
it has got and an estimated power consumption of the appliance in a year that it is
expected to consume (Power consumption = 1 electrical unit).
The labels have been designed after a great deal of research. The labels
contain a number of items. The highlight thought is the 'STARS'. More is the stars
more efficient is the appliance. There are two kinds of labels big label and smaller
label. For ceiling fans, tube lights. computers/laptops and televisions the smaller
labels are used while for refrigerators, air conditioners, geysers and washing
machine the big label is used.
Use of energy efficient appliances protects energy sources from depletion. It
also saves the national resources from being spent on energy purchase. This
increases the level of national security arid independence.
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Sub: Energy Conservation and Audit Unit -2. E. C. in Electrical Machines
Unit No 2.
Energy Conservation in Electrical Machines
Need for Energy Conservation in Induction Motor and Transformer, Energy

Conservation Techniques in Induction Motor, Energy Conservation Techniques in
Transformer, Energy Conservation Equipments, Energy Efficient Motor, Energy
Efficient Transformers.
• Need for Energy Conservation in Induction Motor

India is a growing economy and the economic growth of any country largely
depends on industrialisation and energy consumption. The growing cost of energy
due to limited stock of energy sources calls for power saving at each possible step in
an industry. The three phase induction motors consume about 70% of the electricity
used in an industry. Hence the running cost of these induction motors is very high.
Earlier, induction motor design and fabrication was based more with the initial cost of
the motor rather than how much energy it consumes. The materials such as aluminium
or copper wires and steel laminations, were selected to meet the performance
requirements of the motor. Hence induction motors have low power factors, more
losses and low efficiency. The standard induction motors in a process plant consume
large amount of energy due to low efficiency.
The cost of electricity is increasing, so conservation methods to motors be
provided. Motor must work at higher efficiency so provisions of reducing losses be
provided. Inefficient motors need large power for the same work output. To save
power, therefore energy efficient newly designed motors be provided (replacing old
design motors). Good quality materials for core and windings be used by the
manufacturers to improve efficiency by conserving energy. New design changed the
shapes of slots to get more efficiency. Inefficient motors cause wastage of electrical
energy. Most of energy used to run these motors comes from Conventional and Non-
renewable power plants which causes pollution. Thus, economic and environmental
aspects necessitates the conservation of energy in Electrical motors.
• Energy Conservation Techniques in Induction Motor:

(a) Improving power quality.
(b) Reducing Under-loading
(c) Power Factor Correction
(d) Motor survey.
(e) Matching motor with loading.
(f) Minimizing the idle and redundant running of motor.
(g) Operating in star mode.
(h) Rewinding of motor.
(i) Replacement by energy efficient motor.
(j) Periodic maintenance
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(a) Improving power quality.
The performance of induction motor is mostly affected by poor quality of input power.
There are many aspects in the term power quality, such as voltage unbalance, frequency and
Harmonic distortion. Motors in India must comply with standards set by the Bureau of
Indian Standard (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input power quality. The BIS
standards specify that a motor should be capable of delivering its rated output with a
voltage variation of +/- 6% and frequency variation of +/- 3%. Fluctuations much larger
than these are quite common in utility supplied electricity in India. Voltage fluctuations
can have detrimental impacts on motor performance. The voltage unbalance typically
occurs as a result of supplying single phase loads disproportionately from one of the
three phases. It can also result from the use of different sizes of cables in the
distribution system.
The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance include ;
(i) Segregating any single phase load which disturb the load balance and feed
them from a separate line/transformer.
(ii) Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases.
(b) Reducing Under-loading :

The most common practice contributing to sub optimal motor efficiency is that of
under loading. Under loading results in lower efficiency and lower power factor. Under
loading of the motor may also occur from under utilization of the equipment. Another
common reason for under loading is selection of a larger motor to enable the output
to be maintained at the desired level even when input voltages are abnormally low.
Finally, under loading also results from selecting a large motor for an application
requiring high starting torque.
A careful evaluation of the load would determine the capacity of the motor that
should be selected. Another aspect to consider is the incremental gain in efficiency
achievable by changing the motor. When downsizing, it may be preferable to select
an energy efficient motor, the efficiency of which may be higher than that of a standard
motor of higher capacity.
(c) Power Factor Correction :

Induction motors are characterized by power factors less than unity, leading to
lower overall efficiency and higher overall operating cost associated with a plant's
electrical system.
Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are typically used to
improve the power factor. The impacts of p.f. correction include reduced kVA demand
and hence reduced utility demand charges, reduced I 2R losses in cable, reduced
voltage drop in the cables and an increase in the overall efficiency of the plant
electrical system.
2
(d) Motor Survey:
Motor survey is important aspect in energy conservation, Conducting a motor
survey is the best way to correctly size a replacement motor. A motor survey should
begin by reviewing and cataloging the nameplate information on the existing motor to
obtain the parameters such as rating of motor, rated speed, efficiency, full load
current, etc, The motor nameplate is the first step of a motor survey. It gives available
information, such as speed and full load current, which is helpful while selecting the
right size motor. Motors operate most efficiently near full load, so determining load
requirements accurately is important. The highest efficiency is achieved above 80
percent of full load torque, below that efficiency starts to drop dramatically.
(e) Matching Motor with Loading :

The characteristics of motors vary widely with their load and the type of duty they
are expected to perform, For example, the applications like constant speed, constant
torque, variable speed, steep/sudden start, continuous/ intermittent duty, frequent
start/stops, etc. should be taken into consideration carefully when deciding for the type
of a motor for that specific application, Proper selection of the range of the motor
according to load requirements will reduce the power consumption. The efficiency of
motors operating at loads below 40% is likely to be poor and energy savings are
possible by replacing these with properly sized motors, new or interchanging with
another load. An incorrect selection of motor always leads to various problems such
as premature failure of the motor causing severe production loss.
(f) Minimizing the Idle and Redundant Running of Motor :

By minimizing the idle and redundant running of motors, prolonged idle running of
machine tools, conveyors, exhaust fan, lights ete. can be avoided. Idle running of
auxiliaries like cooling towers, air compressors, pumps etc. during prolonged
stoppage of production machines can be avoided.
(g) Operating in Star Mode :

In loads operating at less than 30% of the full load, ie. at light loads, operation of
‘Delta’ connected motor in ‘Star’ connection can save energy. If a motor is oversized
and continuously loaded below 30% of its rated shaft load, energy can be saved by
permanently connecting the motor in Star. In many cases, the load is below 30% most
of the time, but sometimes the load exceeds 50% in this condition automatic Star Delta
changeover switches can be installed. This can save upto 5 to 15% of the existing
power consumption.
3
(h) Rewinding of Motor:
Rewinding of electric motors when they fail can be a cost effective option in many
ways. While the rewinding process is expected to be extensive and capable of bringing
the motor back to a like new condition, most rewinders do not follow every step or the
precision needed to be followed in every step of rewinding. This has major impact on
the efficiency of a rewound motor. Rewinding will decrease the efficiency by 2 to 5%
in most of the motors. New technologies are available which help reduce the losses
in a rewound motor; rare cases have shown that a motor's efficiency increased after
being rewound. A common problem that occurs when heat is applied to strip old
windings is that, the insulation between laminations can be damaged, thereby
increasing eddy current losses. A change in the air gap may affect power factor and
output torque. Efficiency can be improved by changing the winding design, though the
power factor could be affected in the process. Using wires of large cross section would
reduce stator losses thereby increasing efficiency.
(i) Replacement by Energy Efficient Motor

An EEM generates the same shaft output power, but uses less input power than a
standard efficiency motor. Energy efficient motors apply less electricity and last longer
than standard motors of the same size. Energy efficient motors are defined as the
motor in which 100 design improvements are incorporated specifically to increase
efficiency of motors. Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses.
Improvements include the use of lower loss silicon steel, a longer core (to increase
active material}, thicker wires (to reduce resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air
gap between stator and rotor, copper instead of aluminium bars in the rotor, superior
bearings and a smaller fan, etc. Energy efficient motors now available in India operate
with efficiencies that are typically 3 to 4 percentage points higher than standard
motors.
(j) Periodic Maintenance :

Machine cleaning : To ensure that ventilation and motor cooling is proper.
Machine set up and alignment: To ensure that the belt drives and couplings are set
up properly.
Bearing lubrication : Verify that they are lubricated and sealed properly.
Condition assessment : Vibration, unusual temperature rise etc. indicate problems.
Performance assessment : Regularly measure supply voltage variations. Voltage
imbalance leads to higher losses,
Maintenance of electrical connections in the starter and motor terminal box : The loose
connections are unsafe and source of heat losses. This will definitely save the energy
in induction motor.
Other factors are :

i. By phase balancing.
ii. Matching the motor in star mode.
iii. Use high quality bearings to reduce friction losses.
iv. Use small cooling fan to reduce fan load.
v. Lower air gap reduces magnetic losses.
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• Need of Energy Conservation in Transformer
Transformer is a vital power equipment in a power system, which plays significant role
in generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy. Transformer
operating efficiency directly affects the costs and benefits of the whole power system.
In a typical power distribution grid, electric transformer power loss contributes to about
40-50% of the total transmission and distribution loss. In distribution system, the
demand of distribution transformer is ever increasing. The power loss generated by
transformers can be considerable due to its large transportation energy and long
operating time. According to the statistics, total power loss generated by the
transformer can be about 10% of total generation capacity. Therefore, study of
transformer energy conservation is necessary.
• Energy Conservation Techniques in Transformer

(a) Load Sharing
(b) Parallel Operation
(c) Isolating Techniques
(d) Replacement by Energy Efficient Transformer
(e) Periodic Maintenance
(a) Load Sharing :

The problems like overloading, variation in voltage and heating are very
common in transformers. It takes a lot of time for its repairing and maintenance and
also involves high cost. Load sharing protects the transformer under overload
condition. Due to overload the efficiency drops and the secondary winding gets
overheated or it may burn because of excess heat. So the transformer can be
protected by reducing the extra load. This can be done by operating another
transformer in parallel with the main transformer. When the loads on transformer are
constant, the total active power loss and reactive power consumption of transformer
will be changed with the variation of load distribution between the transformers.
Therefore, the transformer total active power loss and reactive power consumption
can be reduced to minimum values according to economic dispatch of loads between
transformers, so as to achieve transformer energy conservation.
(b) Parallel Operation :

The transformer is said to be in parallel operation when their primary windings
are connected to a common voltage supply and the secondary windings are
connected to a common load. The transformer capacity is a most important parameter
when selecting transformer. If the transformer capacity is selected over large, then the
investment of transformer is increased, as well as the transformer no-load loss. Mostly
power transformer gives maximum efficiency at full load. If one runs number of
transformers in parallel, one can switch on only those transformers which will give the
total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time. When load
increases, one can switch on one by one other transformer connected in parallel to
fulfil the total demand. In this way, one can run the system with maximum efficiency.
5
(c) Isolating Techniques :
Isolation is defined as cutting of electrical supply to the system, in order to
ensure the safety of those working on the equipment by making dead those parts
which are live in normal service. An isolator is a mechanical device which is operated
manually and used to open or close a circuit off load. An isolator switch must be
provided close to supply point, so that the transformer can be made safe for
maintenance. Devices which are suitable for isolation are isolation switches, fuse
links, circuit breakers. On three phase L.T. supplies the triple pole switch with neutral
link are provided at the time of isolation, the switch should break only the live
conductors and the solid link in the neutral should not be removed before opening the
switch. When transformers are operating in parallel to share a particular load, it is
necessary to remove and isolate some transformers when load demand is less, so
that other transformers will supply energy at their maximum efficiency. At the time of
removing the transformer from circuit, first the secondary side load is removed by
tripping the circuit breaker by opening the load switches (ICTP) having high rupturing
capacity fuses. So that transformer will remain connected to bus, without sharing any
load. Now the isolator switch on the primary side is opened as they operate on no load
only, so that transformer is removed from bus bar completely. The isolator in this
condition is locked and earthed so that no one else than the operator can use it. When
it is required to reconnect the transformer again in parallel, earthing of isolator switch
is removed first.
Then the isolator is closed so that transformer is connected to primary side, then either
the circuit breaker or load switch is closed so that the transformer will start sharing
load in proportion to its kVA capacity.
(d) Replacement by Energy Efficient Transformer :

Energy efficient transformers are an important means to reduce transmission
and distribution loss. With the improvement of silicon steel properties, the losses of a
transformer can be reduced. With new magnetic materials, it is possible to achieve
even higher efficiency. The amorphous metal transformer is a modern example of
energy efficient transformer. An energy efficient transformer is very appealing giving
its non stop operation and 25 years service life. These savings translate into
reductions in peak loading, lower electricity bills and greater reliable of supply.
Payback periods vary with the equipment and electricity costs and can be as
short as one year or as long as six years or more. A transformer can be made more
energy efficient by improving the materials of construction (e.g. better quality core
steel or winding material) and by modifying the geometric configuration of the core
and winding assemblies. Making a transformer more energy efficient (i.e, reducing
electrical losses) is often a trade off between more expensive, lower loss materials
and designs, and the value a customer attaches to those losses. For a given efficiency
level, the no load and load losses are generally inversely related : reducing one usually
increases the other. By using energy efficient transformers, efficiency improves from
95% to 97%. By using amorphous transformers, efficiency improves from 97% to
98.5%. By using epoxy resin cast/encapsulated dry type transformer, efficiency
improves from 93% to 97%.
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Advantages of energy efficiency transformers :
1. They have less operating losses.
2. Less heat is generated due to less losses.
3. They have longer life.
4. Better cost effective.
5. Problem of small thickness of core can be overcome to some extent with the
development of amorphous metal strips.
6. Low field magnetization, reduces hysteresis loss.
7. High electrical resistivity of core material reduces eddy currents and eddy current
loss.
8. Low magnetizing current and low iron losses, reduce no load current.
(e) Periodic Maintenance :

Periodic maintenance is a vital part of loss control activities. Periodic
maintenance of transformer monitors the deterioration and detects or predicts
insulation, equipment and system flaws, Periodic maintenance reduces the frequency
of losses. Being transformers, static machines without any moving and turning parts,
they are very reliable machines and if maintained properly, can last for 40 years or
more. Transformers are frequently overloaded and allowed to operate well beyond its
capacity. Other causes of deterioration may be load changes, circuit changes,
improperly selected protective devices and changing voltage conditions, Scheduling
of a regular periodic maintenance program may minimize the risk of equipment failure
and the resulting problems of that failure, the detection of latent faults and the first
step for troubleshooting which will in turn achieves the energy efficiency.
• Energy Conservation Opportunities in Transformer

a. Use amorphous core containing ferromagnetic elements like Iron, Cobalt alloy of
high resistivity than silicon steel, So low core losses.
b. Use encapsulated dry type transformer.
c. Use autowound (saving in copper) or tapped transformer,
d. Use energy efficient transformer.
e. Use low resistant better quality copper conductors for winding to reduce copper
losses.
f. Use good quality insulation materials to improve overload capacity.
g. Keep proper maintenance of transformer.
h. Keep power quality by maintaining operating voltage, form factor and frequency
at rated values. This results in low losses and increases efficiency of transformer.
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• ENERGY CONSERVATION EQUIPMENTS
1. Soft Starters
2. Variable frequency Drive (VFD)
3. Automatic Star-Delta Starter
4. Automatic Power Factor Controller (APFC)
5. Active Harmonic Filters (AHF)
1. Soft Starters
When starting, AC induction motor develops high torque than its required value
at full speed. This mechanical stress is transferred to the mechanical transmission
system resulting in excessive wear tear and premature failure of chains, belts, gears,
etc. Additionally, sudden rise in speed also has a large impact on input supply with
high inrush currents drawings + 600% of the normal current. The use of Star Delta
can only provide a partial solution to the problem.
Soft starter provides a reliable and economical solution to these problems by
delivering a controlled release of power to the motor, thereby providing smooth,
steepless acceleration and deceleration. Motor life will be extended as damage to
windings and bearings is reduced. Soft Start and Soft Stop is built into 3-phase units,
providing controlled starting and stopping with a selection of ramp times and current
limit settings to suit all applications. Soft starters are essentially stator voltage
controllers; helps to overcome above problem. It helps to restrict starting current and
also provide smooth start and stop operation
• Advantages of soft starter :

1. System efficiency improves.
2. Energy losses in line reduces.
3. Small line voltage drop in operation of motor.
4. Power factor improves.
5. Motor is protected from mechanical stresses.
6. Smooth starting operation.
7. Maximum Demand is controlled as current is limited.
8. Less mechanical maintenance.
9. Saving in operating cost.
• Working of soft starter :

This delivers a controlled power to the motor. This provides stepless/smooth
acceleration/deacceleration. It consists of thyristor in main circuit. The motor voltage
is regulated with a printed circuit board. So, as the voltage is low at the time of starting,
the current and torque is lower. At start it provides low voltage to motor. This enables
to adjust the play between the gear wheels or stretching driving belts or chains etc. In
other words, it eliminates unnecessary jurks during start. Gradually, the voltage and
the torque increases so that the machine starts to accelerate. The line voltage drops,
so the losses at start are very low. It provides a reliable and economical solution to
overcome problems related with starting.
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• Comparison Between Soft Starter with D.O.L. Starter
Sr. Parameter Soft Starter Direct On Line DOL Starter

1 Starting Smooth starting, no jurks Starts with jurks
2 Current peak Low Very high
(6 to 8 times motor current)
3 Maintenance Zero More
4 Voltage dip Negligible Causes flickering of lights
5 Starting torque Variable Uncontrolled, so huge mechanical
stresses on equipments
6 Energy saving Saves energy Affects Maximum Demand
2. Variable Frequency Drives

The VFD operates on a very simple principle. The rotational speed of an AC
induction motor depends on the number of poles in that stator and the frequency of
the applied AC power. Although number of poles in an induction motor cannot be
altered easily, variable speed can be achieved through changes in frequency. The
VFD changes standard 50 cycle AC line power to DC, then converts the DC to a
variable frequency AC output. Motors connected to VFD provide variable speed
mechanical output with high efficiency. These devices are capable of upto a 9:1 speed
reduction ratio (11 percent of full speed) and a 3:1 speed increase (300 percent of full
speed). In recent years, the use of digital microprocessor control, along with high
switching frequency IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors) power devices for
variable frequency drives (VFD) has evolved largely. The two most significant benefits
from the evolution in technology have been that of cost and reliability, in addition to
the significant reduction in physical size.
• Benefits of VFD
1. Energy saving,
2. Less cost,
3. Smooth starting,
4. Better process control,
5. Less maintenance,
6. Improves p.f.,
7. Bearings, motor's life is large,
8. Improved power quality.
3. Automatic Star-Delta Starter

Automatic Star Delta Starter is used to save energy during variable load conditions
in three phase induction motor. This is done by using a microcontroller. The three
phase winding inside the motor can be connected in star or delta. About 25 to 30% of
energy gets saved by incorporating delta star conversion module. The starting current
of any heavy electric motor can be 10 times more than the normal load current it
draws, when it gains speed and has reached its normal running output and
temperature.
9
So we would require large circuit breakers, which can withstand the starting current
to pass without immediately shutting it off. If the windings of a 3 phase motor are
connected in star the voltage applied to each winding is reduced to only (1/√3) of the
voltage applied to the winding when it is connected directly across two incoming power
service line phases in DELTA. The current per winding is reduced to normal running
current taken when it is connected in DELTA. This can save 25% of power when
compared to delta mode. This arrangement leads to better power factor, size of
conductor can be reduced and minimizing the starting current will reduce the stress in
other equipment.
4. Automatic Power Factor Controller (APFC)

It is used to improve the system power factor by automatic sensing of power
factor correction and control. APFC results in decreased system current and hence
reduced voltage drop and power loss automatically. Improvement in power factor to
unity will not only result in savings in electricity consumption but also it helps to get
the savings in the electricity bill too. Power factor correction is not an energy saving
measure (real power remains the same).
However, it is a cash saving measure. Given that one of the main purposes of
energy efficiency is to save Money, power factor correction is typically carried Out
along with energy efficiency retrofits. Standard practice is to connect power capacitors
or Automatic power factor controller in the power System at appropriate places to
compensate the Inductive nature of load. Individual starter controls the capacitors
located at distribution panel. Centralized compensation is employed in large industrial
plants where so many motors are in use at a time. Capacitor racks are installed at
the incoming distribution panel of the industry. These racks are sub divided into steps.
The current supplied to the distribution panel is monitored by the controller for power
factor. Automatic control system switches sub divided racks of capacitor units in steps
to maintain power factor more than preset limit (0.95).
5. Active Harmonic Filters (AHF)

Harmonic currents are caused by non linear loads connected to the distribution
system. A load is said to be non linear when current it draws does not have same
wave shape as the supply voltage. The flow of harmonic current through the system
impedances causes voltage distortion in the distribution system. Following are the
major harmonic generators:
• Industrial Processes viz. Welding, Impact Loads, Induction Furnaces, Battery
Charger, DC Power Supplies.
• Variable Speed Drives for AC & OC motors.
• Uninterrupted Power Supplies.
• Office Equipment (PCs, Printers, Servers, Displays etc.)
Harmonic currents increase the RMS current in electrical systems and

deteriorate the quality. They stress electrical network and potentially damage the
equipment. They may disrupt normal operation of devices and increase operating
costs.
10
Office buildings, commercial establishments having predominant non linear
loads such as data servers, UPS systems and mix of singe phase loads leads to
harmonic generation in the supply network which create several problems such as
overheating of cables, tripping of breakers, blowing of fuses, additional heating in the
transformers etc. High levels of triplex (3 order and multiple) harmonics specifically
overload the neutral conductor and often result in unacceptable neutral to earth
potential. Therefore the load currents in such installations are highly polluted due to
the presence of high level of harmonic current.
Improvement upto the extent of 95% can be achieved in the harmonic current
distortion (THDI) at certain feeders after installation of active harmonic filters.
Excessive THDI at high load current is the main cause of higher heating losses,
tripping of breakers and other problems. The active harmonic filters not only reduce
the high harmonic distortion but also improve the power factor close to unity (0 99 lag)
This has resulted into 20% reduction in kVA consumption by the UPS system. Low
power factor is characterized by high load current which in turn results in additional
line losses, overheating and in some cases penalties causing direct financial losses,
A leading power factor is not desirable and may require derating of UPS systems. The
active harmonic filters correct the leading power factor to unity. The combined effect
of harmonic filtering and power factor improvement brings additional benefits to the
customer. Reduced losses lower the operating temperature of the equipment which
indirectly increases the life of the electrical equipment. Active harmonic filters are
designed to measure the load current, calculate variance from objectives set and inject
the right amount of current to meet the required level of harmonics, displacement
power factor or load balancing.
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Comparison of Energy Efficient Motor with Standard Motor
Sr. Particulars Standard motor Energy Efficient motor

1 Material They are manufactured with They are manufactured with
used lower quality materials and higher quality Material and
techniques. techniques.
Small length of core. More length of core.
Lower quality and thick silicon
Higher quality and thinner
steel laminations in stator. steel laminations in the stator.
Optimized and even air gap
Alr gap Is not optimized between rotor and Stator.
between the rotor and stator.
2 Losses High They usually have higher
service factors and bearing
lives, less waste heat output,
all of which increase reliability.
3 Starting Sufficient Very high
torque
4 Speed Speed may not be so smooth, Smooth speed over a required
jerks, vibrations may be range and less Vibrations
involved
5 Maintenance Mare, less warranty. Negligible maintenance.
High failure rates Longer warranties,
Low failure rates
6 Operating At high temperature some Can withstand high
temperature problems may arise in the temperature without any
operation Problem
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• ENERGY EFFICIENT TRANSFORMERS
1. Amorphous Core Transformer
Features of Amorphous Core Transformer
1. Amorphous core transformers or amorphous metal transformer is a type of
energy efficient transformer.
2. Amorphous transformer is an equipment to reduce transmission and
distribution losses greatly.
3. With improvement of electric steel (silicon steel), loss of transformer is reduced
to 50% of that of transformer used earlier.
4. It is possible to achieve even higher efficiency using new better magnetic
materials. Amorphous core transformer is modern example and uses
amorphous metal for the core.
5. This core can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
6. Core loss by this metal can be reduced to 70 80% than traditional transformer.
7. This results into low electricity production and less CO2 emission at generating
plants using coal,
8. Energy loss due to heat or vibration from the core is reduced.
9. Amorphous transformer uses metallic glass alloy for the core.
10. Reduction in energy loss over conventional transformers is about 70%.
11. They have increased efficiencies even at low loads i.e. 98.5% efficiency at 35%
load.
12. They are costilier than conventional iron core transformers, but the overall
benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the higher initial
investment.
13. At present they are available upto 1600 kVA rating.
Advantages of amorphous transformers :

1. Iron losses : (a) Eddy current, (b} Hysteresis are very low.
2. Temperature rise in working condition is very low.
3. Magnetising current is very small.
4. Energy saving by about 70%.
5. Its reliability is higher.
6. Requires less maintenance,
7. Reduce CO2 emission.
8. Reduction in fossil fuel consumption.
9. Overload capacity is much more.
10. Excellent short circuit capacity,
Limitations of Amorphous Core Transformer:

1. Small thickness of core stampings.
2. Large core size.
3. Large conductors.
4. Hardness of strip than CRGO strips.
5. Big tank.
6. More insulating oil.
7. Large overall cost.
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Amorphous metal :
Amorphous metal is an alloy rather than a pure metal. They are produced by using
rapid solidification technology, where molten metal is cast into thin solid ribbons by
cooling at a high rate. It is a magnetic material having high permeability due to no
crystalline magnetic anisotropy (state having different sizes or characteristics along
different axes). The material in which such disordered structure is produced directly
from the liquid state during cooling are called glasses and hence amorphous metals
are commonly referred to as metallic glasses or glassy metals. They can be produced
by other methods such as physical vapour deposition, solid state reaction, iron
irradiation, metal spinning or mechanical alloying. These cores allow, smaller, lighter
and more efficient design in many high frequency applications for inverters, U.P.S.
(uninterrupted power system), adjustable speed drives etc.
Nano crystalline amorphous metal offers saving in size, core material and labour for
various applications. They have superior magnetic qualities, such as lower core loss
compared with conventional crystalline magnetic materials. The cores of this type offer
superior design alternatives.
2. Epoxy Resin Cast Transformer (i.e. Dry Type Transformer
Constructional/Salient Features :
1. CRGO M-4 or M-3 grade toroidal cores are wound with secondary enameled copper
wire, which is distributed uniformally on the periphery of the core to achieve minimum
leakage reactance. Inter layer insulation is provided to avoid secondary winding short
circuiting in times of fault in the system.
2. Primary winding consists of flexible rope of copper and has the required number of
turns in one or more sections. Their ends are crimped and taken out through copper
rectangular strips or rods as per customer requirement.
3. Insulation consists of high quality epoxy resin. Initially, the secondary wound cores
are mounted and cast in the required mould ensuring minimum clearance as per the
voitage requirements, Then the primary winding is cast along with the above in the
required mould, Casting is done under vacuum in the epoxy resin cast plant
specifically dedicated for the purpose. It has mixing and pouring chambers with
controlled temperature and vacuum conditions. Procedure of casting is followed
strictly by the resin manufacturer for the particular resin mix.
4. Curing is done at 1000°C or at room temperature for the specified time depending
upon the type of resin used.
5. Each transformer undergoes all the routine tests before dispatch and is delivered
safe at site duly packed, However, following precautions must be observed for its
intended performance.
Transformer is to be unpacked fully before carrying out side tests.
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Before energizing all the secondary terminals not in use are to be short circuited
and grounded. Primary connection is to be tightened sufficiently to avoid hot
connection.
6. As the transformer is fully encapsulated, routine maintenance is limited to clean the

outer surface only.
The electric field company manufacture indoor type epoxy resin cast current and
voltage transformers for stepping down the current and voltage to the measure value.
The standard value of secondary current is 1 ampere or 5 ampere with different class
of accuracy and burden. Similarly the standard voltages are 110 volts and (110 volts
/ √3) with different class of accuracy, The current and voltage transformer together
known as instrument transformer. The high voltage range is on primary side for current
and voltage transformer start from 11 kV, 22 kV and 33 kV. The constructional feature
of the current transformer is built with CRGO lamination in the shape of toroidal core
duly insulated secondary wounded and wound with insulated sheet thick enough to
meet the requirement of system voltage. After complete insulation with primary and
secondary windings it is casted with epoxy resin in prefabricated mould as per shape,
design required. The voltage transformer depending upon single phase one unit or 3
phase single unit are wound with insulated sheet of appropriate thickness as per
systern voltage requirement. The voltage transformer coil primary and secondary
epoxy resin casted in prefabricated mould without insertion of yoke of CRGO core.
The entire curing of casting instrument transformers is done in HOT CURE SYSTEM
with full vacuum before mixing and after drying.
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Sub: Energy Conservation and Audit Unit-3. Energy Losses in Power System
Unit No 3.
Energy Losses in Power System
Aggregated Technical and Commercial Losses (ATC). Technical Losses: Causes and
Measures to reduce. Commercial Loses: Causes and Measures to reduce.
Commercial Loses. Energy Conservation Equipments
• Aggregated Technical and Commercial Losses (ATC)

The primary function of transmission and distribution equipment is to transfer
power economically and reliably from one location to another. Conductors in the form
of wires and cables strung on towers and poles carry the high voltage A.C. current. A
large number of copper or aluminium conductors are used to form the transmission
path. For the same quantity of power handled, lower the voltage, higher the current
drawn and higher is the voltage drop. The current drawn is inversely proportional to
the voltage level for the same quantity of power handled. The power loss in line is
proportional to resistance and square of current. Higher voltage transmission and
distribution helps to minimize the line voltage drop in the ratio of voltages and the line
power loss in the ratio of square of voltages. For example, if the voltage is raised from
11 kV to 33 kV, the voltage drop will be lowered by a factor 1/3 and the line loss will
be lowered by (1/32) that is 1/9. Lower voltage transmission and distribution also need
bigger size conductor on account of current handling capacity needed.
The resistance of the long distance transmission conductors is to be minimized.
Energy loss in transmission lines is wasted in the form of I2R losses. Capacitors are
used to correct power factor by causing the current to lead the voltage. When AC
currents are kept with voltage, operating efficiency of the system is maintained at a
high level. Transformers are placed at strategic locations throughout the system to
minimize power losses in the transmission and distribution system. They are used to
change the voltage level from low to high or from high to low. If we consider, the
electricity flow from generation to the user in terms of cascade energy efficiency. A
typical cascade efficiency profile from generation to user industry is 87%
• Industrial End User

At the industrial end user premises, again the plant network elements like
transformers at receiving substation, switchgear, lines and cables, load break
switches, capacitors, cause losses, which affect the input received energy. However,
the losses in such systems are unavoidable. After power generation at the plant, it
is transmitted and distributed over a wide network. The standard technical losses are
around 17%, in India. But the figures for many of the states show transmission and
distribution losses ranging from 17 to 50%. When the power reaches the industry, it
meets the transformer. The energy efficiency of the transformer is generally very high.
Next, it goes to the motor through internal plant distribution network. A typical
distribution network efficiency including transformer is 95%, and motor efficiency is
about 90%. Another 30% is lost in the mechanical system, which includes, coupling,
dive train, a driven equipment such as pump and flow control valves, throttling etc.
Thus, overall efficiency becomes 50%. “Hence, one unit saved in the end user is
equivalent to two units generated in the power plant.”
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• TECHNICAL LOSSES, CAUSES AND MEASURES TO REDUCE
The losses taking place in transmission and distribution system are classified as :
1. Technical losses.
2. Commercial losses or non technical losses.
Technical losses are :

(i) Copper loss,
(ii) unbalanced loading,
(iii) transfer losses,
(iv) low pf,
(v) reactive power,
(vi) long distance between load and transformer station,
(vii) joints of line and other points not perfect
The technical losses are developed due to energy dissipated in conductors used
for transmission and distribution lines and also the equipments used transformation,
transmission, sub transmission and distribution of power. The technical losses are
natural and are integral part of the power transmission and distribution system.
However, they can be reduced to an optimum level by using high voltages, more
conductor size, energy efficient equipments etc.
• Reasons (Causes) for High Technical Losses

Following are the main reasons for high technical losses :
1. Insufficient investment on transmission and distribution network :
It means that proper equipments may not be used to maintain the voltage at its
desired value. Also the small conductor size may be used for lower cost, increasing
I2R loss.
2. Random growth of sub transmission and distribution network :
It increases the current in transmission lines, increasing I2R loss. Also the
transformer and other equipments will get over loaded, reducing its efficiency and
increasing losses.
3. Large scale electrification of rural and urban area :
Without proper modification of transmission system, such electrification will
increase technical losses.
4. Too many stages of transformation :
Every stage of transformation need sub station, transformer and other equipments
which have losses, hence such stages will increase technical losses.
5. Improper load management :
Connecting over loads on the lines, connecting unbalanced loads, or connecting
loads of low power factor will increase technical losses.
6. Poor reactive load compensation :
Reactive power of loads can be compensated by using power factor correcting
devices, such as capacitors, synchronous condensers, synchronous motors etc,
so that current flowing through lines can be reduced which will reduce losses.
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7. Poor quality of equipments used :
If equipments and transformers connected to the system are of low quality that is
having less efficiency, it will increase technical losses.
8. Corona losses :
The losses taking place in transmission ones due to Coronaeffect increases
technicallosses
• Steps to Reduce Technical Losses

Reduction of technical losses by various ways :
1. Controlling I2R losses.
2. Optimising distribution voltage.
3. Balancing phase currents.
4. Compensating reactive power flow.
5. Other Methods
1. Controlling I2R losses

The I2R or copper losses of transmission and distribution system can be reduced
(conserved) by the following means :
a) Transmitting electricity at high voltage reduces the value of current and hence
I2R losses are reduced to some extent.
b) If the conductor size increases, for the same current value, the resistance of
conductor reduces as R α 1/a, Hence I2R losses are reduced.
c) In an alternating current transmission system, the inductance and capacitance
of line conductors will draw reactive power, which result in reactive current flow
causing extra losses in system, which results in reduction of power factor;
resulting in more losses. Hence, use of capacitor banks and other components
such as phase shifting transformers, static VAR compensators and Flexible
A.C. Transmission Systems (FACTS) to control reactive power flow for
reduction of I2R losses and stabilization of system voltage is made.
d) Using low resistance all aluminium alloy conductor (AAAC) in place of
aluminium cored steel reinforced (ASCR) conductor.
e) By provision of reactive power control and p.f. improvement current reduces
and hence I2R loss reduces.
f) Use voltage controllers to keep the voltage constant (not to get reduce which
increases current) this control I2R loss.
g) Keep as minimum as possible the distance between consumer premises and
distribution substation transformers.
2. Optimizing Distribution Voltage (To Reduce Technical Losses)

The drop of voltage is design consideration for the distributors, the feeder size is
based on the current carrying Capacity of the conductor. In transmission systems, a
voltage regulation of as much as 40%, in some cases be considered satisfactory. We
are interested in the most economical method of working.
The effect of increase in voltage is known to us. Raising the voltage n times means
reducing the conductor size 1/n2 that of the original (assuming a constant efficiency of
transmission).
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3. By Balancing Phase Currents (To Reduce Technical Losses)
In India, we use three phase, 4 wire system, for distribution of electrical energy.
From such system three phase as well as single phase loads are supplied. Three
phase loads are mostly balanced loads, and such balanced loads does not develop
unbalance of currents in the feeders.
However, the domestic power supplied by three phase, 4 wire connection will
cause unbalance depending upon the load used by consumer. Single phase supply is
common in residential areas. When three phase section point is considered, the total
loads associated with single phase supplies are more. The connections and loads
connected on each phase of the system may not be properly balanced at the time of
Connection. This will result into circulating current and increased losses. If proper care
is taken to supply different loads on different phases such that equal or nearly equal
load current is supplied by each phase, then the distribution system will be balanced
and no additional losses will take place due to unbalance currents. To achieve this
manually is difficult, therefore to obtain this an appropriate optimization technique
should be used. We have to observe that best balance is obtained by using the
optimized load balancing procedure. The best balance is that which is achieved not
just at the feeder supply point but also along the total feeder length,
Advantages of Phase Balancing

Following are the main advantages of phase balancing :
a) Due to phase balancing, the load is uniformly and almost equally distributed on all
the three phases of the system. Due to imbalance, feeder capacity is not properly
utilized, hence balancing makes proper utilization of feeder capacity.
b) Current balancing procedure will remove extra current loading from over loaded
phase and shift it on under loaded one. Hence, it will make available feeder
capacity for future load demand, without changing the line conductors.
c) This feeder capacity provides more backup capacity for emergency loading on the
feeders.
d) Technical losses are proportional to square of current, as maximum current values
are reduced by current balancing, the losses are reduced and also the reactive
power loss is reduced.
e) It improves voltage of each feeder or voltage available at the terminals of all the
consumers will be almost equal.
4. By Compensating Reactive Power Flow (For Reducing Technical Losses)

An overhead line, when loaded fully, absorbs reactive power given by (I2X) where,
‘I’ is the line current and ‘X’ is the reactance of the line in ohms per phase. On light
loads or at no load, the distributed shunt capacitances throughout the line become
predominant and the line then supplies charging VAR, that is, generates reactive
power. It is given by (V2ωC) where, V is the line voltage and ω Is the system frequency
in radians and C is the line to earth capacitance. Cables generate reactive power.
Generation of reactive power by the cables is due to the various cable capacitances.
The devices that supply reactive power at receiving end bus in transmission system
or load bus in distribution systems are called reactive power compensating devices.
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In addition to voltage control, the other effects of providing reactive power
compensating devices at the load bus are:
a) Reduction in supply side reactive burden.
b) Reduction of system copper loss due to reduction of reactive current.
c) Decrease in kVA loading of alternators.
d) Reduction in investment per kW of load supplied.
5. Other Methods
a) Determine the weakest areas of distribution system, improve the weakest area
for maximum benefits and reduce the technical losses.
b) Distribution transformers should be shifted to load centres, so that length of LT.
lines will be reduced, hence technical losses will be reduced.
c) Reduce overload on distribution transformers by installing additional transformer
or increase capacity of the present transformer.
d) If concentrated loads are to be supplied to consumers, install small capacity
transformers at the premises of each consumer as per demand load so that length
of distribution lines will be reduced.
e) If possible energy efficient transformers (amorphous core transformers) may be
used in place of usual distribution transformers.
f) Shunt capacitors shall be used at sub stations to reduce reactive power or reduce
total current supplied to inductive loads.
• COMMERCIAL LOSSES, CAUSES AND MEASURES TO REDUCE
Commercial or Non-Technical Losses

The loss of energy which does not take place in the transmission, sub transmission
or distribution lines and its equipments come under this category. As the loss of energy
in this class directly affects the revenue or commercial cost, they are called as
commercial losses.
The commercial losses may be as follows :

1. Theft of energy, without paying any energy charges, by means of hooks on live
lines etc. Faulty energy meter, stopping meter reading by other unauthorized
means etc. Using defective meters. Paying to meter-readers for recording wrong
readings.
2. Some connections are allotted on H.P, basis/month, but the consumer may use
higher H.P. loads than allotted.
3. Making unauthorised extension of loads.
4. By passing meter.
5. Stopping the meter by remote control.
6. Changing the sequence of wiring.
7. Changing CT. ratio.
8. Intentional burning of meter, etc.
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• Reasons (Causes) for High Commercial Losses
1. Consumers such as agricultural using load on H.P. basis, extend their load
without obtaining proper sections.
2. Meter reading may be taken wrong purposefully.
3. Some consumers adopt wrong connection i.e., they use some energy bypassing
the meter.
4. Some consumers, stop the working of meter by mechanical jerks, using powerful
magnets to stop moving of meter wheels, or stopping rotation of disc by foreign
matters etc.
5. Purposeful burning of energy meters by some means.
6. Reverse rotation of meter to reduce the reading by interchanging terminal
connections.
7. Improper testing and calibration of meters, changing C.T. ratio to reduce the
reading.
• Steps (Remedies) to Minimize (Reduce) Commercial Losses

1. A special vigilance squad should be set up to check and prevent theft of energy.
2. Those who tamper the meter and broke the seals of meters should be punished
and penalized.
3. Energy audits should be introduced for each area and for the city so that theft
areas can be detected and proper steps taken to prevent theft.
4. Area officers, particularly, the executive engineer should take the responsibility
for energy received and energy sales for a particular area.
5. Energy meters should be installed in a tamper proof meter boxes and they should
be sealed with tamper proof numbered seals.
6. Use of electronic meters may be made to provide electric connection; which
cannot be tampered easily.
7. Meters should be timely checked and quality meter testing facilities should be
provided to officers who carry out checking.
8. Faulty meters should be replaced with proper meters, with seals, immediately.
• Minimizing Transmission and Distribution Losses (Related to Commercial

Losses)
1. Provide 100% metering :
Install meters at all the transformation stages of lines and take accurate meter
readings.
2. Install static meters :
Install static meters at the premises of every consumer with proper sealing and
see that correct readings are taken. Also install static meters on all feeders and
distribution transformers.
3. Use effective management information system :
(i) Meters installed on feeders and distribution transformers will record, power,
power factor and load M.D. etc.
(ii) The data from these meters may be down loaded to a computer network, which
can be utilized for management of distribution system.
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4. Total energy accounting :
(i) It is necessary to carry out accurate accounting of energy received and
supplied, energy billing and determination of transmission and distribution
losses from this.
(ii) The division or sub division office will be in a position to determine commercial
losses. Hence responsibility can be given to particular officer for detection of
thefts etc.
5. Installation of p.f. improvement apparatus and modification of lines :
(i) Install suitable power factor improvement devices, such as capacitors at
suitable points to reduce reactive power. And use suitable conductor sizes to
reduce technical losses.
(ii) Also the transformers should be shifted to load centres, so that length of lines
will be reduced, reducing losses.
6. Installation of small size distribution transformers :
If small size distribution transformers are used, it will supply limited consumers
and length of distributors will be reduced and also losses will be reduced at the
same time, commercial losses can be controlled.
7. Digital mapping :
For good energy management digital mapping of the entire distribution system
should be developed.
• ENERGY CONSERVATION EQUIPMENTS
1. Maximum Demand Controller

High tension (HT) users have to pay a maximum demand charge in addition to
the usual charge for the number of units consumed. This charge is usually based on
the highest amount of power used during some period (say 30 minutes) during the
metering month. The maximum demand charge often represents a large proportion of
the total bill and may be based on only one isolated 30 minutes episode of high power
use. Considerable savings can be realised by controlling power use and turning off or
reducing non essential loads during such periods of high power use. Maximum
Demand Controller is a device designed to meet the need of industries conscious of
the value of load management.
Alarm is sounded when demand approaches a preset value. If corrective action
is not taken, the controller switches off non essential loads in a logical sequence. This
sequence is predetermined by the user and is programmed jointly by the user and the
supplier of the device. The plant equipments selected for the load management are
stopped and restarted as per the desired load profile. Demand control scheme is
implemented by using suitable control contactors. Audio and visual annunciations
could also be used.
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2. KiloVAr Control
KiloVAr sensitive controls are used at locations where the voltage level is closely
regulated and not available as a control variable. The capacitors can be switched to
respond to a decreasing power factor as a result of change in system loading. This
type of control can also be used to avoid penalty on low power factor by adding
capacitors in steps as the system power factor begins to lag behind the desired value.
KiloVAr control requires two inputs current and voltage from the incoming feeder, which
are fed to the p.f. correction mechanism, either the microprocessor or the relay.
Due to change in the system loading p.f. the capacitor is switched on. This meter
control avoids penalty due to poor p.f. When the load is low, the effect of capacitors is
more pronounced and may lead to hunting. Under current blocking shuts off the relay,
switching off all capacitors one by one in sequence, when load current is below setting.
Special timing sequences ensure that capacitors are fully discharged before they are
switched in. This avoids dangerous over voltage transient. The solid state indicating
lamps (LEDs) display various functions that the operator should know and also indicate
each capacitor switching stage.
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Sub: Energy Conservation and Audit Unit-4. E.C. in Electrical Installation System
Unit No 4.
Energy Conservation in Electrical Installation System
Energy Conservation Equipment, Energy Conservation in Lighting System, Energy

Conservation Techniques in Fans. Electronic Regulators
• Energy Conservation in Electrical Installation System

Lighting is an essential service in all the industries. The power consumption by
the industrial lighting varies between 2 to 10% of the total power depending on the
type of industry. Innovation and continuous improvement in the field of lighting, has
given rise to tremendous energy saving opportunities in this area. Lighting is an area,
which provides a major scope to achieve energy efficiency at the design stage, by
incorporation of modern energy efficient lamps, luminaires and gears, apart from good
operational practices.
• Basic Terms in Lighting System and Features

A) Lamps:
Lamp is equipment, which produces light. The most commonly used lamps are
described briefly as follows :
1. Incandescent lamps : Incandescent lamps produce light by means of a filament

heated to incandescence by the flow of electric current through it. The principal
parts of an incandescent lamp, also known as GLS (General Lighting Service) lamp
include the filament, the bulb, the fill gas and the cap.
2. Reflector lamps : Reflector lamps are basically incandescent, provided with a

high quality internal mirror, which follows exactly the parabolic shape of the lamp.
The reflector is resistant to corrosion, thus making the lamp maintenance free and
output efficient.
3. Gas discharge lamps : The light from a gas discharge lamp is produced by the
excitation of gas contained in either a tabular or elliptical outer bulb.
The most commonly used discharge lamps are as follows :
• Fluorescent Tube Lamps (FTL).
• Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFL)
• Mercury Vapour Lamps
• Sodium Vapour Lamps
• Metal Halide Lamps.
B) Luminaire :
Luminaire is a device that distributes, filters or transforms the light emitted from
one or more lamps, The Luminaire includes, all the parts necessary for fixing and
protecting the lamps, except the lamps themselves. In some cases, luminaires also
include the necessary circuit auxiliaries, together with the means for connecting them
to the electric supply. The basic physical principles used in optical luminaire are
reflection, absorption, transmission and refraction.
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C) Ballast :
A current limiting device, to counter negative resistance characteristics of any
discharge lamps. In case of fluorescent lamps, it helps the initial voltage build up,
required for starting.
D) Ignitors :
These are used for starting high intensity Metal Halide and Sodium vapour lamps.
E) Lux :
This is the illuminance produced by a luminous flux of one lumen, uniformly
distributed over a surface area of one square metre, One lux is equal to one lumen
per square metre.
F) Luminous efficacy (Im/W) :

This is the ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the
lamp. It is a reflection of efficiency of energy conversion from electricity to light
form.
• Energy Conservation Practices in Lighting System
1. Installation of energy efficient fluorescent lamps in place of “Conventional”

fluorescent lamps :
Energy efficient lamps are based on the highly sophisticated tri-phosphor
fluorescent powder technology. They offer excellent colour rendering properties in
addition to the very high luminous efficacy.
2. Installation of Compact Fluorescent Lamps (CFLs) in place of incandescent

Lamps :
Compact fluorescent lamps are generally considered best for replacement of lower
wattage incandescent lamps. These lamps have efficacy ranging from 55 to 65
lumens per watt. The average rated lamp life is 10,000 hours, which is 10 times
longer than that of a normal incandescent tamps. CFLs are highly suitable for
places such as Living rooms, Hotel lounges, Bars, Restaurants, Pathways,
Building entrances, Corridors etc.
3. Installation of metal halide lamps in place of mercury/sodium vapour lamps

Metal halide lamps provide high colour rendering index when compared with
mercury and sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence,
metal halide is the choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination
levels are required. These lamps are highly suitable for applications such as
assembly line, inspection areas, painting shops etc. It is recommended to install
metal halide lamps where colour rendering is more critical.
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4. Installation of High Pressure Sodium Vapour (HPSV) lamps for applications
where colour rendering is not Critical :
High pressure sodium vapour (HPSV) lamps offer more efficacy. But the colour
rendering property of HPSV is very low. Hence, it is recommended to install HPSV
lamps for applications such as street lighting, yard lighting, etc.
5. Installation of LED panel indicator lamps in place of filament lamps:

Panel indicator lamps are used widely in industries for monitoring, fault indication,
signalling etc. Conventionally, Filament lamps are used for the purpose, which has
got the following disadvantages:
• High energy consumption (15 W/lamp)
• Failure of lamps is high (Operating life less than 1,000 hours)
• Very sensitive to the voltage fluctuations, Recently, the conventional
filament lamps are being replaced with Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs).
The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps :
• Lesser power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp).
• Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the power supply.
• Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours).
It is recommended to install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.
6. Light Distribution ;
Energy efficiency cannot be obtained by mere selection of more efficient lamps
alone. Efficient luminaires along with the lamp of high efficacy achieve the optimum
efficiency. Mirror-optic luminaires with a high output ratio and bat-wing light
distribution can save energy. For achieving better efficiency, luminaires that are
having light distribution characteristics appropriate for the task should be selected.
The luminaires fitted with a lamp should ensure that discomfort glare and veiling
reflections are minimised. Installation of suitable luminaires, depends upon the
height - Low, Medium and High bay.
Luminaires for high intensity discharge lamp are classified as follows:
• Low bay, for heights less than 5 metres.
• Medium bay, for heights between 5-7 metres.
• High bay, for heights greater than 7 metres.
System layout and fixing of the luminaires play a major role in achieving energy
efficiency. Hence, fixing the luminaires at optimum height and usage of mirror optic
luminaires leads to energy efficiency.
7. Light Control:
The simplest and the most widely used form of controlling a lighting installation is
“On / Off” switch. The initial investment for this set up is extremely low, but the
resulting operational costs may be high. A flexible lighting system has to be
provided, which will offer switch off or reduction in lighting level, when not needed.
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8. Installation of microprocessor based controllers :
Another modern method is usage of microprocessor/infrared controlled dimming
or switching circuits. The lighting control can be obtained by using logic units
located in the ceiling, which can take pre programme commands and activate
specified lighting circuits. Advanced lighting control system uses movement
detectors or lighting sensors to feed signals to the controllers,
9. Optimum usage of daylighting

Whenever the orientation of a building permits, day lighting can be used in
combination with electric lighting. This should not introduce glare or a severe
imbalance of brightness in visual environment. Usage of day lighting (in offices/air-
conditioned halls) will have to be very limited, because the air conditioning load will
increase on account of the increased solar heat dissipation into the area.
10. Installation of “exclusive” transformer for lighting :

In most of the industries, lighting load varies between 2 to 10%. Most of the
problems faced by the lighting equipment and the “gears” is due to the “voltage”
fluctuations. Hence, the lighting equipment has to be isolated from the power
feeders. This provides a better voltage regulation for the lighting. This will reduce
the voltage related problems, which in turn increases the efficiency of the lighting
system.
11. Installation of servo stabilizer for lighting feeder :

Wherever, installation of exclusive transformer for lighting is not economically
attractive, servo stabilizer can be installed for the lighting feeders. This will provide
stabilized voltage for the lighting equipment. The performance of “gears” such as
chokes, ballasts, will also be improved due to the stabilized voltage. This set up
also provides, the option to optimise the voltage level fed to the lighting feeder. In
many plants, during the non-peak hours, the voltage levels are on the higher side.
During this period, voltage can be optimised, without any significant drop in the
illumination level.
12. Installation of high frequency (HF) electronic ballasts in place of

conventional ballasts :
New high frequency (28-32 kHz) electronic ballasts have the following advantages
over the traditional magnetic Ballasts:
• Energy savings up to 35%
• Less heat dissipation, which reduces the air conditioning load
• Lights instantly
• Improved power factor
• Operates in low voltage load
• Less in weight
• Increases the life of lamp
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13. Periodic survey and adequate maintenance programs :
Depreciation in lumen output of the lamp occurs with time due to blackening of
lamp, evaporation of Element material or reduction of electron emitting materials
from fluorescent tube etc. The actual amount of light to be provided by the source
is greater by 50 to 100% on account of dust depositing on the reflector surfaces.
Hence, a periodic survey is necessary for a particular installation, in which we have
to clean all shades of lamps, surface of lamps and remove dirt, dust etc.
accumulated on the surface inner and outer of lamp shades and outer surfaces of
lamps etc. See that blackening of lamps at the electrodes of fluorescent lamps has
taken place or not if it is observed replace them by new ones. If the lamps are in
use for long time do not wait for blowing out, replace them for better luminous
efficiency.
• Energy Conservation Techniques in Fans and Electronic Regulators
1. While purchasing and installing fans, precaution should be taken to purchase

energy efficient fans. They must be of proper size of a room, means a fan of 48 cm
size is suitable for a room of 10 feet x 10 feet. More than this size will cause
unnecessary wastage of energy.
2. When installed, we should see that the blades are properly balanced and produce
no noise and vibration, which will increase power input.
3. See that the bearing is good, it does not cause unnecessary friction and causing
heating effect and loss of additional energy.
4. The regulators used for the fan should not be electrical type, which use barrate
type resistance or chokes, in which power loss is more, hence provide electronic
regulator which will need nearly no electrical energy.
5. Preferably, use electronic controlled regulators so that one can easily control the
speed from where he is seating in the room. Or conveniently make it off thus saving
the energy required.
6. Speed of fans is also the factor that will affect the energy consumption.
Keep proper speed of fans in the room.
7. Proper height from the working plane is also the factor that affects the energy
consumption. If the height of fans is more, we will have to keep speed high and it
needs more electrical energy, hence use proper height of fans from the working
plane to save electrical energy.
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Sub: Energy Conservation and Audit Unit-5. E.C. Co-Generation and Tariff
Unit No 5.
Energy Conservation Through Co-Generation and Tariff
Co-generation and Tariff: Concept. Significance for energy conservation, Tariff,

Application of tariff system to reduce energy bill
• Co-generation
Co-generation is the system which produces two forms of energy from one fuel.
One of the forms of energy must be heat and other may be electricity or mechanical.
A cogeneration system is a single, integrated system in which many forms of useful
energy are simultaneously generated mostly electrical or mechanical and thermal
using single source of fuel.
A cogeneration system is also called as Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
system. Cogeneration uses fuel in a thermally efficient way. In conventional electricity
generation some part of energy is loot as a waste heat but this thermal energy is
readily used in Cogeneration. The CHP system can be categorized typically by the
type of prime mover (Heat Engine) which is driving the overall system.
The main parts of CHP are

• Prime mover
• Generator
• Heat Recovery System
• Electrical Connections
Steam turbines, gas turbines, reciprocating engines are some of the prime movers
used for CHP system. These prime movers produce mechanical energy by burning
various fuels such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc. Mechanical energy of prime mover is
utilized to drive generator (to produce electricity) as well as rotating equipments such
as fan, pumps, compressors, etc. Use of thermal energy can be either direct or indirect
process applications.
E.g. Production of hot air using hot water, drying by use of hot air, etc.
Cogeneration can be considered as a distributed generation as it is located at or near

the consumer’s premises.
• Need for Co-generation :
It is a well-accepted fact that the main sources of energy i.e. fuels are non-renewable
and depleting very fast. Prices of fuel are trending to be really high since last 25-30
years, putting ahead a challenge to developing nations to save the energy and primary
fuels as much as they can and make them last longer. Need of cogeneration can be
identified where heat and electrical energy are simultaneously required in the same
premises.
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In a traditional method two separate input and output paths are used to attain the
requirements of electricity and heat. Enormous amount of fuel is sacrificed in this
process of producing electricity and heat differently. Moreover, these separate
processes attributes to emission of pollutants and Green House Gases (GHG) in a
considerable amount. Majority of the electrical power source in India are thermal
power plants. Efficiency achieved in conventional power plants lies in the range of 30
to 35%, remaining energy is a sheer loss. Sources of losses in this process are,
Rejection of heat in the surrounding air because of constraints of thermodynamic
cycles. Further losses occur in the transmission and distribution of electric power
ranges between 10 to 15%. In case of supplying demand of heat, it has a very
important limitation of distance along which it is to be transferred.
This necessitates the generation of thermal energy on the place where it is
needed. Utility is burdened as system demands not only erection but also
maintenance of transmission and distribution network. Less efficiency, more
transmission loss and associated costs are inherent in this. Consumer also has to pay
to satisfy their simultaneous electrical and thermal needs. Cogeneration being the
form of distributed generation electrical power and heat can be supplied at the site by
designing a suitable energy tariff in the country. Ultimately it can be said that
cogeneration is a way of energy conservation in a most effective and economic way.
• Energy Conservation by Co-generation (Concept)

Co-generation is the method (way) of conserving the energy. In main generation,
the energy is converted into another form of energy say hydro to electrical, thermal to
electrical, diesel oil to electrical. But in these conversions, a large part of energy is
wasted and small part is converted. This loss of energy from the stations can be used
for the same purposes to get good efficiency like in thermal power plants the waste
flue gases having much heat energy is reused in the same conversion such as pre
heating, air intake heating, etc. But the other way of reusing the waste energy for other
purposes in the same premises for co-generation is the way of energy conservation,
So the advantage of co-generation is energy conservation by reusing waste energy.
2
This type of co-generation can be effective in following applications :
(1) Paper pulp industries,
(2) Rice mills,
(3) Sugar mills,
(4) Cement industries,
(5) Petrochemical sectors,
(6) Metal industries,
(7) Distilleries,
(8) Or the power stations reusing for getting higher efficiencies,
(9) Gas plants,
(10) Ceramic industry.
• Types/Classification of Co-Generation Systems
1. Topping Cycle
Topping cycle is that cycle in which fuel supplied is first used to produce power,
and then it is used to generate thermal or heat energy ie. Heat energy is the by-
product of this cycle. The heat energy available from this cycle is used for heating of
Various processes or it is used to steam meet the requirement of heat for different
purposes. In most of the systems of topping cycle, co-generation is widely used, and
it is the most popular Method of co-generation.
Fig. represents a simple typical example of topping cycle co-generation system of

thermal power generation plant.
3
1. Combined Cycle of Topping System
In the initial stages, combustion
gases are produced in the combustion
chamber by burning fuel and supplying
air for combustion, Mechanical and
then electrical power is conventionally
produced. Now after this process, co
generation cycle starts as shown by
the following diagram.
2. Steam Turbine Topping System

High pressure steam
drives the steam turbine which
drives the generator and useful
electrical energy is produced.
Now doing the work by high
pressure steam in the turbine,
steam outlet from turbine is a
steam at low pressure. It can be
used for other purposes.
3. Gas Turbine Topping System :

Gas turbine requires gas
at high pressure. This gas is
obtained by firing the fuel in
combustion chamber in which
fuel is fired and air intake is
supplied in the chamber. High
pressure gas from the
combustion Chamber enters in
the gas turbine, Turbine shaft
rotates which in turn rotates the
generator to produce useful electrical energy output. After doing the useful work in the
turbine, gas is out at low pressure
4. Heat Recovery Topping System

This is the system of
diesel engine which is used
to produce electrical
energy. After doing the
necessary work of driving
the generator, the heat is
exhausted from the engine
and its heat energy is reused for jacket cooling water and in heat recovery boiler. In
this way, cogeneration is met with and it helps in energy conservation.
4
2. Bottoming Cycle
Bottoming cycle of co-generation system is that in which high temperature heat
energy is produced using primary fuels. This heat produced is mainly used for other
processes except generation of electricity. The waste or rejected heat from the
process is utilized to generate electricity. The rejected heat is taken from a recovery
boiler and it is then applied to the turbine connected to the generator to produce
electricity. From manufacturing process of some products heat at high temperature is
required in furnaces and kilns. After the manufacturing process, the heat rejected or
not utilized is also at significantly high temperatures which cannot be neglected. And
if neglected it will reduce the overall efficiency of the system greatly. Hence, bottoming
cycles are suitable for such type of cases. The typical areas of application of such
bottoming cycles of co-generation are cement factories, steel manufacturing
industries, ceramic factories, gas and petrochemical industries etc.
Fig. Bottoming cycle co-generation system

A typical bottoming cycle co generation plant is shown in Fig. Here the fuel is
burnt in a furnace and heat energy is applied to the main Product process. The heat in
the waste or rejected gases from gas turbine is applied to the boiler in which water is
converted into High pressure steam, which is further applied to a steam turbine
connected to the generator i.e, mechanical power generated by steam turbine is
converted into electrical power by generator
• Co-generation System on the Technology Basis
(1) Co-generation Using Steam Turbine

Main equipments are : (1) Boiler, (2) Steam turbine,
(3) Exhaust steam condenser, (4) Feed pump.
5
Burning of coal in the boiler and heating the water at high pressure steam is produced
which is fed to drive steam turbine, in turn it drives the generator to produce electrical
energy. After doing the useful work, the pressure of steam lowers down and low
pressure steam is in the process chamber or condenser. It may be taken out and used
for other purposes. It can be condensed and fed back to the boiler. Efficiency of plant
increases.
Advantages : Less cost, simple, no cooling water needed.

Disadvantages : Turbine size is large, more civil engineering cost.
(2) Co-generation Using Gas Turbine

In this case also exhaust gases having moderate pressure and high temperature
can be used for processing and supplied for other useful work. Thus co generation is
achieved. Afterwards the exhaust gases are liberated in the air (open cycle type).
Equipments required :
(1) Air compressor. (2) Combustion chamber. (3) Gas turbine. {4) Generator.
(5) Process consumer. (6) Heat Recovery Boiler (HRB). Exhaust gases
Fig. Co-generation using gas turbine
Main work : Compressor compresses air > goes to combustion chamber where fuel
is fed and bum to produce gas at high pressure. This high pressure gas goes to gas
turbine which drives the generator to produce electrical energy. Co generation Gas
from gas turbine goes to heat recovery boiler (HRB) and this heat is usefully utilised
for other purposes. Afterwards from HRB the gases are liberated to air.
Advantages :
1, Compact small size.
2. Simple design.
3. Any type of hydrogen fuel can be used for combustion.
4. Installation work is simple, less time consuming.
Disadvantages :
1. Deposition of dirt dust on turbine blades reduced efficiency.
2. Blades of turbine be maintained or to be replaced.
3. Life of system in comparison is less.
6
(3) Reciprocating Engine Co-generation
One of the types in such co-generation is spark ignition engine. Main parts of
this system are : (1) Reciprocating engine, (2) Generator, (3) Lube oil cooling system,
(4) Engine cooling system, (5) Heat exchanger, (6) Stack.
Fig. Reciprocating engine co-generation
This is generally used in small co-generation plants, Input is supplied as air, gas
and oil which serves as heat input to the engine. Engine is reciprocating compression
ignition type. Engine shaft is connected to the generator shaft and engine drives the
generator which produces electrical energy as an output.
• Factors Governing the Selection of Co-generation System
(a) Heat to power ratio : The heat to power ratio of consuming system should match
with the characteristics of the co generation system. It is represented on the basis
of energy unit (kW).
Heat to power ratio = Heat energy / Electricity required
(b) Load pattern : It is necessary to consider the load pattern for the heat and power
demand, while selecting the type of co-generation system.
(c) Type of fuel available : The selection of co-generation system also depends upon
the type of fuel available for the system. If the cost of fuel available for the system is
low then the co-generation system selected will give best results.
(d} Quality of thermal energy required : The quality of thermal energy required
depends upon the temperature and pressure, hence it has a predominant role in
determination of type of co-generation system.
(e) System reliability : In case of a particular power consuming, the co-generation

system reliability is most important factor. If suppose a very important step is involved
in the power consuming system to which unavailability of co-generation system may
not be able to bear, in such cases, co-generation system to be installed must be
modular.
7
(f) Electricity Buy back : At the time of designing a co-generation system, we are
required to know and think for the focal regulations for the buying of electricity from
the co generating system and selling of electricity to co-generation system.
(g) Grid dependent system and independent system ; The technical configuration
of a grid dependent Co generation system is totally different from that of a grid
independent system. Hence, the selection of co-generation system is also dependent
upon this factor.
(h) Local environmental regulations : The type of fuel used will have different effects
on environment, that is if wood is used as fuel for boilers it will develop more pollution
in comparison to coal. A still further reduction in pollution is obtained by using oil as a
fuel. Hence, while selecting a particular co-generation system with a particular fuel,
we have to see the environmental rules in that region. The environmental rules in
urban areas may be different than sub urban areas and villages.
In addition to above factors following are some of factors which influence the selection
of co-generation system.
(i) Base electrical load matching : The co-generation system is designed to supply
the base or minimum electricity demand for the system. The remaining demand of
power Is purchased from the utility grid. This type of co-generation is used for the
required thermal energy.
(j) Base thermal load matching : The co-generation system is designed to supply
the minimum thermal ie. The base thermal energy requirement when the demand of
heat is more than the base or minimum, stand by boilers are used.
(k) Electrical load matching : For such cases, where all the load requirement is to
be supplied by the co-generation system, the co-generators are designed in such a
manner that total electricity required is generated and supplied by it. Therefore, this
co-generation system Is totally independent of the electricity utility grid and is called
as ‘stand alone’ system. Sometimes if required auxiliary boilers are used for heat
energy.
(l)Thermal load matching : In this case, the co-generation system is designed in such
a manner that it will generate the total heat energy required for the purpose, if required
electricity may be purchased from the utility grid,
• Advantages / Merits of Co-generation

1. Co-generation system meets both electrical power and heat energy
requirements.
2. It reduces cost of plant.
3. It provides additional competitiveness for industrial and commercial users.
4. Heat in the discharged steam from boilers can be used at affordable rate to
domestic users.
5. Pollutants such as Coz, ash etc. are reduced due to reduced fuel consumption.
8
6. High efficiency can be achieved in co-generation unit, as waste heat in flue
gases, or exhaust steam is utilized properly.
7. A much more efficient use of primary energy is achieved with a separate
generation of electricity and heat energy.
8. Natural resources can be best used for energy production.
9. It reduces CO2, emission in case where natural gas is used as a fuel.
10. It requires less cooling water as the heat energy in waste is properly utilized,
hence it reduces thermal pollution.
11. In co-generation, heat energy is byproduct, which can be used for other
processes, this additional energy gained which reduces cost of energy.
12. In some co-generation systems, biomass fuels, refinery gases, and agricultural
waste as used as fuel. Hence, it will reduce the cast and reduces the problems
of disposal of waste.
13. It offers a decentralization in electricity generation, hence it satisfies the needs
of local consumers easily with high efficiency.
14. Co-generation is a solution that gives benefits to all that the company, the users
and the environment.
• TARIFF
The rate at which a consumer is charged for the consumption of electricity is
called as tariff. The rates for Different types of consumers may be different, because
those are decided after considering number of factors.
• Types of Tariffs (LT and HT) (Tariff Structure)

1. Simple Flat rate tariff.
2. Block rate tariff.
3. Two part tariff.
4. Maximum demand tariff.
5. Power factor tariff.
6. Three part tariff.
7. Time off day tariff.
8. Peak off day tariff.
9. Load factor tariff.
7. Time off day tariff.

The time off day tariff makes use of Time of Usage (TOU) metering, which involves
dividing the day, month and year into tariff slots. Then higher rates are applied for
using energy at peak load periods and low tariff rates are applied for using energy
at off peak load periods. By this way the consumer tries to reduce his load demand
at peak hours to reduce his energy bills, the effect is the load on the station is
reduced, reducing peak load, which helps in planning of transmission, distribution
and other infrastructure of power supply system. For this purpose domestic variable
rate meters can be used, which permit two tariffs. i.e. Peak tariff and off peak tariff.
In such installations, a simple electromechanical time switch may be used.
9
8. Peak-off-day tariff :
In this type of tariff, consumers are offered electricity during peak off period of the
day, so that generating plants working at low loads can be made to work at high
loads, reducing the cost of generation. Consumers using energy during off peak
loads can be charged at low rates. In such cases, a timer switch with energy meter
can be provided which will cut off supply to consumer during peak hours of the day.
9. Load factor tariff :

Load factor = Average load / Maximum demand
Maximum consumption possible = Contract demand kVA x Actual p.f. x Total number
of hours in a month
Load factor of domestic consumer = 0.5.

Load factor of commercial consumer and industrial consumer = 0.5 to 0.8,
Load factor is a measure of uniformity and efficiency with which energy is being used,
In load factor tariff the load factor blocks are formed which defines the size of energy
blocks. These energy blocks are in kWh per kW of measured maximum demand. In this
tariff incentive is given for increased load factor
This will encourage the consumer to improve load factor.
• Specific Tariffs
1. Power factor incentives :
Incentive is given to those consumers who are charged on the basis of maximum
demand and are provided with meters to measure their load power factor. When
the average power factor of the consumer is more than 0.95 an incentive at the
rate of 1% of the amount of the monthly bill is given. It includes energy charges,
additional supply charges, fuel adjustment cost charges and fixed demand
charges, excluding taxes and duties for every 1% improvement in the power factor.
When consumer’s average power factor is 0.99 the effective incentive is 5%, and
for unity power factor it is 7%.
2. Load factor incentives :

This type of incentives are applicable to HT consumers of special category.
Consumers having load factor over 75% and upto 85% will be entitled to rebate of
0.75% on the energy charges for every per cent point increase in load factor from
75 to 85%. Consumer using energy at a load factor above 0.85 will get rebate of 1%
on energy charges for every per cent point increase in the load factor from 85%.
Total rebate payable to the consumer under this head will be subjected to a ceiling
of 15% of total energy charges. Rebate on load factor improvement is applicable to
those consumers, having no dues of previous electricity bills. It will be given to those
such consumers who are prompt in payment and make payment within 7 days from
the date of bill or within 5 days of the receipt of particular bill. If the billing demand
exceeds the contract demand in that month, no incentive is payable.
10
Generally, 22 hours to 6 hours is non peak hours of the day for load demand, if a
consumer uses maximum demand beyond his contract demand, the load factor
incentive is payable to him, but the consumer has to pay penalty charges for
exceeding the contract maximum demand.
3. Penalty on using power at lower power factor :

Generally, consumers are supposed to use power at a particular power factor. In
case of H.T. consumers if they use power below a particular p.f. Le. Say 0.9 they
are charged extra as penalty for using power at low power factor on % basis of low
power factor below 0.9.
4. Penalty on delayed payment :
Electricity company gives some bonus on early and prompt payment of energy bills
to consumers, while it charges extra if the consumers makes payment after the
specified date of payment, so as to cultivate the practice of early and prompt
payment of energy bills in the consumers,
5. Penalty for exceeding contract demand :
Power consumers and H,T. consumers make contract of particular maximum
demand of power. Hence at their premises a maximum demand indicator is installed,
the reading and setting of which is taken in every month and if the M.D. exceeds the
contract demand the consumer is charged extra for the excess demand of power.
• Applications of Tariff System to Reduce Energy Bills
(a) Time of use metering :

1. The time of use metering (TOU) involves dividing the day, month and year into
tariff slots.
2. Energy used during peak load periods is charged at high rates and that used
during off peak load period is charged at low rates.
3. It affects on consumers to use less energy during peak load and more during off
peak loads, which results in automatic load control during peak load period.
4. As the load demand is controlled, the supply agency can plan for their
generation and transmission infrastructure approximately.
(b) Domestic usage meter :

1. Domestic variable rate meters allowing two tariffs ie. ‘Peak’ load and ‘off peak’
load can be used for domestic consumers.
2. It will induce domestic consumers also to use power during off peaks loads and
reduce their demand during Peak load to achieve saving in energy bills
reducing load demand,
3. Such installation use simple electromechanical switch they are used in
conjunction with electrical storage Heaters.
11
(c) Getting benefit by improving energy efficiency :
1. Consumers may install power factor correcting devices at their premises or
installations to achieve benefits of higher power factor as per tariff. Which will
reduce load current demand.
2. H.T. consumers are induced to use energy at high load factors, so that plant
capacity is best used and energy cost of generation is reduced.
(d) Energy conservation by improving load factor :
1. Load factor is defined as kWh delivered to a system in a particular period of time
to total possible time kWh that could be delivered by the system in the same
designated period of time Depending upon the time period, the load factor may
be called as daily, monthly or yearly etc. The value of this factor is always less
than one.
2. When the load factor is improved, means made nearer to one, means for same
maximum demand number of units used are more or number of units generated
are more, which reduces cost of generation per unit.
3. The generation plant can operate its generating sets in such a manner, that their
usage is constant and no peaks or valleys exist in the load curve it will achieve
a load factor of unity.
4. Consumers should be offered at low rates if they use energy during off peak
loads, so that load factor will be improved, reducing cost of energy generated
the cost of labour per kWh of energy generated decreases as number of units
generated increases because the labour cost remains the same, irrespective of
working of alternator at 25%, 50% or 100% load factor.
5. Load factor can also be improved by reducing maximum demand on the plant.
6. Load factor can also be improved by increasing production efficiency that is
reducing losses in system.
7. Load factor of the system can also be improved by making different consumers
to shift their maximum demands during different hours of the days.
8. It can be improved by installing energy management systems.
9. Maximum use of energy can be obtained by lowering peak demands along with
keeping demand stable.
(e) Advantages and Economy achieved by improvement of power factor :

It is always beneficial to both supplier as well as user of electricity to use power
or supply it at higher power factor, because :
1. Load in kW supplied is increased hence capacity of prime movers as well as kW
capacity of the generating plant is better utilized or its kW capacity increases.
2. kW capacity of the transformers as well as transmission and distribution lines
increases.
3. Efficiency of every plant increases.
4. Cost of generation is reduced, hence energy charges are less.
5. Due to improved pf, current required to supply the same kW load Is reduced,
hence voltage drop is Reduced, improving the regulation of lines and alternator.
12
Sub: Energy Conservation and Audit Unit-6. Energy Audit of Electrical Systems
Unit No 6.
Energy Audit of Electrical Systems
Energy Audit, Energy Audit Instruments and their use. Questionnaire for Energy Audit
Projects. Energy Flow Diagram. Simple Payback Period. Energy Audit Procedure
(Walk Through Audit and Detailed Audit). Energy Audit Report Format.
• Energy Audit
The fundamental goal of energy management is to produce goods and provide
services with the least cost and least environmental effect.
The term energy management means many things to many people. One
definition of energy management is “The judicious and effective use of energy to
maximize profits (minimize costs) and enhance competitive positions”.
Another comprehensive definition is “The strategy of adjusting and optimizing

energy, using systems and procedures so as to reduce energy requirements per unit
of output while holding constant or reducing total costs of producing the output from
these systems".
Objectives :
The objectives of Energy Management are
1. To achieve and maintain optimum energy procurement and utilisation,
throughout the organization
2. To minimise energy costs/waste without affecting production and quality.
3. To minimise environmental effects.
• Advantages of Energy Audit
1. It helps to identify energy losses that can be minimised by various means by

which we can achieve the following benefits (advantages).
2. Expenditure on energy is reduced, reducing consumption or changing tariff of
fuel type.
3. Maintenance cost can be reduced by improved utilization of plant.
4. Labours can be trained to use advance operations which save time and
therefore cost.
5. Improving working conditions, productivity can be increased.
6. Capital expenditure can be reduced.
7. Water charges can be saved.
8. Correct energy efficient programmes can be arranged.
9. Energy saving opportunities can be implemented.
• Advantages Referred to Energy Audit Projects

1. Maximise the savings.
2. Efficiency improvement.
3. Reduction in energy losses.
4. Optimize the expenses on energy required,
5. Identify items and costs of energies involved.
1
• Need of Energy Audit
1. It helps to understand different ways of energy and fuels which are used in the
industry.
2. It helps to find different areas/processes where a lot of waste can occur, so to
find the means to reduce waste.
3. It gives positive orientation to energy cost reduction.
4. It suggests quality control (arrange programmes on this).
5. It suggests preventive maintenance to reduce overall cost, save time.
6. Programmes are vital for utility activities, production, etc.
• Energy Audit Instruments and Their Uses

The requirement for an energy audit such as identification and quantification of
energy necessitates Measurement, these measurements required the use of
instruments. These instruments must be portable, durable, easy to operate and
relatively inexpensive. An energy audit requires a large number of measurements of
various electrical and mechanical quantities. The data obtained from these
measurements is analyzed to ascertain energy efficiency of each device and
equipment.
Electrical Measurements and Instruments

a) Voltmeter and ammeter to measure voltage and current.
b) Power factor meter to measure power factor.
c) Power Analyser : An online power analyser gives a continuous measurement and
record of real power (kW), apparent power (kVA), voltage, current, and power
factor.
d} Multimeter
e) Synergy meter : This instrument measures and records current, voltage, power
factor, frequency, kWh, and kVAh.
Lighting Measurements
Usually, a substantial portion of electrical energy requirement of a plant are for
illumination. Lux meter is a very convenient instrument to measure the level of
illumination.
• Questionnaire For Energy Audit Projects

The main aim of questionnaire is to collect the basic data of an organisation. In
questionnaire the information of different parts of organisation can be gathered.
It will show
1. Present condition of organisation infrastructure
2. Present level of resources
3. Present level of resource consumption
4. The various initiatives already performed towards energy conservation and
management
The Sample questionnaire may include the following

1. Details of Organisation
2. Product wise production capacity
3. Input resources
2
4. Process requirements
5. Management systems
6. Training and capacity creation
7. Other Initiatives
8. Other Information
• Energy Flow Diagram (Sankey Diagram)

In such diagrams the flow is shown from input to output and in between these
two, different losses are indicated, so that Input - Losses = Output.
Energy input cannot be utilized fully and the lost energy is studied and ways and
means can be provided to minimize the losses.
Energy Flow Diagram of Induction Motor

Energy input from 3 phase 440 volts 50 Hz supply fed to the 3 phase stator
winding — It is transferred to rotor through air gap between stator and rotor. The
different losses in the steps when deducted the motor output is at the rotor shaft BHP
(or metric HP).
Power Stage Diagram of Three Phase induction Motor
• Simple Pay-Back Period

Simple Payback Period (SPP) shows as a first approximation; the time (number of
years) required to recover the initial investment (First Cost), considering only the net
annual saving. The simple payback period is normally calculated as follows :
Simple payback period = First cost .

Yearly benefits - Yearly costs
Simple payback period for a continuous Deodorizer that costs Rs. 60 lakhs to purchase
and install, Rs. 1.5 lakhs per year on an average to operate and maintain and is
expected to save Rs. 20 lakhs by reducing steam consumption (as compared to batch
deodorizers}, may be calculated as follows :
According to the payback criterion, the shorter the payback period, the more desirable
the project.
Simple payback period = 60 . = 3 Years, 3 months

20 – 1.5
3
Advantages :
1. It is simple, both in concept and application. Obviously, a shorter payback
generally indicates a more attractive investment. It does not use tedious
calculations.
2. It favours projects, which generate substantial cash inflows in earlier years, and
discriminates against projects, which bring substantial cash inflows in later years
but not in earlier years.
Limitations :
1. It fails to consider the time value of money. Cash inflows, in the payback
calculation, are simply added without suitable discounting. This violates the
most basic principle of financial analysis, which stipulates that cash flows
occurring at different points of time can be added or subtracted only after
suitable compounding/discounting.
2. It ignores cash flows beyond the payback period. This leads to discrimination
against projects that generate substantial cash inflows in later years.
• Energy Audit Procedure
Energy audit procedure by flow chart:
4
Types of Audit
1. Walk-Through Energy Audit

2. Detailed Audit
1. Walk-Through Energy Audit

It is alternatively called as the preliminary audit or screening audit or simple audit.
Walk through is the simplest, quickest and least expensive way of identification and
evaluation of energy saving opportunities. General, there are two resources of data to
perform walk through audit such as, (i) Operation and Maintenance staff collects the
data. (ii) Serving utility provides this information. Basic information of the energy
systems in the premises is collected as well.
Walk through audit procedure involves, (i) Review of energy bill of the premises
(ii) Other operating data. (iii) Walk through of the premises to be familiar with the
system whose audit is to be done so that inefficient areas can be identified.
People have major influence on the energy usage hence this audit pays
attention to habits and practices encouraging energy efficient use. Expenditures for
this audit can be included in Operation and Maintenance cost. Only main issues are
covered in walk through procedures.
Walk through audit gives,

1. Brief description of corrective measures
2. Energy conservation measures (ECMs)
3. Energy Conservation Opportunities (ECOs)
4. Estimate of implementation cost
5. Main areas of operation cost saving
6. Simple payback Period.
Though walk though audit is not sufficient for final implementation of measures, it
provides the need of depth of Detailed Audit which is more elaborative as compared to
Walk Through Audit.
2. Detailed Audit :
It is also known as General Audit or Site Energy Audit. Detailed energy audit is
nothing but expansion of the simple audit. This method of audit also collects information
of system operation, but in more detailed form as compared to Simple Audit. Energy
conservation measures which were identified in Walk through audit are evaluated in all
respect in Detailed Audit. Auditor collects utility bills of an year or two and analyses in
order to find out, (i) Energy tariff structures for the system under study (ii) Energy usage
profile
Proper metering in the system may perform a major role in this type of audit. In
addition to data provided by utility, specific energy consumption in the system is
metered. Metering of data at certain intervals give exact energy utilisation profile of the
system under study. This profile is analysed for points of energy waste. System can
have various energy consumption pattern viz short term, long term. These are
understood by having a detailed interview of the working staff of that particular system.
5
This type of audit focuses all the most suitable energy conservation measures for
the system. Another important aspect of the detailed audit is Financial Analysis.
For each suggested measure financial analysis is done on the basis of

Investment criteria defined by consumer
Estimate of implementation cost
Operating cost savings.
Detailed energy audit may be divided into three phases namely

Pre Audit Phase
Audit Phase
Post Audit Phase
• Comparison between Walk-through audit and Detailed Audit
• Energy Audit Report Format

After successfully carried out energy audit, energy manager/energy auditor should
report to the top Management for effective communication and implementation. A
typical energy audit reporting contents and format are given below. The format can be
suitably modified for specific requirement applicable for a particular type of industry.
The following format is applicable for most of the industries.
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Energy Conservation

Final Year B.Tech. Electrical Engineering.

Teaching Scheme Evaluation Scheme

Pre-Requisites: Renewable Energy

Unit 5. Energy Conservation Through Co-Generation and Tariff 8 Hrs.

Unit 6. Energy Audit of Electrical Systems 6 Hrs.

Energy Scenario: Primary and Secondary Energy, Commercial and Non-commercial

At global level, per capita income of a country is directly proportional to the

2. Commercial Energy and Non-commercial Energy

3. Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy.

Non-Renewable Energy: Non-renewable energy is the energy obtained from

Energy Supply: Energy supply is the delivery of fuels or transformed fuels to

• National Scenario [India’s Global Energy Scenario]

• Energy Conservation and Energy Audit : Concepts and Difference

5. Less use of energy gives more benefits in terms of incentives

Hence, energy saving is essential in developed as well as developing

❖ Practical Methods of Energy Conservation (Energy Conservation

1. Install CFL/LED Lights :

2. Lower the Room Temperature :

3. Fix Air Leaks :

5. Get Energy Audit Done :

6. Use Energy Efficient Appliances :

7. Drive Less, Walk More and Carpooling :

8. Switch Off Appliances when Not in Use :

9. Plant Shady Landscaping :

10. Install Energy Efficient windows :

❖ Objectives of Energy Audit :

❖ Energy Audit Procedure and Flow Chart

▪ A meeting is conducted amongst working personnel in the firm and in that

❖ Objectives of EC Act 2001

❖ Important features of Energy Conservation Act 2001 are :

1. Standards and Labelling :

4. Energy Conservation Building Codes:

5. Central Energy Conservation Fund:

6. Role of Central and State Governments:

7. Enforcement through Self-Regulation :

❖ Relevant Clauses of Energy Conservation Act 2001

• National Productivity Council (NPC)

• Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) and its Role

❖ Maharashtra Energy Development Agency (MEDA) :

• Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) and Its Role

❖ Bureau of Energy Efficiency

❖ Role of Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE)

Need for Energy Conservation in Induction Motor and Transformer, Energy

• Need for Energy Conservation in Induction Motor

• Energy Conservation Techniques in Induction Motor:

(b) Reducing Under-loading :

(c) Power Factor Correction :

(e) Matching Motor with Loading :

(f) Minimizing the Idle and Redundant Running of Motor :

(g) Operating in Star Mode :

(i) Replacement by Energy Efficient Motor

(j) Periodic Maintenance :

Other factors are :

• Energy Conservation Techniques in Transformer

(a) Load Sharing :

(b) Parallel Operation :

(d) Replacement by Energy Efficient Transformer :

(e) Periodic Maintenance :

• Energy Conservation Opportunities in Transformer

• Advantages of soft starter :

• Working of soft starter :

Sr. Parameter Soft Starter Direct On Line DOL Starter

2. Variable Frequency Drives